Galante-2018-Drama For L2 Speaking and Language Anxiety - Evidence From Brazilian EFL Learners

746205
research-article2018
REL0010.1177/0033688217746205RELC JournalGalante
Article
RELC Journal
Drama for L2 Speaking and

2018, Vol. 49(3) 273–289
© The Author(s) 2018
Article reuse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/0033688217746205
https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217746205
from Brazilian EFL Learners journals.sagepub.com/home/rel
Angelica Galante
University of Toronto, Canada
Abstract
Anxiety is a dimension of L2 speaking that has been heavily investigated over the past several
decades, but there is a paucity of research investigating instruction aiming at lowering anxiety.
While research suggests drama lowers L2 learners’ anxiety, it is unclear to what extent anxiety
is affected by drama. This article reports results from a mixed methods study examining whether
drama impacts foreign language anxiety (FLA). The participants were 24 Brazilian adolescents who
took part in two distinct four-month EFL programmes: a drama and a non-drama programme. An
adapted version of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was used as pre- and
post measures. Analyses from FLCAS indicate a significant reduction in FLA levels among learners
in both groups over time, with a slightly better improvement among learners in the drama group.
Further analysis provides evidence that drama can enhance comfort levels when speaking the L2.
Implications for research and language teaching are discussed.
Keywords
Drama, language anxiety, L2 speaking, theatre, classroom research
Introduction
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programmes for adolescents have been gaining
increasing popularity in many countries, and Brazil is no exception. It is not uncommon for
parents to enroll their children in private language schools so that they can achieve profi-
ciency in English. Given that advanced proficiency levels in English, particularly in speak-
ing, are typically required in Brazilian higher education institutions and the workplace,
these parents aim to ensure that their children are rightly equipped with English proficiency
Corresponding author:
Angelica Galante, Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning, University of Toronto,
252 Bloor St. W., Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada.
Email: angelica.galante@mail.utoronto.ca
274 RELC Journal 49(3)
for their future. Relative to other skills, speaking is considered to be one of the most threat-
ening dimensions of language learning (Horwitz et al., 1986), and anxiety may cause EFL
learners who are not yet proficient to perform poorly. Because anxiety is an affective vari-
able that can prevent learners from developing speaking skills (Dörnyei, 2005; Oya et al.,
2004; Philips, 1999), exploring EFL instruction that has the potential to alleviate anxiety,
particularly foreign/second language anxiety (henceforth FLA), is paramount.
One classroom instructional approach with potential to reduce anxiety is drama.
Drama is not new and has been used for several decades as a strategy to engage L2 learn-
ers (Dodson, 2002; Kao and O’Neill, 1998; Maley and Duff, 1982; Miccoli, 2003;
Stinson and Freebody, 2006; Stinson and Winston, 2011; Via, 1976), and to develop
speaking skills in the L2. Past research suggests that drama increases learners’ willing-
ness to participate in class activities, leading to the development of overall speaking
skills (Bournot-Trites et al., 2007), as well as more specific dimensions such as fluency
and comprehensibility (Galante and Thomson, 2017).
Although drama instruction has been used in L2 learning as a complementary strategy
for the provision of extensive speaking practice, only a limited body of research has
focussed on how drama, in particular, affects overall anxiety (Coleman, 2005; Kao,
1994; Piazzoli, 2011) and specific dimensions of anxiety such as FLA (Atas, 2015;
Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu, 2013). This past research provides evidence to hypothesize that
FLA can be reduced after student participation in a drama programme. However, given
that a comparison/control group was not used in past research, it remains unclear whether
drama can in fact reduce FLA compared to other instructional approaches. This is one
main goal of the study in that it investigates whether the use of drama in the L2 class-
room is more effective at alleviating FLA compared to another with a communicative
learner-centred approach. By using a mixed methods approach, results from two data
sources are analysed for convergence purposes and they provide further information
about the added values (if any) of drama. In addition, given that participants in past
research included learners from Taiwan, Korea, Australia, and Turkey, an investigation
of FLA among Brazilian learners is an important contribution to the field.
Anxiety
For decades, anxiety has been frequently cited as being an affective variable with a nega-
tive impact on L2 speaking (Aida, 1994; Matsuda and Gobel, 2003; Horwitz, 2001; Oya
et al., 2004; Philips, 1992; Saito and Samimy, 1996). The concept of anxiety has been
defined as trait, state and situation-specific (MacIntyre, 2007; Speilberger et al., 1970):
trait anxiety as a person’s predisposition to become anxious, indicating a behavioural
pattern; state anxiety as temporary and relating to apprehension experienced at a particu-
lar moment; and situation-specific anxiety as recurrent and particularly attributed to
measures limited to a specific context. However, these three types of anxieties might not
necessarily be independent dimensions, as indicated by one recent study that found that
trait and situation-specific anxieties can be related (Dewaele, 2013).
Horwitz and colleagues developed a scale to measure FLA in particular: the Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), a scale of 33 items that relate to communi-
cation apprehension, fear of negative evaluation, and test anxiety. They found the FLCAS
has high levels of internal consistency (r = .93) and reliability (r = .83), motivating several
Galante 275
researchers to use this scale in subsequent studies. The FLCAS has become a standard
measure of FLA and has made significant contributions to the field of Applied Linguistics
(see research timeline in Horwitz, 2010).
Previous investigation of FLA includes diverse areas such as the relation between FLA
and other types of anxiety (MacIntyre, 2007; MacIntyre and Legatto, 2010), the effects of
FLA and language achievement (Horwitz, 2001; Matsuda and Gobel, 2003), and the rela-
tion between FLA and language skills such as reading and listening (Elkhafaifi, 2005; Saito
et al., 1999). There have been several suggestions for strategies to alleviate FLA in the L2
classroom, including the introduction of pre-tasks to prepare learners for a main language
task, and interactions in pairs or small groups (Arnold, 1999; Koch and Terrell, 1991;
Young, 1991), but research on their effectiveness is scarce. In addition to these strategies,
there is evidence that drama as an instructional approach also alleviates overall anxiety
(Kao, 1994; Coleman, 2005; Piazzoli, 2011) and FLA (Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu, 2013;
Atas, 2015), but results have been inconclusive and there is a need for further exploration.
Drama As an Instructional Approach in L2 Learning

Although drama has been used in L2 learning for many years, its implementation has
been somewhat unsystematic with a vague definition of what drama is. Such lack of
clarification has resulted in the terms ‘drama’ and ‘theatre’ being used interchangeably.
Although complimentary, differentiating drama from theatre can inform how each
impacts the L2 learning environment (Galante and Thomson, 2017).
In the L2 classroom, drama, also known as process drama, emphasizes the experience of
a task, which typically involves group activities and negotiation, as well as natural and spon-
taneous use of the language being learned (Kao and O’Neill, 1998; Moody, 2002). It can
include discussions, feelings about a given issue, explorations of identity and even an
impromptu presentation. In contrast to drama, theatre is typically viewed as a product with
use of scripted language. Furthermore, theatre emphasizes a final staged performance,
which is often the major goal of the L2 learning experience (Moody, 2002). Similar to many
tasks in L2 textbooks, scripted play presentations and role-plays require that learners take
pre-established roles and use the L2 in a way limited to a particular situation.
Both drama (process) and theatre (product) impact L2 learning in distinct ways. While
drama offers opportunities for learners to use prior knowledge of the L2 in a creative
manner, theatre focusses on accuracy and aspects integral to the performance such as
vocal projection and comprehensible speech. Both drama and theatre can be integrated
(Moody, 2002). For example, learners can discuss ideas about a theme (process) or/and
develop a presentation (product). Maley and Duff (1982) go beyond to suggest that the
implementation of both approaches is crucial for a more comprehensive understanding
of the potential of drama in L2 learning. Following these suggestions, this study consid-
ers a balance between both drama and theatre, though treated simply as drama.
Research Into the Effects of Drama on Anxiety

Research investigating whether drama reduces anxiety started to burgeon in the 1990s,
after Kao (1994) pioneered an investigation of the effects of drama on overall anxiety
in L2. In Kao’s study, Taiwanese EFL learners (n = 23) took part in a drama programme,
and analysis of teachers’ perceptions indicate positive effects on L2 learning, including

improvement in factors such as confidence in speaking English. Teachers also reported
that learners who were afraid of speaking the L2 gained more confidence over time
while others who had both lower self-esteem and language proficiency seemed to ben-
efit less from the programme. In another study with Korean adolescents studying EFL
(n = 60), participants reported feeling more relaxed speaking English after a five-day
drama programme (Coleman, 2005). In an investigation with process drama, Piazzoli
(2011) examined whether anxiety levels of adult Australian learners of Italian would
lower after taking part in six drama workshops. Results suggest that anxious learners
benefited from the process drama workshops, gaining more confidence in speaking the
L2, particularly among those who were initially reluctant to engage in speaking tasks.
More recently, two studies narrowed the investigation by focussing on whether L2 learners’
FLA levels are reduced after taking drama lessons. Using the FLCAS in a pre- and post-test
design, Atas (2015) found a significant reduction of FLA levels over time (p = 0.002, M = 3.06
and M = 2.40 in pre- and post-tests respectively) among Turkish high school EFL learners (n
= 24) after taking a six-week drama EFL programme. Likewise, Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu
(2013) also applied a pre- and post-test design using a modified version of the FLCAS and
found that anxiety levels of Turkish EFL adult learners (n = 22), who reported having anxiety
prior to the drama intervention, reduced significantly (p < 0.005, M = 2.99 and M = 2.64 in
pre- and post-tests respectively) after a six-week creative drama programme.
Although all of these studies provide evidence that drama alleviates FLA, they have limi-
tations typically expected in classroom research: small sample sizes, little control over learn-
ers’ language proficiency levels, lack of a control/comparison group, and a short drama
intervention period. Particularly, it remains uncertain whether FLA is positively affected by
drama when a comparison group is introduced. This study aims to specifically address some
limitations by adding a comparison group, extending the period of instruction to four
months, focussing specifically on FLA, controlling learners’ demographic information and
proficiency levels, and obtaining two types of data sets to assess convergence.
Methodology
Research Questions
The methodology and research questions focus on the effects of drama on FLA. Following
a concurrent mixed methods design with both QUAN and QUAL data sets to provide
better understandings of a particular phenomenon (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011), the
research questions are as follows:
1. After four months of EFL instruction, do learners in a drama programme have

lower FLA levels compared to learners in a non-drama programme?
2. What classroom practices (if any) help with comfort levels when speaking the
L2?
Participants
Both learners and teachers participated in the study, although data was collected from
learners only. Participants were part of the English programmes in two separate locations
Galante 277
of a large private English institute in São Paulo, Brazil. Both were located in the metro-
politan region of the city in upscale neighborhoods.
Teachers. Four teachers delivered the EFL programme: two each in the treatment and
comparison groups. All teachers were female non-native speakers of English, born in
São Paulo, Brazil, ranging in age from 26 to 38. Levels of EFL teaching experience var-
ied from three to 16 years. The two teachers who delivered the drama programme had no
professional training in drama or theatre but had previously received a professional
development workshop on how to use drama in L2 learning. They had also taught the
drama programme before the study.
Learners. Data from 24 pre-intermediate EFL learners (11 females and 13 males; ages
12-16, M = 13.8) were collected in both schools. School 1 had two drama groups (Group
1 with five males, and Group 2 with four males and four females) and School 2 had two
comparison groups (Group 1 with two females and three males, and Group 2 with five
females and one male). All learners were born in Brazil, came from similar socioeco-
nomic backgrounds, and had proficiency levels equivalent to level B1 in the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001).
The Two EFL Programmes

Both EFL programmes (drama and non-drama) were delivered in the same term, over a
period of four months. The programmes were delivered twice a week and distributed across
37 days, with two 2-hour classes each week. Both programmes included the same textbook
(Granger, 2004) and followed a communicative task-based approach. Supplementary
materials developed by a team of experts in the school included a laboratory booklet that
focussed on listening and pronunciation, a booklet with extra tasks, and a teacher’s guide.
Drama EFL Programme (Treatment). The drama programme followed a curriculum I

developed six years prior to the study. This was integrated into the seventh level of the
EFL course to encourage positive learner affect, and speaking and pronunciation prac-
tices. The tasks were adapted from three drama education books (Booth and Lundy,
1985; Kao and O’Neill, 1998; Spolin, 1989) and allowed a focus on particular dimen-
sions of oral communication, including the use of prior and new knowledge of lexical
items, pronunciation, fluency, improvisation, prosodic features, and confidence in speak-
ing. Beyond these tasks, the drama programme included a balance between process
drama and theatre strategies such as improvised dialogues as well as rehearsals with a
presentation of a short play at the end of the programme, with approximately 50 per cent
of the programme dedicated to both these practices. Typically, the drama EFL programme
developed in the following sequence: the teacher explained the drama project to learners
and once leaners were clear on what was expected of them, they would work on the
drama tasks. This usually evolved into an informal presentation of a play or scene at the
end of the programme. Approximately halfway through the programme, a sample of
plays and scenes were presented to learners, who made a decision about which to choose.
Learners collaborated with teachers to adapt the plays or scenes of interest. Care was
taken to ensure language level, content, and the number of characters and lines were
appropriate for all learners. The rehearsal required that learners study the meaning of
their lines rather than memorize them. Improvisation and character development were
also encouraged. One drama class chose to perform two scenes (The New James Bond
and The Bank), while the other class chose an episode of a sitcom (The Big Bang The-
ory), with both preparing a final presentation of approximately 15 minutes.
Non-Drama EFL Programme (Comparison). The non-drama programme included the same core
materials as the drama group with an oral presentation project in place of the drama compo-
nent. This included several steps (i.e. in-class discussions, research, presentation rehearsal)
that culminated in oral presentations in front of the class with themes suggested by the learn-
ers. While care was taken to include a project that would allow ample opportunities for speak-
ing in class, the oral presentation project did not explicitly include learner affect. Approximately
50 per cent of the non-drama EFL programme was dedicated to the project.
Instruments
As previously noted, one standard measure to investigate FLA is Horwitz et al.’s (1986)
FLCAS, a scale that has been repeatedly used in previous years (Atas, 2015; Ay, 2010;
Cheng et al., 1999; Horwitz, 2001). To ensure this measure would be appropriate to the
research context, participants, and research questions, a modified version of the original
FLCAS was used. The modifications included: 1) suitable wording for EFL adolescent
learners (e.g. the terms foreign language and language were substituted with English); 2) a
scale reduced to 26 items in order to exclude seven questions related specifically to test
anxiety, which was not a concern of this study; and 3) translation into Portuguese, the learn-
ers’ first language, to ensure understanding of the items. Based on a five-point Likert scale,
the modified bilingual version (English-Portuguese) of the FLCAS sought responses rang-
ing from strongly agree to strongly disagree (see modified version in the appendix).
Following methodology used in previous studies (Aida, 1994; Ay, 2010; Kim, 2009;
Matsuda and Gobel, 2003; Yan and Horwitz, 2008), a numerical value to each response to
the 26 items was applied: from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. The numerical val-
ues were reversed when items of the scale were worded negatively. The scale was admin-
istered to all 24 learners in both treatment (drama) and comparison (non-drama) groups at
the outset of the programme, at T1 (week 1), and four months later, at T2 (week 17), the
end of the programme.
Besides the modified FLCAS, all EFL learners from the drama group (n=13) partici-
pated in a semi-structured interview at the end of their programme. The purpose of the
interview was to enhance understandings of classroom practices perceived by the EFL
learners that alleviated FLA (if any). Two main questions were asked: ‘What were the
moments during this course in which you didn’t feel comfortable speaking English and why
was this the case?’, and ‘What were the moments during this course that made you feel
comfortable speaking English and why was this the case?’ These questions stemmed from
items in the modified FLCAS scale and required that learners recalled both FLA-inducing
situations and situations that reduced FLA, but focus was given to the classroom practices
that helped alleviate FLA.
Galante 279
Findings and Discussion

Following a mixed methods convergent design (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011), both
quantitative (bilingual FLCAS scale) and qualitative (semi-structured interviews) data
sets were collected and analysed independently. Results were then compared.
The quantitative analysis included pooling answers to the 26 items of the modified
FLCAS scale for each learner (n = 24). After gathering the mean ratings, IBM SPSS
24 software was used to calculate Cronbach’s alpha for both T1 and T2. A repeated
measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) test and an independent samples t-test were
carried out. The qualitative analysis of the semi-structured interviews first included
verbatim transcriptions of the recordings of all 24 EFL learners. They were then coded
and organized into the main theme that referred to comfort levels in speaking the L2.
Results from both the modified FLCAS and semi-structured interviews are reported
below.
FLA Levels: Drama versus Non-drama

The EFL learners’ answers to the 26 items were separated into groups (treatment and
comparison) and time (T1 and T2). To assess internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients were computed for all responses, with scores of .77 at T1 and .88 at T2,
indicating an acceptable level of internal validity. A repeated measures ANOVA test
with Time (two levels) as the within-subject factor and Group (two levels) as
between-subject factor was carried out. A significant effect was found for Time, F(1,
22) = 14.35, p = .001, partial η² = .40, indicating overall improvement over time. No
significant effect was found for Time and Group interaction, F(1,22) = .19, p = .67,
partial η² = .01, suggesting that improvement was in tandem across participants. In
addition, no significant difference was found between groups overall, F(1, 22) =
2.02, p = .17, partial η² = .08. Table 1 shows descriptive statistics with mean values
at T1 and T2.
Given that the scale ranged from 1 to 5 points, with higher numbers indicating higher
levels of FLA, the analyses indicate both groups experienced low FLA levels at both T1
and T2, but with a significant improvement over time.
In addition to the repeated measures ANOVA, an independent samples t-test was
carried out to confirm the results. For each participant, an improvement score was
calculated as a difference between FLA scores at T1 and T2. An independent t-test
for the significance of the improvement mean scores was carried out. The test con-
firms results from the repeated measures ANOVA, with no significant difference
between the treatment group (M = .26, SD = .32) and the comparison group (M = .21,
SD = .29); t(22) = −.41, p = .68. Although both tests failed to establish a significant
difference between groups, there is an indication that participants in the treatment
group had a slightly better improvement relative to the comparison group, as shown
in Table 2.
These results suggest that learners from both groups experienced lower FLA levels
over time, but the drama group had slightly better improvement, although not statisti-
cally significant.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Mean FLCAS Scores between Groups at T1 and T2.
Group Mean Std. Deviation

FLA T1 Treatment (drama), n=13 2.34 .31
Comparison (non-drama), n=11 2.11 .36
FLA T2 Treatment (drama), n=13 2.07 .38
Comparison (non-drama), n=11 1.89 .46
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS Improvement Scores between Groups.
Group Mean Std. Deviation

Improvement in FLA Treatment, n=13 .26 .32
Scores over time Comparison, n=11 .21 .29
Classroom Practices that Enhance Comfort Levels Speaking the L2

As previously noted, semi-structured interviews with all 13 EFL learners in the drama
group were carried out to identify classroom practices (if any) that enhance comfort lev-
els speaking the L2.
The only classroom practice reported by most participants as contributing to comfort
levels speaking English was drama. No other classroom practice was mentioned. One
interesting result refers to playing different roles and that ‘being in character’ has helped
participant 5 feel more comfortable:
The presentation is very fun and…I think it’s more easy to talk and…interact with the others…I
will be the James Bond girl …Linda. I feel more comfortable… speaking English because it’s
not me… it’s Linda (Participant 5).
It seems that embracing another identity, that of the character played, helped this learner
feel good when speaking English. Similarly, learner 6 also stated that drama was the
most helpful classroom practice:
In this course I feel more comfortable and talk uh…in the front of the people. I think the…
drama project makes us more comfortable to talk in front of people… It’s a kind of theatre…and
conversation that I think it’s the activity to help us (Participant 6).
This account shows that this participant does not have fear of speaking the L2 in front of
an audience because of drama. Another participant stated drama helped prepare speech,
which may have contributed to comfort levels:
I felt comfortable…specifically when I prepare what I’m going to say…the presentation…the

drama project…we’re going to present a scene of…uh…a bank…a bank that this bank was
robbed. Because I prepare what I’m going to say…I felt comfortable (Participant 7).
Considering the interview questions did not explicitly state FLA or drama per se, the fact
that drama was the most frequently reported classroom practice that contributed to com-
fort levels speaking the L2 was an important result. Among participants who reported
Galante 281
being shy, drama was also mentioned as affording benefits that other classroom practice
might not. For example:
I think the play…the play help you to…be a little bit less shy. I think speak is a good way to…
don’t be shy…the play is very good for it…because we need to act and speak English loud…and
act too…we make more body language (Participant 2).
When we…we begin to rehearse…uh…it was very funny… when I know my lines it’s easy to me
to talk because I know what I’m going to say but uh…when I rehearsing…it’s very funny so I
don’t care if I will…uh…make mistakes (Participant 3).
It is noteworthy that among participants who reported being shy, drama was also the
classroom practice reported to overcome their shyness when speaking the L2. These
results are important as they suggest drama can offer advantages unique to this type of
instruction, including for shy learners. Other reported themes were not necessarily
related to classroom practice and included teachers, fellow classmates and the class
environment.
Discussion
Analyses from the repeated measures ANOVA and t-tests indicate that learners in both
treatment and comparison groups experienced significant improvements in FLA levels
over time, with only a slightly higher reduction among learners in the drama group.
These results do not seem to confirm results from previous studies using a similar modi-
fied FLCAS. If a comparison group had not been used in this study, the results from
participants in the treatment group would have accorded well with results in both Atas’s
(2015) and Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu’s (2013) studies in the sense that learners’ FLA levels
were significantly reduced after taking part in a drama programme. However, it is not
possible to conclude that this reduction was due to the drama instruction. Relative to the
comparison group, FLA levels among participants in the drama group did not have a
statistically significant reduction, indicating other variables might have contributed to
this result. For example, the type of instructional approach used in previous studies is
unclear and may not be comparable to the one used in this study. In addition, while past
studies used a six-week intervention, this study used a four-month intervention and it
could be that drama may only alleviate FLA in the short term.
As the focus of this study was not on the effects of drama on anxious learners, the
sample represented included learners in two classrooms who might or might not be anx-
ious. While FLA mean scores at T1 were 2.34 in this study, participants in previous stud-
ies (Atas, 2015) had scores of 3.06 (Atas, 2015) and 2.99 (Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu,
2013). It may be that drama offers more benefits for anxious learners compared to less
anxious learners. One important result of this study is that it shows that drama enhanced
levels of comfort when speaking the L2 especially among learners who reported being
shy. It is important to note that shyness is a trait and was not considered the same as FLA.
While the results of this study cannot state that drama reduced FLA levels signifi-
cantly compared to a comparison group, it can hint at benefits related to FLA such as
comfort levels in speaking the L2. Three other studies that investigated overall anxiety
when speaking the L2 (Coleman, 2005; Kao, 1994; Piazzoli, 2011) also support this
study’s conclusion that drama affords benefits to oral communication. It is worth noting
that these three studies did not focus on a particular type of anxiety. It could be that trait,
state and situation-specific anxieties are affected differently after drama instruction or
that drama benefits learners who have high FLA levels only. Qualitative analysis indi-
cates that drama as an instructional approach helps increase comfort levels when speak-
ing the L2, particularly among shy students. The shy learners reported drama can enhance
comfort levels speaking the L2, allowing them to ‘be more comfortable…relaxed’
(Participant 4), and ‘comfortable…specifically when I prepare what I’m going to say
(Participant 7). This also confirms results from previous studies that suggest that drama
can help learners feel more relaxed (Coleman, 2005), confident (Kao, 1994), and less
worried (Piazzoli, 2011) speaking the L2, at least in classroom interactions. It seems that
drama can be beneficial for learners from different linguistic backgrounds (e.g.
Portuguese, Turkish, Korean) and in different settings (e.g. EFL, ESL).
Besides enhancing comfort levels when speaking the L2, results of this study also
suggest that drama brought added values. One particular advantage relates to communi-
cation skills such as accuracy, eye contact, and body language, similar to results in previ-
ous research (Coleman, 2005; Kao, 1994; Piazzoli, 2011). Another unique advantage is
associated with identity in L2 learning, although this was not a focus of the study. One
learner reported feeling ‘more comfortable… speaking English because it’s not me… it’s
Linda’. Similar to previous research (Piazzoli, 2011), drama enhances comfort levels
because it puts learners in a role; thus, any anxiety related to speaking the L2 can be
assigned to the character rather than the learner. Furthermore, the drama programme in
this study provided several opportunities for learners to develop the L2 in a friendly
environment, possibly increasing affect. Likewise, a previous study (Coleman, 2005)
also indicated drama can facilitate managing anxiety and apprehension, allowing for a
more relaxed environment in which to use the L2.
Conclusion
EFL learners around the world strive to achieve high proficiency levels, particularly in
speaking skills. Because anxiety can be a debilitating factor when learners are asked to
perform in the L2, the provision of instructional approaches that help alleviate FLA is
needed. Unlike other studies (Atas, 2015; Sağlamel and Kayaoğlu, 2013), this study can-
not suggest that drama reduces FLA, particularly because a comparison group was intro-
duced. However, similar to previous studies (Coleman, 2005; Kao, 1994; Piazzoli, 2011)
this study suggests that drama can make positive contributions to L2 learning, particu-
larly in relation to comfort levels speaking the L2.
Like any study, this study has limitations. Although previous research on the effects
of drama on L2 learning has revealed positive findings, several limitations have limited
the generalizability of the results particularly because of methodological issues (Stinson
and Winston, 2011). A novelty of this study was the introduction of a comparison group
as an attempt to provide more reliable results. However, some limitations should be
noted: the small sample size may have limited the power of the statistical analyses. While
variables were controlled (e.g. all participants belonged to similar linguistic, cultural and
socio-economic backgrounds, and were similar in age), there was no random selection of
Galante 283
participants who had trait anxiety or FLA. Nor was their assignment to treatment or
comparison groups random.
Overall, despite its limitations, this study makes important contributions to the litera-
ture on the effects of drama on FLA. It expands the scope of previous research on drama
and L2 learning mainly by introducing a comparison group. Drama as an L2 instructional
approach can increase comfort levels when using the L2, even among learners who are
shy, but may not alleviate FLA levels, especially among learners who do not report being
anxious. That may seem obvious given learners who do not show high FLA levels at T1
have little room for improvement at T2.
Language instructors can explore the effects of drama in their own context by imple-
menting strategies from both process and theatre and get anecdotal information from
students as to the potential benefits of drama. Given research with learners from various
linguistic backgrounds and different contexts reported benefits of drama, language
classrooms across the globe will help learners with L2 speaking skills. Of course, drama
cannot be seen as a method and adaptations will be necessary to best suit language
learners.
Future research on drama and FLA will benefit from studies with a clear definition for
drama, long-term drama instruction, control/comparison groups, and a large sample of
participants with different levels of FLA. Studies using the FLCAS scale may also ben-
efit from adding qualitative data gathering so that understanding of the effects of drama
can be further explored. Furthermore, future studies can expand our understanding of the
potential of drama in L2 learning. While more research is needed to validate the findings
reported in this article, the knowledge gained here can be applied and examined in other
L2 contexts.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
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APPENDIX – Modified FLCAS

1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in the English class.
(Eu nunca me sinto seguro quando eu falo na aula de inglês)
Strongly agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Strongly disagree
Concordo plenamente Concordo Não concordo e nem discordo Discordo Discordo plenamente
2. I don’t worry about making mistakes in the English class.

(Eu não me preocupo quando faço erros durante as aulas de inglês)
3. I tremble when I know that I’m going to be called on in the English class.
(Eu tremo quando sei que vou ser chamado para participar durante a aula de
inglês)
4. It frightens me when I don’t understand what the teacher is saying in English.

(Eu tenho medo quando eu não entendo o que o professor está falando em inglês)
5. I keep thinking that the other students are better at English than I am.
(Eu vivo pensando que os outros alunos são melhores em inglês do que eu)
6. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in class.

(Eu começo a entrar em pânico quando eu tenho que falar sem preparação em
aula)
7. In the English class, I can get so nervous that I forget things I know.
(Durante as aulas de inglês, eu fico tão apreensivo que eu esqueço coisas que eu
sei)
8. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my English class.

(Eu fico envergonhado em ser voluntário para dar respostas durante as aulas de
inglês)
9. I would not be nervous speaking English with native speakers.

(Eu não ficaria apreensivo em falar com pessoas nativas da língua inglesa)
10. I get upset when I don’t understand what the teacher is correcting.
(Eu fico chateado quando eu não entendo o que o professor está corrigindo)
11. Even if I am well prepared for the English class, I feel anxious about it.
(Mesmo que eu me prepare para a aula de inglês, eu fico ansioso)
Galante 287
12. I feel confident when I speak English in class.

(Eu me sinto confiante quando eu falo em inglês durante as aulas)
13. I am afraid that my English teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make.
(Eu tenho medo que o meu professor de inglês esteja pronto para corrigir cada
erro que eu faço)
14. I can feel my heart pounding when I’m going to be called on in the English class.
(Eu sinto o meu coração bater quando eu vou ser chamado para participar na
aula de inglês)
15. I don’t feel pressure to prepare very well for the English class.
(Eu não me sinto pressionado para me preparar muito bem para as aulas de
inglês)
16. I always feel that the other students speak English better than I do.
(Eu sempre sinto que outros alunos falam inglês melhor do que eu)
17. I feel very self-conscious about speaking English in front of other students.
(Eu fico preocupado em falar inglês na frente de outros alunos)
18. English class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind.
(A aula de inglês passa tão rápido que eu fico preocupado em ficar para trás)
19. I feel more tense and nervous in my English class than in my other classes.
(Eu fico mais tenso e apreensivo durante as aulas de inglês do que outras aulas)
20. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my English class.

(Eu fico apreensivo e confuso quando eu estou falando durante as aulas de
inglês)
21. When I’m on my way to the English class, I feel very sure and relaxed.
(Quando eu estou a caminho da aula de inglês, eu me sinto seguro e tranquilo)
22. I get nervous when I don’t understand every word the English teacher says.
(Eu fico apreensivo quando eu não entendo todas as palavras que o professor de
inglês fala)
23. I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules I have to learn to speak English.
(Eu me sinto sobrecarregado pelo número de regras que tenho que aprender pra
falar inglês)
24. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak English.
(Eu tenho medo que outros alunos vão rir de mim quando eu falo inglês)
25. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of English.

(Eu provavelmente me sentiria à vontade com falantes nativos de inglês)
26. I get nervous when the English teacher asks questions which I haven’t prepared
in advance.
Galante 289
(Eu fico apreensivo quando o professor de inglês faz perguntas que eu não preparei
anteriormente)

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Drama for L2 Speaking and

Drama As an Instructional Approach in L2 Learning

Research Into the Effects of Drama on Anxiety

and analysis of teachers’ perceptions indicate positive effects on L2 learning, including

1. After four months of EFL instruction, do learners in a drama programme have

The Two EFL Programmes

Drama EFL Programme (Treatment). The drama programme followed a curriculum I

Findings and Discussion

FLA Levels: Drama versus Non-drama

Group Mean Std. Deviation

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS Improvement Scores between Groups.

Group Mean Std. Deviation

Classroom Practices that Enhance Comfort Levels Speaking the L2

I felt comfortable…specifically when I prepare what I’m going to say…the presentation…the

APPENDIX – Modified FLCAS

2. I don’t worry about making mistakes in the English class.

4. It frightens me when I don’t understand what the teacher is saying in English.

6. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in class.

8. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my English class.

9. I would not be nervous speaking English with native speakers.

12. I feel confident when I speak English in class.

20. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my English class.

25. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of English.

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