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Study Session 1 – Meaning of Public Administration
This study session introduces you to the basics of Public Administration

as a discipline. You will be exposed to the meaning of Public
Administration, some definitions by various scholars, the meaning of
public administration and management as well as the differences
between administration and management in an organisation.
At the end of this study session you should be able to:

1.1 Define Public Administration
1.2 Examine the various contributions by different scholars
1.3 Discuss the differences between administration and
management
1.4 Identify the differences between business, public and
private administration.
1.1 Meaning of Public Administration

The term public administration originated from two Latin word:
publicus, which means, people or the public. While „administration‟ is
derived from two Latin words „ad‟ and „ministiare‟ which means to
serve or to govern. Therefore, public administration has undergone
far-reaching change both in its objective and function and has been
described as the heart of modern civilization. The civilized life that we
live today depend upon the proper functioning of public
administration, public administration could be defined as that aspect
of government that deals with the various ways in which men and
materials are mobilized in order to achieve the goal of government viz-
a-viz those society.
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Public administration is essentially culture bound and develops its own
peculiar characteristics in different cultural areas or environment. A
look at the structure and functions of the public administration in
different countries reveals that though there is manifest similarity in
formal organisation, yet their informal and behavioural pattern reflect
considerable diversity, each being shaped by its society culture. As the
establishment that interact with the general public, public
administration is part of the optical process, and therefore helps in
policy formulation through a feedback mechanism.
1.2 Definitions of Public Administration

Public administration has been vigorously defined by numerous
thinkers, the following definitions of the discipline by some of its
leading authorities may be put in perspective.
Pfiffiner (1960), view public administration as the organization and

desired end. However, it is the machinery for implementing
government policies and programme at all ends of government-
national, state and local. Public administration is the machinery as
well as the integral process, through which the government performs
its functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated
activities extending from the government to the lowest paid and
powerless individual charged with keeping in daily touch with all
resources natural and human and all other aspect of the life of the
society with which the government is concerned (Nnoli, 2001).
Gulick and Urwick (1937), define public administration as the function

that has to do with getting thing done or the accomplishment of
defined objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of
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organisation in the pursuit of desired public goals and objectives. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise, the
efficiency and social effectiveness of public administrative institutions.
Public administration is decision-making, planning the work to be
done, formulating objective and goals establishing and reviewing
organisations, directing and supervising employees... exercising
controls and other functions performed by government, the means by
which the purposes and goals of government are realized (Coronand
Harri, 1969).
Adamolekun (1983), state that public administration is commonly used

to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
government business and study of these activities. However, it is used
in district senses, as science or as an art since it is concerned with the
practical management of human resources and as science as it
concern with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy. Public administration is the art and science
of management as applied to affairs of the state (Waldo, 1955), Coker
(1985), see public administration as the coordination of individual and
group efforts to carry out public policy. Public administration is the
art of implementing public policies, as feedback is relayed to the policy
makers. It is government in action, a collective effort of getting things
done in accordance with the laid down procedure and within the legal
framework. It presupposes planned human activities by organising
human and material resources (Mukhi 1988).
Balogun (1987) sees public administration as the marshalling of human

and material resources in order to achieve the objectives of public
policy. This according to him, bring to the fore two vital aspects in the
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study of public administration which must go with policy
implementations and become important areas of attention in the
study of public administration. While Mohme (2003) states that public
administration means the manner in which central or federal,
provincial or state, local institutions with their procedural, legal
regulatory, financial, human resources and asset aspects are
organised, institutionalized and managed with aspect to their
regulatory, revenue extraction and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such service as defence, social services and
economic infrastructure.
Public administration can also be defined as an establishment that

interacts with the general public. It is also part of the political process,
and therefore help in policy formulation through a feedback
mechanism. However, from the definitions given above one could see
that public administration cannot be insulated from politics. That is,
the work of public servants is directly influenced by larger political
consideration.
1.3 Differences between Administration and Management

The term administration exists in any assembly age of human and
material resources having a hierarchy of subordinates with assigned
functions, carried out for a defined objective. Administration has to do
with getting things done through the co-operative accomplishment of
objective using organisational resources and the support of the
people. Therefore, administration is preferably used in public
institutions such as agencies, departments, public or private
institutions etc. It can take place with a laid down rules, regulation,
code of conduct, principles and procedures to achieve standard
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objectives or goals of an organisations. Administration is therefore
said to commence immediately two or more people agree to co-operate
to undertake a task aimed at maximizing goal achievement by relating
means to an end. While the major aim of administration is to achieve
efficiency of human efforts.
1.3.1 Dichotomy between Administration and Management

Administration is the proper ordering and organisation of the collective
activities of human efforts. It is a rational action that aims at
maximising goals by relating means to an end. Administrative is that
type of conscious and collective activity that involves rational
organisation and management of men, machines and material to
achieve some stated objectives. Augustine Adebayo (2001) defines
administration as the organisation and direction of person in order to
accomplish a specified end. Administration involves the coordination
of the men and materials deployed within the organisations for the
accomplishment of identifiable purpose. (MacRae, Stuart and Pilt,
1980). Administration, therefore, entails all activities geared towards
achieving the goals of an organisation. Administration is the capacity
to coordinate many, and often conflicting, social energies in a single
organisation in orderly manner such that they can operate in unity
(Adam, 1913 cited in Ogundele et al, 2010).
Gulick and Urwick (1939) conceptualised administration as getting

things done with the accomplishment of the defined objectives.
According to them, the severe of administration is the system of
knowledge whereby one may and extend relationships, predict results
and influence outcomes in any situation where people are organised
and work together for a common purpose. In the opinion of Hughes
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(1998), administration includes activities connected with keeping
records and processing information paper work and activities
concerned with applying rule, procedure and policies determined by
others. Heady (1979) argued that the essence of administration is a
determined action in pursuit of conscious purpose.
Administration can be seen as rational human activity, which is

inherent in any organised social life, public or private. It occur even in
such a simple divinity as when two men cooperate to roll a stone that
neither could have moved alone. Administration consists of all those
operation that aim to achieve some purpose shared by two or more
people. What is impotent at this point is that in whatever sense the
term is used, administration has a long history and it dates back to
the beginning of the human race. Administration is an arm of
management, although the term is sometimes used interchangeably
with management but mostly used for public institutions (Fatile,
2007). This shows that administration has been in existence since
time immemorial. Bhagwan and Bhushn (2006) a without it, no
cooperative function can be carried out economically and efficiently.
Balogun (1983), defines administration as any action that is directed
towards the analysis of policies, identification of option and to a
substantial degree, the implementation of programme as well as
efficient allocation of resources. In addition to all these calculated
decisions, a typical administrative action takes into consideration the
goal of the organisation as well as the environment within which the
actions place.
Management on the other hand is seen as a process consisting of

planning, organizing, activating and controlling, performed to
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determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and
resources (Terry, 1971), Follett (1920), defines management as the art
of getting thing done, through people, which implies that management
is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities), manager must have
subordinates and that they do not do the same thing as other
employees. Manager‟s tasks include making good use of the
enterprises employees to perform whatever task that may be
necessary to achieve organisational goals. Management is concerned
with human beings whose behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most
people would prefer to use administration for government businesses
and refer to any other organisation that is non –governmental
management. Koontz (1961), state that management is the art of
getting things done through and with people in formally organised
group. To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command
to coordinate and to control (Fayol, 1930). Management is a multi-
purpose organ that manage business and manages managers and
manages workers and work. Drucker, 1985), Hiemann (1983) state
that management has three different meaning, viz... management a
noun: refer to a group of managers. 2 Management as a process:
refers to the functions of management i.e. planning, organising,
directing, controlling, etc. 3. Management as a discipline refer to the
subject of management. Management is an individual or a group of
individuals that accept responsibilities to run an organisation. They
plan, organise, direct and control all the essential activities of the
organisation. Management does not do the work themselves. They
motor the other to do the work and co-ordinate (i.e. bring together) all
the work for achieving the objectives of the organisations.
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Breach (1975), states that management requires a sequence of
coordinated activities undertaken by one person or group of persons
in the most effective and efficient way to direct the activities of others
for the purpose of accomplishing organisational goals. He further state
that management is a set of activities which is classified as concerning
with planning, organising or unit rolling. Sheridon (2011) sees
management as the process of planning what needs to be done to
achieve a particular result, organising and directing appropriate
resources to achieve the plan, controlling each steps of the plan and
making adjustment as needed; motivating all those involved to ensure
that plan is achieved. The key four words are: plan, organise, control
and motivate = management (POCM: for short).
Therefore, the difference between management and administration can

be summarised under (2) two categories:
i. Functions and
ii. Usage of applicability
On the basic function, table 1 below shows the major dichotomy

between administration and public administration
1.1
Basic Management Administration
Meaning Management is an art of It is concerned with
getting things done formulation of
through others by broad objectives,
directing their efforts plans and policies.
towards achievement of
predetermined goals.
Nature Management is an Administration is a
executing function. decision-making
function.
Process Management decides who Administration
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should as it and how decides what is to
should he do it. be done & when it
is to be done.
Function Management is a doing Administration is a
function because thinking function
managers get work done because plans and
under their supervision. policies are
determined under
it.
Skills Technical and Human Level Middle & lower
skills Conceptual and level function Top
Human skills level function
Sources : http://www.managementstudy guide.com.
1.2
Basic Management Administration
Applicability It is applicable to business It is applicable to
concerns i.e. profit- non -business
making organization. concerns i.e.
clubs, schools,
hospitals etc.
Influence The management decisions The
are influenced by the administration
values, opinions, beliefs is influenced by
& decisions of the public opinion,
managers. govt. policies,
religious
organizations,
customs etc.
Status Management constitutes Administration
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the employees of the represents
organization who are paid owners of the
remuneration (in the form enterprise who
of salaries & wages). earn return on
their capital
invested &
profits in the
form of
dividend.
Sources : http://www.managementstudy guide.com.
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1.3
Administration
Top Level
Management
Middle Level
Lower Level
Source: http://www.managementstudyguide.com
1.4 Differences between Business, Public and Private

Administration
Business administration cover all facet of managing day-to-day
operations and decision making for a company or non-profit
organisation. It includes efficient organisation and management of
employees and other resources to focus operations towards
organisational goals. Effective business administration promote
stability, success and growth for the company or organisation.
Speciality area for management include finance and economics,
human resources, marketing, operation, information system and
accounting.
Business administration is the process of managing a business or non-

profit organisation, so that it remains stable and continues to grow.
However, the administration of a business includes the performance
or management of a business, operations and other resources to
direct activities toward common goal and objectives (Hugh, ed, 1911).
Therefore, the concept of business administration is the process of
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managing every different angle of a business so it can run, expand,
grow and succeed.
Woodrow (1887), public administration means the most obvious part of
government or government in action. It is most visible side of
government, particularly the executive arm that implement the plans
and activities of the government. Public administration is the
machinery, as well as the integral processes, through which the
government performs its function. It is a network of human
relationship and associated activities extending from the government
to the lowest paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in
daily touch with all resources natural and human and all other aspect
of life of the society with which the government is concerned. (Nwoli,
2001), Adebayo (1986), public administration mean the art of
planning, assessment, appraising performance by the government
executives and supervisors. Public administration is commonly used
government business and the study of these activities. However, it is
used in district senses, a science or an art since it is concerned with
the practical management of human resources and as a science as it
is concerns with the knowledge of the ways and method for efficient
fulfilment of public policy (Adamolekun, 1983). Thus, public
administration and public management are used interchangeably.
Private administration consists in the management of private business

enterprises owned and operated by private individuals. Private
administration/organisation activities and operation are centred on
profit making (that is, they are profit-making oriented organisation.
Example of private organisation where private administration takes
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place are Nigeria Breweries Limited (NBL), United African Company of
Nigeria (UACN), Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc, Globalcom Plc, Nestle Plc,
Shell Chevron, MTN etc. Private organisation render services.
Therefore, private administration is the administration for the private
sectors. It is followed by a private company. The government is not
controlling the administration of private sector but it‟s examine the
rules and regulation made by private sectors.
Administration within the two categories and forms of public and private
organisation differ in a number of important aspect, namely:
i) Political direction
ii) Profit-motive
iii) Nature of functions
iv) Public responsibility
v) Organisational procedure
vi) Uniform treatment
i. Political Direction: Public administration operate within the

political environment and under the directions of the political
leaders. Public administrator are supposed to do things as decreed
by the representatives of the people. While private administration
is marginally affected by political factors. It is not subject to
political direction.
ii. Profit Motive: The main aim of public administration is to serve
public interest and provide essential social services to the public at
cheap price, rate such as water, public health, electricity, postal
services, etc. While private organisation is to make profit. Hence,
work almost invariably conducted for profit.
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iii. Nature of Functions: Public administration provide essential
service to the benefit of the people at cheap rate while private
administration engage in a business where public organisations
are not capable of establishing due to huge resource that is
required.
iv. Public Responsibility: Public administration has responsibility to
the public, they are constantly subjected to outside scrutiny by
politicians, the media, and other private groups and individuals.
The emphasis is always on accountability in public administration
much more than in private administration.
v. Organisational Procedure: Public administration is more complex
than private administration. Private has a narrow focus, in the fact
that it concentrates attention and resources on one line of activity.
This is usually economic in nature and concerns one specified or
specific aspect of economic life.
vi. Uniform Treatment: Public administration should be consistent
in procedure and uniform in dealing with the public. It cannot
accord preferential treatment to some segments of the community
to the exclusion of other. Private administration can and very often
does practice discrimination in selling its services.
Summary of Study Session 1

In this session, you have learnt the concept of public administration.
While various scholar examined definition of public administration.
The difference between administration and management was equally
discussed. However, the difference between business, public and
private administration was also identified.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) For Study Session 1
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Now that you have come to the end of this study session do you know
how well you have fared? Would you like to test your understanding of
the session? Then see if you could answer the following assessment
questions. Do not forget to write down in your notebook any topic you
do not understand or that needs further clarification. Discuss this
with your lecturer/facilitator in the next tutorial you will have.
Tutor Marked Assignment

Questions
1. Define public administration and management.
2. Examine between management and administration
3. Examine the different between business, public and private
administrations.
4. Discuss the factors that differentiate public administration from
private administration.
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References and Suggestions for Further Reading
Abasili, C.O (2008). Elements of Public Administration, Lagos:
Concept Publication, Limited.
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian
Comparative Perspective; Lagos: London Ltd.
Adebayo, A. (1986). Power in Politics; Ibadan: Spectrum Book
Limited.
Balogun M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria. A
Developmental Approach, Lagos: Macmill.
Breach, Bran (1975). An Introduction to Public Administration;
London: Macmillan.
Chisholm, Huge, ed (1911). Encyclopaedia Britannica (11thed)
Cambridge University Press.
Drucker, P.F (1925). Principles and Management, New York:
Amazon Publisher.
Eneanya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle
Techniques and Applications, Lagos: Concept Publication
Limited.
Fatile J, Majekodunmi et al (2013). Issues in Public Administration
and Local Governments. The Comparative Perspective. (Lagos:
Concept Publications Limited).
Fayol, Henri (1930). Industrial and General Administration,
London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons.
George R. Terry (1971). Principles of Management, New York:
HugstonCp; Inc.
Gulick and Urwick, (1937), Organisation as a Technical Problem, A
Paper on the Science of Administration, New York: Institution of
Public Administration
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Haimann, Theo (1983). Concepts and Practices of Management,
Element Edition, Journal of Political Science and Administration
Vol. 14 no 2 Boston.
Koontz, Harald (1961). The Journal of the Academy of
Management – vol 4, No 3 Dee, pp. 174-188 Loss Angeli:
University of California.
Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to Politics, Ibadan: Longman Group
Limited
Remi Anifowose and Francis C. Enemuo (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Sharma, M.P et al (2012), Public Administration in Theory and
Practise, Allahabad: Kitaab Mahal.
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do

not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not

hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
iag@dli.unilag.edu.ng
08033366677
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Study Session 2: Concept, Nature and Scope of Public
Administration
Introduction
This study session introduces you to the basic concept of public
administration though learner have already had an idea of what
public administration is all about. This study of public administration,
scope of public administration as well as public administration as a
discipline.
Learning outcomes for Study Session 2

2.1 Define the concept of public administration
2.2. Explain the nature of public administration
2.3 Describe the scope of public administration
2.4 Enumerate why public administration is a discipline
2.1 Concept of Public Administration

The term „publicus‟ is a Latin word which means, people or the public.
While „administration‟ is equally derived from two Latin words „ad‟ and
ministiare‟ which means to serve or to govern. Therefore,
administration is a universal practice and is also of universal
importance. It exists wherever people cooperate to achieve the goal of
their groups and such achievements require planning, organisation,
command, coordination and control. However, public administration
could be defined as that aspect of government that deals with the
various way in which men and material are mobilized in order to
achieve the goal of government vis-a-vis those society. For better
understanding of the meaning of public administration, we need to
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examine various definitions of different scholars even though, there
was no acceptable definition of public administration.
Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines public administration as the function

that has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of
define objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of
organisations in the pursuit of desired public goal and objective. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise the
Pfiffner (1960), view public administration as the organisation and

direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.
However, it is the machinery for implementing government politics
and programmes at all levels of government – national, state and local.
Nnoli (2001), see public administration as the machinery, as well as the

integral processes, through which the government performs its
functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated
society with which the government is concerned.
Balogun (1987) define public administration as the marshalling of

human and material resources in order to achieve the objectives of
public policy. According to him, it brings to the fore two vital aspect in
the study of public administration which must go with policy
study of public administration.
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Adamolekun (1983), states that, public administration is commonly
used to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
used in distinct sense, as science or as an art since it is concerned
with the practical management of human resources and as science as
it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy.
Stone (1939), defines the concept of public administration as the

process by which the objective are defined, plan and policies
formulated, institutions created and managed human energies
mobilized, resources utilized and change effected in the overall public
interest. However in Nigeria, there are 3 level of public administration
which are a Federal Government Administration b. State Government
Administration c. Local Government Administration.
Corson and Harris, (1969), view public administration as decision

making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and
goals. ... establishing and reviewing organisation, directing and
supervising employees... exercising controls and other functions
performed by government executive and supervisors. It is the action
part of government executives and supervisors to be realized.
Waldo (1978) see public administration as the co-operation among

people using available resources to achieve public policy and
government objectives. Public administration, therefore, is
government –oriented administration and largely bureaucratic based
on law and rule, and subject to legislation and public opinion.
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However, public administration, in a wider sense, has sought to expand
it ambit by including any administration that has considerable,
impact on the public.
2.2. Nature of Public Administration
Public administration is a specialised academic field, its nature is broad
and complex. The nature focuses on the concept of public
administration as earlier discussed, the evolution of public
administration and the factors that made it important. The nature of
public administration will help you understand the relevance of these
issues in improving effectiveness and efficiency in the public sector.
The conditions that led to the evolution of public administration are (i)
The existence of extensive empires (ii) the rise of absolute monarchy
(iii) The need for central management of scare resources (iv) the
introduction of money economy (v) lack of adequate communication
(vi) increase in literacy rate and (vii) introduction of codified laws.
Many scholars have written and argued about these condition and
how these factors have helped the emergence of public administration.
2.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

The origin and growth of public administration in Nigeria are articulated
from tracing the origin of public administration to pre-colonial period
and colonial period till date. British colonised Nigeria and established
her public service system in the country. This alone influenced the
growth and development of the public administration in Nigeria. It all
began in 1861 till 1954 when regional government was introduced.
Within this period, public administration in Nigeria was purely British
pattern both in term of ethics or values, culture and tradition as well a
training and procedures. Virtually, all these are of British Public
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Service Structure. During the period, the colonial masters hardly
distinguished or separated administrative system/structure from the
constitutionalism and political events. In other words, all these three
(3) institution (Political event, constitutionalism, and Administration
were combined under one umbrella. That is to say, everything was
under administration/bureaucracy. So, the functions of the
legislature, executive and judiciary were under administration. In
essence, there was no kind of separation of powers, the same people
controlled the legislature, executive and judiciary. However, the
introduction of indirect ruled system in which the British
administered her colonies through natures. Through this system, the
traditional rulers were made to enforce the colonial policies, due to the
centralised nature of the Northern Nigeria, indirect rule system was
highly successful. Also, because of the centralised system of
administration in the Yoruba land. The indirect ruled system was also
successful. In the eastern part, it was more turbulent than what was
witnessed in the western province. In the east, there was no
traditional chief, Oba or Emir as in other provinces. It was difficult to
be applied or implemented. What the British did was to appoint some
individuals or troublesome people as chiefs that is „Warrant chiefs‟ to
assumed leadership position of the community. The chiefs were
arrogant and often imposed arbitrary levies on the people which led to
Aba Women Riot of 1929. As a result of, the system was dropped in
the East, and the British system of local government was to replace it
which spread to other part of the country.
In general, the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 was purely for economic

purpose of the colonial master, that is, it was not motivated to develop
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the so called Nigeria. This amalgamation went extra-mile to spread
ethnic rivalry in the country. That is to say, it sowed the seed of
discord among the different ethnic groups in the country and the
legacy so far, has penetrated into public service till present and thus
undermining the smooth running of the present Nigeria
Administration.
2.2.2. The Control of Public Administration

The control of public administration cut across the globe and Nigeria are
not exempted. Public administration is controlled through some
measure that guide against waste of public fund. Some of the control
of public administration are as follow:
i) Ministerial Control: The civil service commission both at the
federal or state level are responsible for the appointment of
member of public service. Therefore, the recruitment and
promotion power vested to them, they equally have power to
dismiss of the public servant for unruly behaviour.
ii) Parliamentary Control: The legislature exercises general power
of direction, supervision and controls of public administration.
Through budgetary review and other devices of investigation it
keep a check on them. The minister is shielded for his actions by
the minister through the policy of ministerial responsibility to
the legislature. However, the legislature exercises control
through delegated legislation, financial control, budgetary
allocation and question – time.
iii) Judicial Control: The courts have the authority and right
as per the construction to examine the legality and validity of act
of the executive in order to safeguard the citizen‟s right. An
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aggrieved citizen or party can role a civil or criminal suit in the
court if his rights have been violated or if any particular act of
the legislature is ultra vires or unconstitutional that it is not in
spirit of the constitution and has a corrupt objectives. However,
the independence of the judiciary has enabled it to insert some
sanity into the Nigeria public administration.
iv) Pressure Group Control: Pressure group has considerable
influence and control on government policy. Good or bad
governance has brought these group into the limelight and they
are of great importance to the government while formulating as
well as implementing policies. Thus, they hold the government
and administration accountable on various time by ensuring
public participation and making administration transparent.
v) The control of Ombudsman: It is also known a public
compliant commission in Nigeria. Appointed by the legislature
and deal with complaints made against the legislature or
government. They deal with all complaints of corruption made by
any citizen against the government. However, the public
complaint commission was set up to enable the less privileged in
the society to obtain redress to their grievances and to get
protection against human right by any functionaries or agent
whether government, public or private.
2.3 Scope of Public Administration

The scope of public administration is wide and complex. The complex
nature of our modern society make public administration to be more
complex. Public administration now covers not only regulatory
activities but management of public wealth, and provision of welfare
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services, notably education, health and social infrastructure. It is
widely accepted that public administration is concerned with activities
of all the three branches of government. However, recent trends show
that it has more to do with activities of the executive branch of
government at all levels – national, state and local. For example in
Nigeria, government activities are currently carried within the federal
and state civil service: government institutions, public
enterprises/government agencies and local governments.
The tremendous increase in the number of these public organisations

has been due to the constant restructuring of the federal
administrative system, especially since independence in 1960.
Furthermore, the scope of public administration has increased with
concomitant increase in societal complexity, specialization and
differentiation. All aspects of citizens‟ lives involve public
administration or increased public regulation over private
organisations. The expectations of citizens are continually rising and
public administration is being increasing loaded with additional
responsibilities either in the name of promoting efficiency, democratic
governance, egalitarianism or in the transformation of socio-economic
development and fulfilment of public policy.
In a nutshell, public administration is becoming increasingly

challenging, as it now examines and conceptualizes administrative
policies organisations and operations comprising several aspect of life
– political, social, economic, demographic, physical and technological.
2.4 Public Administration as a Discipline
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It is no longer debatable that public administration now exists as an
important academic field of study. Initially, public administration is
under political science since political science is the study of
government, can government laid down policies on how the state
affairs should be administered mean that government and public
administration is interwoven; administration and government are so
close that it need no separation. As the time goes on, the society
become so complex as a result of that administration is no more given
due attention, the policies formulated by government are no longer
executed properly due to large functions of government. Therefore,
public administration as a field of study deals with systematic,
analytical and procedural method of arriving at facts which will in
turn help in finding solutions to the problem of the society. However,
public administration has gained added impetus as scientific methods
are now employed to gather and analyse data and reach logical
deductions.
Summary of the Study Session 2

In this study session, you have learnt of public administration vis-a-vis
the various definition of public administration by different scholar
under the nature of public administration, evolution of public
administration in Nigeria was examined. This study session has been
able to explain the control and scope of public administration. Lastly,
public administration as a discipline was equally enumerated.

26
Tutor Marked Assignment

Question
a. Discuss the Concept of public administration
b. State the conditions leading to the evolution of public
administration in Nigeria.
c. Enumerate the scope of public administration
d. Explain the significance of the measures of public administration
performance in Nigeria.
27
References and Suggestions for further Readings
Abasili, C.O (2008). Elements of Public Administration, Lagos:
Concept Publication, Limited.
Balogun M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria. A
Developmental Approach, Lagos: Macmill.
Emeaya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle
Limited.
Gulick and Urwick, (1937). Organisation as a technical problem, a
paper on the science of administration, New York: Institution of
Nnoli, O. (1986). Introduction to Politics, Ibadan: Longman Group
Limited
Olojode, I. (2007). Ecology of Public Administration in Olojode I
and Fajonyomi, B. (eds), Essentials of Public Administration.
(Lagos: Department of Public Administration Lagos State
University).
Remi Anifowosse and Francis C. Enemuo (1999). Elements of
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do not hesitate to contact your e-
tutor via the LMS.
28
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center
by e-mail or phone on:
08033366677
29
Study Session 3: Public Administration as an Art and Science
Introduction
There has been a controversy over the status of Public Administration.
Some scholars consider it as a science while most of the practitioners of
management theory stress that it is an art. Let us now consider and
then try to establish whether Public Administration is a Science or an
Art.
Considering Pubic Administration as Science has two implications i.e. it
could be a Science or it could be a Social Science.
Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3

3.1 Explain how Public Administration can be considered as a
„Science‟
3.2 Explain how Public Administration can be considered as a
„Social Science‟
3.3 Identify the deficiencies of Public Administration as a
Social Science
3.4 Explain why despite the identified deficiencies, one can
still regard Public Administration as a Social Science
3.5 State the arguments of practitioners who claim that Public
Administration is an Art
3.6 Explain the conclusions that could be drawn from the two
cardinal positions of Public Administration being a Science and
an Art
3.1 How Public Administration can be considered as a ‘Science’
30
Considering Pubic Administration as Science has two implications i.e. it
could be a Science or it could be a Social Science.
Let us first examine as to how Public Administration can be considered
as a science. “Science” has 2 branches i.e. „Pure Science” and “Social
Science”. The „Pure Science‟ has the following characteristics:
(i) Universality of laws
(ii) Exactness of the results based on these laws
(iii) Predictability of events.
In Public Administration there has been a quest to find out universal

laws.
But such universal laws have so far not been established. Similarly the
results are in essence to some degree and the events, since they
involve human behaviour, are also not totally predictable. Hence
Public Administration cannot be considered to be a „Pure Science‟ in
its present status of understanding.
3.2 How Public Administration can be considered as a

‘Social Science’
Now we may consider as to how Public Administration is considered as a
„Social Science‟. Social Science is defined as - „a systematic body of
knowledge derived from day-to-day experience, observations and
practice”. A social science contains concepts, hypothesis, theories,
experimentation, principles, etc. and to develop these principles either
inductive approach or deductive approach is used. Hence based on
above definition, Public Administration can be considered to be Social
Science because –
31
1. It contains a body of exact knowledge derived from
experiences and observations which are applicable in practical
situations.
Hence in this respect it is as much a general science as economics
or psychology or biology
2. Through continued efforts, a body of principles which is
applicable in any administrative set up has been developed.
These principles are required to be applied in order to secure
efficiency in administration.
3. It employs scientific methods of investigations in its study e.g.
research and analysis is an indispensable part of any public
policy.
4. It uses scientific process i.e. facts and data are collected
and analyzed and based on these analysis generalizations are
arrived at.
Hence an administrator applies science in much the same manner
as an Engineer or a Medical Doctor.
5. It has also developed its own body of subject matter as
distinct from other social science disciplines, though it is inter-
disciplinary and multi-disciplinary.
Therefore, it can be said that Public Administration is a corpus of
demonstrated truths and hence a social science.
3.3 Deficiencies of Public Administration as a Social Science

However, as a social science, Pubic Administration has deficiencies,
which present impediments in the path of it being considered as a
social science. These are:
32
1. Public Administration involves dealing with human
behaviour in organization which is not amenable to
experimentation in laboratory conditions. Besides, most part of
the subject matter of Public Administration is not amenable to
experiments.
2. Simon in “Administrative Behaviour” has criticized that the
principles propounded in the discipline of Public Administration
are mutually contradictory and he has said that they are
nothing but homely proverbs.
3. The subject matter of Public Administration is not free
from values and hence its study can‟t be completely objective,
while objectivity is the prime criterion for a discipline to be
considered as a science.
4. Public Administration is also culture-bound i.e. Public
Administration in one country is quite different from Public
Administration in another country.
3.4 Why despite the identified deficiencies, one can still

regard Public Administration as a Social Science
However, one can still regard Pubic Administration as a social science
with following characters:
a) It is a new undeveloped science where conscious theorizing
has gone on for only in the past 100 years.
b) It is primarily a science of observation than experiment
while other social sciences are amenable to experiments. In case
of public administration every new policy which is implemented
in it becomes a social experiment.
33
c) It is both a positive and a normative science i.e. it is
concerned with what “is” in the administration and also what
“should be” in the administration. In other words it takes
account of existing facts and tendencies and hence it is more
than a mere wishful thinking.
d) It is a progressive science meaning thereby that its
“generalizations” and “principles” are bound to be constantly
revised and restated.
3.5 Arguments of practitioners who claim that Public

Administration is an Art
However, there exists a rival group of practitioners who claim that Public
Administration is an Art. The arguments behind their belief are as
follows:
a) Administration, as has been established over the years,
requires specialized skills and specialized knowledge and it is
not possible for everyone to carry out administration just as it is
not possible for everyone to perform a drama or a dance.
b) Administration requires leadership and conviction, which
cannot be taught in a class.
c) It requires a body of special talents in the field of
administration to become a manager/administrator. For
example, tactfulness, conflict management etc are such special
talents.
d) Success in administration is directly proportional to the
extent of skills applied. This is supported by the fact that in a
group of 15-20people only one person turns out to be a good
manager who leads the others.
34
3.6 Conclusions that could be drawn from the two cardinal
positions of Public Administration being a Science and an
Art
In the light of the above discussions, the following two conclusions may
be arrived at:
1. There are strong reasons to believe that Pubic
Administration is both – a „Science” and an “Art” i.e. though it
can make predictions, the predictions are not absolutely correct.
It also means that a contingency approach is required in the
practice of administration i.e. there is a need to modify the
science of administration to suit the situation and then apply it.
The ability to modify it and to apply it is an art.
2. The word “Science” could be used here in the connotation
of a „social Science‟. It has the traits of a science since
predictability is there though limited only up to some degree.
Hence one can say that the methodology applied in Public
Administration is scientific while its application is an art

In this study session, you have learnt how Public Administration can
be considered as either a Science or a Social Science. Deficiencies of
the subject matter as a social science are discussed, and why despite
the deficiencies Public Administration can still be considered a Social
Science. You are familiar with the arguments of the practitioners who
see it as an Art. You have gone through the conclusion that could be
drawn from the two cardinal positions of science and Art.
35
Now that you have come to the end of this study session, do you know
the session? Then, see if you could answer the following assessment
with your lecturer in the next tutorial you will have.
Section A: Objective Questions

SAQ 3.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.1)
1. “Science” has _________________ branches
a) 5
b) 3
c) 2
d) 4

2. Public Administration cannot be considered to be a
_____________in its present status
a) „Pure Science‟
b) Subject
c) Field
d) Vocation

3. In Public Administration, facts and __________are collected and
analysed and based on these analysis generalizations are arrived
at.
a) figures
b) data
c) fingers
36
d) tables

4. Dealing with human behaviour is one ____________of Public
Administration as a Social Science
a) strength
b) deficiency
c) pillar
d) advantage

5. The subject matter of Public Administration is not free
from_________________
a) value
b) blues
c) views
d) blows

6. ___________________ is both a positive and a normative science
a) English language
b) Mathematics
c) Public Administration
d) Chemistry
7. Group of practitioners who claim that Public Administration is
an Art maintain that Administration requires leadership and
conviction, which cannot be taught in a _______________
a) Class.
b) group
c) family
d) church
37
8. From our conclusion in this study session, it means that a
______________ approach is required in the practice of
administration
a) contingency
b) emergency
c) congruency
d) diplomatic
38
References and Suggestions for further readings
Eneanya, A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Application. Lagos, Concept Publication.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Enugu: Snap Press.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in
Nigeria. Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria. Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
NOUN (2012) MPA 740- THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION, Noun, Lagos.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics, Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African Center for Research and Conflict Resolution
(PACREP)
Should you require more explanation on this study session, please
do not hesitate to contact your e-tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies?

Do not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or
phone on:
08033366677
39
Study Session 4: Importance and Functions of
Introduction
Public administration is a distinct field of administration, which is very
important for the success of any government. This peculiarity arises
out of the fact that public administration is an action part of
government, the means by which the purposes and goals of
government are realized. Specific issues to be covered here are:
absorption of the work of government, meeting the challenges of
government activities, implementation of government decisions,
detaching of political activities from administrative work, negotiation,
conciliation and arbitration and communication.
Public administration performs a variety of functions which complement

the activities of the various branches of government. This unit
therefore will discuss the various functions performed by public
administration. Among the roles highlighted in unit are:
(a) Ensure continuity of government activities
(b) Provision of employment opportunities for the citizens
(c) Identification and management of available resources
(d) Provision of social welfare services to the masses

4.1 Explain how public administration is used in the
implementation of governmental policies
4.2 Discuss the role of public administration in providing
welfare services to the people
40
4.3 Explain how public administration is used in management
of the economy
4.4 Discuss how public administration helps in serving public
interests
4.5 Explain the role of public administration as a change agent
4.6 Describe how public administration ensures continuity of
government activities
4.7 Explain how public administration provides employment
opportunities
4.8 State the position of public administration in the
identification and management of state resources
4.9 List the responsibilities of public administration in the
provision of social welfare services to the populace
4.9.1 Describe the role of public administration in regulating
government agencies
4.9.2 Explain how public administration is used in conducting
Foreign Affairs
4.1 Implementation of Governmental Policies

So many processes are involved in the making and implementation of
government policies that apart from the problem of high level expertise
there is the problem of an intricate division of labour that must be
solved.
1. There is the need for a clerk to file the letters,
2. Others to gather information,
3. Still others to ensure that the conditions of work are
agreeable to the civil servants,
41
4. Some to post letters, keep documents, write memoranda,
gather statistics, negotiate with individuals and groups, and so
on and so forth.
It is not efficient for one individual to perform many of these functions at
the same time. Experience has shown that more is produced or
achieved under conditions of a division of labour than under
conditions where no such division of labour exists. Therefore, the
demands of increased productivity, performance or achievement
require a complex division of labour in which many more people are
involved than those in government.
4.2 Welfare Services to the People

Government activities have not only grown in size, they have also grown
in complexity. And such a complexity demands different kinds of
expertise for various activities. Therefore, even if individuals in
government have the time and energy to carry out all their functions
they will not have among themselves alone the necessary expertise to
go round their specialized activities. Thus, they need the variety of
experts found in the public administration such as:
 Teachers for managing educational institutions and impacting
knowledge into students and pupil in such institutions
 Doctors whose responsibilities are to save lives through
preventive and curative measures using the equipment‟s in the
hospitals and clinics established by the government.
 Industrialists for sustaining the industries established.
 Accountants, whose task is to keep proper records of financial
dealings of governments in addition to working out strategies of
generating revenue for financing the activities of government,
42
 Engineers that invent operate and maintain equipment‟s and
machines procured to serve various purposes in all departments
of government
 Soldiers whose responsibility is to maintain both internal and
external security etc.
Members of government do not know everything; and they do not

necessarily know more than everybody in their own area of expertise.
They need the help of experts and better minds.
4.3 Management of the Economy

One of the identified importance‟s of Public Administration is its ability
to absorb the work of governments. There is noticeable increase in the
activities of government all over the world. They deal with:
1. Foreign governments at the same time as they must
oversee internal and external trade.
2. The industrial and agricultural growth of the country; this
involves embarking on measures that will create a conducive
environment for both foreign and local investors
3. The health of the population by establishing specialists
and general hospitals as well as clinics for tertiary, secondary
and primary health care delivery and maintenance of facilities
therein
4. Educational development through setting up of primary,
secondary, and tertiary as well as Universities across the nation,
most significant is also the servicing of these institutions.
5. Provision of Power: governments across the world have a
demanding task of power generation which is the life wire of all
the economic and social activities
43
6. Defence: the task of ensuring both internal and external
security remains one of the topmost activities of government,
security challenges have increased over the years
7. Management of Finance: aware of the vast needs of the
public and the lean resources always at the disposal of
governments, governments have the responsibilities of employing
effective measures for management of state resources
8. Encouragement of development in science and technology:
governments embark on measures aimed at encouraging
scientific and technological innovations
9. Promotion of Sporting Activities: Various sporting activities
are encouraged by the government to keep her citizens healthy
and entertain the populace (Nnoli, 2003)
4.4 Serving Public Interests

For a government to protect persons and property against violence, to
collect taxes, and control traffic and health hazards, it must make
regulations. In order to settle disputes between parties, it must
conciliate and negotiate. In order to arrive at a just decision when
faced with conflicting demands from opposing interests and functions
in the community, a government must be continually engaged in
balancing. This balancing involves consultations, negotiation, and
compromise. Then, of course, there is the equally important obligation
on the part of a government to provide services.
From the foregoing, one can see certain uses and process from the
bedrock of the responsibilities of a government. These include
regulating, conciliating, balancing, compromise, and service –
providing.
44
Regulatory functions involve the making of rules and regulations and
the issuing of policy directives. For the rational and effective
performance of these roles there must be prior planning, and
gathering of information and data. It will also be necessary to hold
consultations with representatives of sectional groups and to reconcile
conflicting interests and points of view. All these tasks rest on public
administration. It is after these essential preliminaries have been
carried out that rules and regulations, and directives are issued by
government.
4.5 Role as a Change Agent (Technological Change and

Communication
In public service, administrative officials perform a considerable portion
of their task through communication which could either be in oral or
in written forms. One of the hallmarks of an administrator is to
develop the habit of communication by discussion – telephone
discussion, meetings and conferences, interviews with members of the
public and clients of the department. A good deal is achieved through
face – to – face discussion.
In spite of the obvious advantages of oral communication and personal

contact, it is inevitable that senior officials have to communicate
frequently through the written word. They have to write minutes in
files, prepare memoranda and draft speeches for their chief executives
– the President, Governor, Ministers, State Commissioners, and
Chairmen of statutory bodies and agencies.
Minutes are views, opinions, advice, information, or directives expressed

in writing during the course of day – to – day work in the office. They
45
are usually enclosed in paper jackets known as files. Each file bears a
reference number by which it is easily identified. For the purpose of
tidy arrangement and easy reference, each file is devoted to a single
specific subject.
The decision to prepare the memorandum in a department may

originate directly from the Minister/ Commissioners who are the
political heads of departments or the permanent secretary. A matter
may have been subject of consideration in the department and on
which the Minister and his officials have exchanged minutes in the
file, each one expressing his own views as a result of the data and
information assembled on the issue. Matters may reach a stage at
which the Minister is convinced that it is necessary to consult, inform
or seek approval of the Executive Council. At this stage, the Minister
will direct his permanent secretary to prepare a memo.
Alternatively, the process may be the reverse. The Permanent Secretary

and his subordinates may have been examining a particular issue
through the exchange of minutes in the file. A point may be reached at
which an important issue of policy calls for determination and as he
may prepare a memo.
Public officials in the civil service, in the universities, local government

service, statutory corporations, etc. very often have to write speeches
for their chief executives. The chief executive may be the President of
the nation, the Governor of a state, the Vice Chancellor of a
University, a Minister of State, a State Commissioner or the Chairman
of a statutory corporation or any governmental agency.
46
4.6 Ensures continuity of government activities;
The most fundamental and important function of public administration
is to ensure the continuity of government activities. This involves
certain measures:
Generating goodwill for the government from the majority of the

population.
Maintaining the ruling class in control of state power. These primary

and fundamental functions guide all other functions. They include:
Advising the government on how best to implement programs: On the
bases of its long tradition and experiences in handling resources and
its store of data on every aspect of life of a society, public
administration is in a very good position to advise the government on
possible alternative courses of actions and their implications for the
government and society. Public administration also performs the
function of informing the public at large about government programs
and what progress is being made to realize them. The goal here is to
avoid any conflict between the people and the government arising from
the people‟s ignorance of what the government is doing, as well as to
help generate support and goodwill for the government. The ministry
of information usually performs this function.
A complementary function of public administration is that of informing

the government about the attitudes of the people, including various
groups in the society, towards government policies and programs.
Such information is often necessary to enable the government to order
or reorder its priorities. The various field agencies of government
ministries and departments often provide it.
47
4.7 Provision of employment opportunities for the citizens
An important function of public administration is the provision of
employment for the population. This function can be quite crucial in
the ex – colonial societies of Asia and Africa where the government is
often the largest employer of labour. Most, if not all, of those thus
employed work within the public administration. Such employment
opportunities include:
 National and Regional Ministries like education, health, science
and technology, finance, information, sports, defence, external
affairs, interior, agriculture, industry etc. Public enterprises,
such as agro – allied industries, petrochemical companies,
power generating companies, transport companies, mining
industries, communication companies, etc.
 Government agencies which include financial regulatory
agencies, import and export promotion bodies, anti-graft,
agencies, human rights bodies etc.
 Educational and health institutions at the primary, secondary
and tertiary levels
 Local government departments etc.
In this way the civil service is a source of the means of livelihood, in the
form of wages and salaries, for thousands, if not millions, of the
population.
4.8 Identification and Management of Available Resources

Another function of public administration is that of identifying all the
resources available to the government from within its territory, and
managing these resources adequately. It is the government‟s
48
bureaucracy that is responsible for conducting or supervising surveys
to assess the existence of:
 Various minerals within the country
 The unused agricultural potential of the nation
 Resource endowment with respect to the organization of
industrial enterprises
 The availability of the various categories of labour force and
 The various resources that can be procured from external
sources, as well as the prices for their procurement.
The government bureaucracy not only identifies all these resources, it

also organizes the most profitable and useful way of bringing them
into productive activity to the benefit of the ruling class in particular
and the population in general.
Such resource management has as its goal the task of ensuring that
government programs are tailored to the resources available to the
government, and to eliminate all waste in harnessing these resources
to the relevant government programs.
4.9 Provision of Social Amenities to the Masses

Public administration is also very crucial in the organization and
provision of social welfare services to the population.
It is responsible in many countries for ensuring constant and adequate
supply of water, electricity, health care and educational facilities.
It is responsible for public works such as urban and other road
constructions.
49
The dredging of rivers, the building of port facilities, irrigation facilities,
the organization of famine relief when necessary, sanitation, drainage
facilities, the control of erosion and other natural disasters. the
payment of pension and other labour benefits. In some countries it
organizes the provision of housing, day care facilities for pre –school
children and public transportation. In this way public administration
influences directly the standard of living and the life style of the
people.
4.9.1Role of Public Administration in Regulating Government
Agencies
The practical details and the equitable and fair use of the instrument of
justice, as well as law and order, are also the responsibility of public
administration. Public administration must ensure that the courts
function smoothly and are not overloaded, that the prisons are not
congested or run inhumanly, and that the law enforcement agencies
do not act arbitrarily.
In addition, the civil service must coordinate all the multifarious

activities of its various departments and agencies to ensure that they
are not working at cross – purposes.
4.9.2 How public administration is used in conducting

Foreign Affairs
The planning of the nation‟s economic life in both the short term and the
long term, Taking care of the finances of the society, especially the
balance – of – payment function or the foreign exchange task. It must
gather and store all possible information on every aspect of national
life and preserve important documents for future use and scrutiny.
50
It has been ascertained that public administration is the hub through
which social, political and economic development takes place within a
state. Indications are apt that through professionalism, administrative
duties lean more towards national interest than individual interest.
Textbooks are the main source for the exercise; ideas from various
scholars have been employed.
This unit dealt with the importance of public administration in details.

An important role of public administration is sustaining government‟s
work that is by implementing government policies. Some of the areas
highlighted in this unit include; implementation of governmental
policies, role as a change agent, serving public interests, and welfare
services to the people and management of the economy. Also, this unit
has highlighted the various functions performed by public
administration in any given society. Public administration is seen here
as a veritable tool for social, political and economic development of a
state. Some important areas are then put in perspective for discussion
so as to ascertain the level to which public administration functions.
Although not exhausted, we have looked at the following functions:
Ensures continuity of government activities; Provision of social
amenities to the masses, Identification and management of available
resources, Provision of employment opportunities for the citizens.
While different countries have different public administration, the basic
functions of public administration are performed by all states.

51

1. Experience has shown that- ____________ is produced or
achieved under conditions of a division of labour
a) nothing
b) more
c) less
d) something

2. Even if individuals in government have the time and energy to
carry out all their functions they will not have among themselves
alone the necessary _____________ to go round their specialized
activities
a) money
b) expertise
c) resources
d) manpower
52
3. One of the identified importance‟s of Public Administration is its
ability to________________
a) absorb the work of governments
b) inhibit the work of government
c) disturb the work of government
d) catalyse the work of government

4. For a government to protect persons and property against
violence, to collect taxes, and control traffic and health hazards,
it must make____________
a) regulations
b) provisions
c) war
d) entertainment

5. One of the hallmarks of an administrator is to develop the habit
of communication through the followings except ________________
a) telephone discussion,
b) meetings and conferences,
c) Interviews with members of the public and clients of the
department.
d) back-biting

6. Public administration performs the function of ____________the
public at large about government programs
a) misleading
b) misinforming
53
c) informing
d) disturbing

7. Public administration helps to generate _____________ for the
government.
a) support
b) freedom
c) problem
d) enemy

8. An important function of public administration is the provision
of _____________ for the population
a) people
b) spare parts
c) employment
d) children

9. It is the government‟s _____________ that is responsible for
conducting or supervising surveys to assess the existence of
minerals
a) judiciary
b) bureaucracy
c) police
d) opposition
54
SAQ 4.9.1 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.9)
9.1 Public administration is also very crucial in the
organization and provision of _____________ services to the
population.
a) social welfare
b) crucial welfare
c) subordinate
d) inordinate
SAQ 4.9.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.9.1)

9.2 Public administration must ensure that the courts
function smoothly and are not _______________
a) overbooked
b) overloaded
c) over bored
d) overturned
SAQ 4.9.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 4.9.2)

9.3 Taking care of the finances of the society, especially the
balance of payment function or the foreign exchange task is one
of the functions of ________________
a) public administration
b) mathematics
c) sociology
d) physics
55
Enugu: Snap Press.
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003), Introduction to Politics, Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African centre for Research and Conflict Resolution
(PACREP)
tutor via the LMS.
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not hesitate to contact the
DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
08033366677
56
Study Session 5 – Ecology of Public Administration
Introduction
It is pertinent to know that man must relate and interact constantly
with the environment, and probably use his intellectual and physical
endowment to subdue and/or conquer the environment to suit his
purpose on earth. The interplay of the forces of nature poses many
challenge to man in his environment, thereby compelling him to
proffer means of adapting in the society (Samihah and Salihu, 2011).
Therefore, public administration cannot operate in a vacuum, it has to
interact with the political executive, socio political interest groups,
commercial and economic organisations etc. and above all with the
people. A study of such interaction would constitute what has come to
be known as the ecological approach to the study of public
administration.

5.1 Define Ecology of public administration in Nigeria
5.2 Discuss the public Administration during the pre-colonial era in
the northern, western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria
5.3. Analyse the Organisation structure of Colonial Civil Service in
Nigeria
5.1 Meaning of Ecology of Public Administration in Nigeria

John M. Gan (1947), employ the concept of ecology in the study of
public administration. By this he meant the interdependence of public
administration with its environment. Ecology as it relates to public
administration, means how public administration relates with itself
57
internally and it relates with its externally environment; political,
economic, social, cultural, technology etc. (Olojede, 2007). Public
administration can be taken as a sub-system of the overall social
system and has to interact with other sub-systems. Therefore, the
recognition of the importance of specific environment of the
administrative system and its impact and influence on the functioning
of its institutions. The ecology of public administration investigates
management effectiveness and practices in the context of impinging
on environmental variables such as legal, social, political, and cultural
factors, affecting goal attainment in an efficient manner. The findings
are that there is nothing like come best way of doing things, as what
worked in one environment might not work in another.
Ecology of public administration in Nigeria are determine by various

factors which are not only cultural but customs traditions and ethnic
diversity of the people which varies from one state to another. Also,
the religious practices of the people has a great influence on the styles
of administration that exist in various communities, the styles of
administration also has a great influence on the environment. Public
administration deal with human beings, therefore, it is invariably
influenced by the environment in which it is required to function. It
is a well-known fact that no administrator can ignore his/her
circumstances. In fact, administration and environments mutually
effect each other so much so that it can be said that a study of the
environment is unavoidable for any proper study of public
administration. However, various forms of administration existed in
Nigeria during the pre-colonial period in Nigeria.
58
5.2 Public Administration in the Pre-Colonial Era
5.2.1Political Structure of Public Administration in Northern
Region in the Pre-colonial Era.
SULTAN
EMIRS
DISTRICT HEADS
SARKIN DAWA MA'AJI DANGARIS
ALKALIS SARKIN RUWA
MA'AJI GALADIMAS
MADAWAKI
WAZIRI
5.1 Structure of Public Administration in the Northern

Region of Nigeria
Source (Bello and Ojodu, 2004).
Ecology of public administration of the northern region in pre-colonial

era was divided into three main powers and function which are:
a) Legislator: The power to make laws for the whole of the northern
region was assigned to the Sultan of Sokoto who was the Emir.
59
He make and enact laws for the whole of Hausaa/Fulani Empire.
Emirs Sultan was an absolute monarch and his powers cannot be
checked.
b) Executive: The executive responsibilities of implementing laws
made by the Sultan of Sokoto is carried out by the Emirs who
constituted executive arm of the empire. They had power over
property and life of the property of the empire Sultan of Sokoto
was the head of the Hausa/Fulani Empire and equally the head of
the executive.
c) Judiciary: These arm consisted of Islamic lawyers who are vast in
Islamic teaching and adjudicate and punish anyone that
contravene Sharia law which emanated from Qur‟anic injunctions
through Alkali Court.
During the pre-colonial era in the Northern region the region was
dominated by the Hausa/Fulani. The system of administrative was
centralized system. The region was headed by the Sulatan of Sokoto
whose power was absolute (that is the powers cannot be checked). The
Sultan ruled the region through the influence of Islamic jurisdictions
that is Islamic law. The system of public administration in the
northern region was highly successful due to the traditional structure
of the region, power of the Sultan of Sokoto and influence of the
Islamic religion.
The Northern region administrative system revolved within the power of

the Sultan of Sokoto as a powerful traditional ruler and he was the
head of the kingdom. While there are emirs who head different
emirates at the kingdom and are accountable to the Sultan for
effective and efficient administration. Also, the district heads were
60
equally responsible to the emirs who also perform various
responsibilities for effective and efficient administration at the empire.
Such are:
1. Wazim – Head official the prime minister for the empire.
2. Galadima – Administration of the capital Officer in charge of the
daily administration of the Northern region.
3. Ma’oyi– Finance minister and a treasurer in charge of internally
generated revenue.
4. Dongans – Officer in charge of internal security and maintaining
laws and order.
5. Alkalis – Officers in charge of interpretation of Sharia laws and
punishment of the offenders.
6. Sarkin Ruwas – Officer in charge of fishing and other related
aquatic activities in the region.
7. Sarkindawa – Officer in charge of butchers and other related
activities.
8. Madawaki – Calvary commanders (cemeteries) and other related
activities.
However, these chain of responsibilities are strictly adhere to and

powers and authorities of those officers are respected.
61
 5.2.2 Public Administration in the Pre-colonial Western
Region of Nigeria
ALAFIN
BASHORUN
(PRIME MINISTER)
OYOMESI
( MINISTER)
AARE ONA KAKANFO

( HEAD OF ARMY)
NATIVE DOCTORS BABALAWO DIVINER SOOTHSAYERS
5.2
Structure of Public Administration the Western Region of Nigeria
Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004).
Ecology of Public Administration in pre-colonial western region in

Nigeria was also centralised like that of the Northern region but what
make the difference is the nature of traditional system. However, the
traditional ruler, that is Oba in Western region area constitutional
monarch which means the power of Oba are not absolute and can
definitely be checked. The administrative system was centralized while
the Alafin is the head. He was the political head and commander in
Chief of the Armed Forces. Alafin is the most powerful in Yoruba land
and he was referred to as „Iku-baba-yeye‟ that is he is seconded to
62
God on earth. While the Basorun (Prime Minister) was next to Alafin
he administered the domain on behalf of the Alafin. The oyomesi were
also ministers whose major role is to check the excesses of the Alafin
especially if he goes beyond the power being allotted to him and
therefore, he could be depose and be banish from that domain by the
Oyomesi. The Aare Ona-kakanfo is the commander in charge of army,
he exercised military and policy function and see to the compliance of
the order of Alafin. Native Doctors, Diviner, Babalawo‟ and
Soothsayers are departments that helped Alafin in the day –to – day
administration of the kingdom while Alafin consult the oracle for the
peaceful co-existence of the kingdom.
5.2.3 Public Administration in Pre-Colonial Era in the Eastern Region of

Nigeria
Public Structure of Public Administration in Eastern Region in the Pre-
colonial Era
VILLAGE HEAD
(OKPARA TITLE)
VILLAGE GROUPS
(OZO TITLE)
AGE GRADES
SACRED SOCIETIES
5.3.
63
Structure of Public Administration in the Eastern Region of Nigeria
Source: (Bello and Ojodu , 2004)
Ecology of public administration in pre-colonial eastern region in Nigeria

uncentralized, that is, they had no central political institution nor
traditional political authority in pre-colonial times. It was essentially
republican and democratic in governance. In spite of the absence of a
central government among the Igbo in pre-colonial Nigeria, yet
political stability in the area was maintained through a network of
Kinship groups, age grades and secret societies, which performed the
functions of the central government in one way or the other (Oyebola
and Ojelabi, 1971). Each head of lineage makes law for members of
his lineage and has full powers and control of the armed forces.
Therefore, the oldest man in every family provides political and
administrative power. A good number of the families formed a lineage.
Hence, head of all the lineages constitute the elders of council while
Okpara is the over-all head and most senior person of the councils.
However, the ozo title are crowned which automatically qualified him
to be member of the council of Elders of the Igbos Empire.
It is important to note that Okpara has no Supreme power unlike Emirs

and Oba in both Hausa and Yoruba kingdoms respectively. That is
why the system was decentralised because there is devolution of
powers and authorities in the Igbo pre-colonial era. The system of
chieftaincy system was alien to the people of Igbo land it was as a
result of this that made the British to established the title of „Warrant
Chief‟ to administer day-to-day administration of Igbo land.
64
5.3. The Organisational Structure of Colonial Civil Service
QUEEN
COLONIAL SECRETARY
GOVERNOR GENERAL
PROVISIONAL COMMISSION
RESIDENT OFFICERS
DISTRICT COMMISSIONER
DISTRICT OFFICERS
5.4 Structure of Colonial Civil Service

Source: (Bello and Ojodu, 2004).
The organisational structure of the civil service in colonial era are highly
centralised, the power and authority reside in the Queen of England
she was the head of administration of the colonial civil service in
Nigeria. She was commander in chief which means all powers and
authorities are confined to the Queen. Colonial secretary is next to the
Queen both of them makes and enact law for the civil servant at the
colony, while the colonial Secretary is directly responsible for the
British Cabinet and member of the Parliament constituted by the
queen. The Governor-General was directly answerable to the colonial
secretary who in turn fed the Queen with the information while the
65
Governor-General acted as the representative of the Queen of London.
However, the provincial commissioner acts as the Chief Secretary to
the Governor-General. They coordinate the activities of the civil
service. Resident officers assisted provincial Commissioner in the
initiation of policies and supervision in the execution of the approved
policies as may be directed by the Queen of |London. Hence, the
district officers are responsible to the district commissioner in
discharged of their duties and responsibilities.

In this study session, you have learnt the meaning of ecology of public
administration in Nigeria as well as the Northern, Western and
Eastern Regions of Nigeria. However, organisation structure of colonial
civil service in Nigeria was equally analysed. This give us a deep
understanding of evolution of public administration in Nigeria.


1. Ecology of Public administration operate within
___________________
a) Vacuum
b) Environment
66
c) Nigeria
d) Internationally
2. _________________ can be taken as a sub-system of the overall social
system and has to interact with other sub-system
a) Ecology
b) Business Management
c) Public Management
d) Public Administration
SAQ 5.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 5.2.1)

3. The system of administration in Northern Pre-colonial era was
___________
a) Centralized
b) Uncentralised
c) Devolution
d) Absolute

4. ________________ is the officer in charge of interpretation of Shari alas
and punishment of the offender
a) Waziri
b) Ma‟aji
c) Alkalis
d) Sarkin – Ruwas

5. The officer in charge of the daily administration of the North
region is known as ___________
67
a) Sarkindawa
b) Madawaki
c) Galadima
d) Dongari

6. __________ is the officer whose major role is to check the excesses of
the Alafin in Yoruba pre-colonial era
a) Basorun
b) Oyo-Mesi
c) Are-ona-kakanfo
d) Soothsayers

7. The officer that administered day-to-day administration of the
Yoruba Kingdom is known as ______________
a) Are-Ona-kakanfo
b) Alafin
c) Basorun
d) Oyo-Mesi

8. _____________ is the officer in charge of army, police and ensure
compliance of the Alafin order
a) Basorun
b) Oyo-Mesi
c) Ogboni Fraternity
d) Are-Ona-Kakanfo
68
9. The most eldest among the Okpara‟s titled holders are
crowned with ____________
a) Eze title
b) Okpara title
c) Igwe title
d) Obi title

10. _______________ is the head of the organisation structure of the
civil service in colonial era in Nigeria.
a) Governor-General
b) Queen
c) Colonial Secretary
d) District Commissioner
69
References and Suggestions for further Readings
Adamolekun, L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained Plus Questions and
Answers, Lagos: Macak Book Ventures.
Bello, S.A, Ojodu H.O et al (2004), Public Administration System in
Nigeria, Lagos: Raamson Printing Service.
Emeaya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Limited.
Obiajulu, S.O and Obi E.A (2004), Public Administration in
Nigeria: A Denelo Prudential Approach. Book point Limited
Olojode, I. (2007). Ecology of Public Administration in Olojode I
and Fajonyomi, B. (eds), Essentials of Public Administration.
(Lagos: Department of Public Administration Lagos State
University).
Oyebola, A. And Ojelabi, A. (1971), A textbook of Government for
West Africa, Ibadan: Educational Research Institute.
RemiAnifowosse and Francis C. Ememuo (1999). Elements of

70
Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not
hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or phone on:
08033366677
71
Study Session 6: Administration, Organization and Approaches to
Introduction
The specific issues that will be examined in this unit include the
definition of administration, administrative principles, administrative
theories, and how organization functions. In this unit, therefore, the
meaning of administration and organization will be examined in
details.
Also, this unit teaches you the different approaches to public
administration. The bulk of the literature on public administration
deals mainly with approaches. One sees public administration as
essentially management, each perspective has a different set of values,
offers distinctive organizational approaches for these values, and each
considers the individual citizen in different ways.
Realistically, public administration indeed consists of varying mix of
these branches. These approaches to public administration are
discussed in this unit.

6.1 Explain the meaning of administration
6.2 Explain the meaning of organization
6.3 Define administration
6.4 Identify the basic characteristics of administration
6.5 Explain how Organization Functions
6.6 State the various administrative theories
6.7 Discuss the approaches to public administration in details.
6.8 The Behavioural Approach to Public Administration
72
6.9 The Formal Structural Approach to Public Administration
6.1 Meaning of Administration
Administration can be seen as a rational human activity, which is
inherent in any organized social life, public or private. It occurs even
in such a simple activity as “when two men cooperate to roll a stone
which could not be moved by a man”. Administration consists of all
those operations, which aim at achieving specific purpose shared by
two or more people. To put it differently, administration is a
cooperative human effort toward achieving some common goals. It is
thus a goal – oriented, purposive, cooperative, joint activity
undertaken by a group of people.
6.2 Meaning of Organization

Organization is a social unit or human grouping deliberately
constructed to pursue specific goals. It has three goals which may be
either intermeshed or independent ends in themselves, namely;
growth, stability and interaction. To achieve integration and
organizational goals, the organization designs a formal structure that
sets for the desired job relationship between people, who provide for
the overall coordination of efforts. Examples of organization are
corporations, armies, schools, mosques, hospitals, churches, prisons
and so on.
6.3 Definition of Administration

Administration is a universal concept and is also of universal
importance. According to Simon (1950), it is said to commence
immediately two people agree to co-operate to undertake a task, for
instance, to move a stone which none of them can move alone. Also
Nwosu (1985:3), noted that Administration is inevitable in any given
73
situation where apiece of work has to be done, and this piece of work
requires the effort of more than one person to accomplish it. We are
involved in administrative behavior when we co-operate with other
people to accomplish such objectives as erecting a community town
hall, constructing and managing schools, churches, hospitals,
vehicles, assembly plants.
Thus, Onuoha (1999) explains further that administration exists
whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups, and
such achievements require planning, organization, command,
cooperation and control. It involves the mobilization, deployment and
direction of human and material resources to attain the specified
objectives. When viewed from this perspective, certainly
administration is rightly considered a very old and global
phenomenon, which exists, even in the most basic human group.
We may therefore define administration as a capacity to coordinate and

execute many and often conflicting social demands in a single
organism so perfectly that they should all operate as a unit (Fayol,
1949). Increasingly, those definitions and explanations, among others,
point to the fact that administration is both public and private.
Administration has a long history which dates back to the beginning
of the history of mankind, with research revealing administrative
tasks and practices since recorded history.
Researches carried out by archaeologists and translators have revealed

that going back to the time of ancient Egyptian dynasties, the ancient
Chinese Empire, the ancient Greek city –states and Roman Empire,
there is abundant evidence of impressive analysis with contemporary
administrative tasks, merely by way of illustration, also the early
74
Christian Church also played a remarkable role in the emergence of
administrative practices. A Chinese administrative expert writing in
500 BC remarked that: Whoever pursues a business in this world
must have a system. A business which has attained success without a
system does not exist. From Ministers and Generals down to the
hundreds of craftsmen, every one of them has a system. Now, if we
govern the empire or a large state without a system, we are not even
less intelligent than a common craft man (Adebayo, 2004).
In our modern societies, various groups of people from all walks of life
are woven together in a complicated process to achieve the objectives
of the organization. In both public and private establishments, large
numbers of employees have to be supervised, coordinated and
controlled. Thousands of workers have to be brought together and
distributed for work among the various departments of which the
various organizations are composed.
Workers are graded in different levels of authority, from directors and

managers at the top to messengers and labourers at the bottom.
Everyone has to be assigned his specific function and the contribution
of each must be towards the objectives of the whole.
6.4 Basic characteristics of administration

Administrative practice is based on some known characteristics namely:
 Hierarchy: Organization form a chain of superiors ranging from
the highest ranking to the lowest – ranking manager
 Unity of Command: Employees receive orders from one superior
 Chain of Command: organizations are divided into various but
functional sections, units, departments etc.
75
 Span of Control: Employees are given authority and
responsibility that commensurate with their offices, which
should not be more or less.
6.5 How organization functions

(a) Goals-Organizations are social units which pursue specific
goals and this goals provide orientation by depicting a future
state of affairs which the organization strive to achieve
(b) Human Activity-Organizational behaviour results from the
interplay of human elements in a group relate to each other in
pursuit of the reason for coming together and the climate or
environment created in the process.
(c) Interest Group Pressure-Organizations are instrumentals
created to serve one or more specific goals.
(d) Environmental Influence- Systems theories have
contended that organizations are constructed by their
environments.
6.6 Administrative Theories

Administrative theories are postulated to establish how resources of
organizations can best be managed. Administrative approaches are
broadly divided into Administrative Management, Bureaucratic
Management and Human Relations.
Administrative Management
This theory was first formulated by Henry Fayol, and later Luther Gulick
and Lyndall Urwick. The theory concentrates on attempts to develop
principles of administration which can be applied everywhere.
76
According to them, any administrative principle once developed,
should logically work in any kind of administrative institution. Gulick
and Urwick gave the discipline of public administration, the acronym
POSDCORD which means planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting. According to Gulick and
Urwick, POSDCORD constitutes the key duties and functions of any
administrator in an organization. The acronym is criticized of having
over –simplified the work of an administrator. On their own part, still
under Administrative Management theory, James D. Mooney and
Allan C. Reilay formulated the four principles of organization which
are: the coordinative principle; the scalar principle (hierarchical
structure); functional principle(division of labour); and the staff/line
principle (Onuoha, 1999).
Bureaucratic Management
Bureaucratic theory was one of the earliest theories of organization. It
was formulated by Max Weber, who is fondly referred to as the father
of bureaucracy and bureaucratic theory.
According to Weber, bureaucracy is hierarchical, and promotion based

on professional merit and skill. Bureaucracy is characterized by career
service, which relies on and adopts rules and regulations for its
operations.
The career professionals are guided by impersonal relationship among

them, and between them and their clientele. Weber is interested in
learning how bureaucracy functions, why it functions the way it does,
and its possible effect on the whole society. Max Weber‟s thesis is that
to understand organization one needs to understand the procedures
77
and activities of the bureaucracy, since bureaucracy gives meaning to
organization.
Human Relations
Human relations theory is another method of studying organizations.
The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organization examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to establish
what relationship exists between motivation and job satisfaction, and
how these affect efficiency and productivity in the organization.
The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo in
1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and
managers, and among workers themselves. The development of the
theory continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is
today known as Maslow‟s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow
perceived human desire to be based first on physiological needs which
provide the foundation for the next greatest need, which is security.
These are followed by love or belonginess, self-esteem, and finally self-
actualization. According to him, all these human needs collectively
determine productivity in any organization.
6.7 Political Approach to Public Administration

Some scholars claim that politics is central to the organization of public
bureaucracies. The political approach to public administration was
perhaps most forcefully stated by Sayre. Public administration is
ultimately a problem in political theory; the fundamental problem in a
78
democracy is responsibility to popular control; the responsibility and
responsiveness of the administrative agencies. Bureaucracies of the
elected officials (the chief executives, the legislators) are of central
importance in a government-based organization, which is increasingly
on the exercise of discretionary power by the agencies of
administration.
Public administration was anything but devoid of politics. Once public
administration is considered a political endeavour, emphasis is
invariably placed on a different set of values than those promoted by
the managerial approach. Efficiency in particular becomes highly
suspect, because it has little to do with the bigger questions of
government. The political approach to public administration stresses
the values of representativeness, official responsiveness, and
accountability through elected officials to the citizenry.
These are viewed crucial to constitutional democracy and public

administration. One can find many examples of governmental reforms
aimed at maximizing the political values of representativeness,
responsiveness, and accountability within public administration.
Public administration organized around the political values of
representativeness, responsiveness, and accountability tends to be
different from the managerial approach to organization. Rather than
emphasizing clear lines of functional specialization, hierarchy, unity
neutral administrative competence, the political approach stresses the
extent and advantages of political pluralism within public
administration.
Under the political approach, the structure of public administration

becomes politicized, with different groups continually seeking
79
representation. Over lapping missions and programmes become
common as the administrative structure comes to resemble apolitical
party platform that promises something to almost everyone without
establishing clear priorities for resolving conflicts among them. Agency
becomes adversary of agency and the resolution of conflict is shifted to
the legislature, the office of the chief executive, and the courts.
Moreover, the number of government agencies tends to grow over time,

partly in response to the political demands of organized interests for
representation. This approach to administrative organization has been
widely denounced as making government unmanageable, costly and
inefficient, but as Seidman argues, it persists because administrative
organization is frequently viewed as a political question with stress on
political values.
The political approach to public administration does not depersonalize

the individual as does the managerial approach rather; it identifies the
individual‟s interests as being identical to those of others considered
to be within the same group or category. For example, farmers
growing the same crops or located in the same state geopolitical
subdivisions are considered alike despite individual differences among
them. The same is true in any number of areas of public
administration that are engaged in implementing public policies. This
tendency fits the political culture.
The political approaches often base its decisions on the opinions of the
public, interest groups and the media. Elections, public opinion
surveys, and news coverage are among the political approach‟s prime
techniques for gaining the relevant information. Consequently, the
proper approach to serving the public interest through administration
80
is not necessarily a question for resolution by experts or science.
Rather the public or organized segments of it ought to have a large
role in determining what is in the interest. Indeed, public
administration under political approach reflects public choice and
interests.
6.8 The Behavioural Approach to Public Administration

This approach focuses on the internal dynamics within the
administrative organizational behaviour of individual and overall
internal environment. In the behavioural approach, there is strong
concern with procedures for collecting and utilizing data, such as,
social survey questionnaire and developing knowledge that is
verifiable.
6.9 The Formal Structural Approach to Public Administration

This approach identifies the formal structure of governmental
administration as a significant feature that could form the focus of
study. When applied to the study of public administration, it is
essentially descriptive, which can be extended to include comparison
and prescription. For example, the differences and similarities
between the formal structures of governmental administration in two
states can be compared. Some scholars who are also interested in
prescription might discuss what constitutes a good structural
arrangement.
6.9.1 The System Approach to Public Administration

This approach looks at the entire organization. According to the systems
theorists, a system is made up of interdependent parts, which interact
with the environment by importing inputs while exporting outputs in
81
order to maintain permanent state of equilibrium. When applied to
public administration, it represents inputs from the environment in
form of citizen‟s demand for the provision of goods and services.
The administration of these demands in a conversion process is

delivered as outputs, such as, orderliness of the society, quantity and
quality of goods and services, policies, decisions, programmes,
projects, etc. These outcomes are further looped through feedback
within the same cyclical process.
6.9.2 The Bureaucratic Approach to Public Administration

This approach is concerned with the application of the Weberian concept
of bureaucracy in the context of government administration. Weber
argues that ideal hierarchical authority, specialization of function,
specified sphere of competence, operation on the basis of rules and
impersonality. He contends further that the model is ideal and
important, as any organization that is characterized by its features
will function both rationally and efficiently. As a theoretical
framework, the bureaucratic model has made a great contribution to
the study of both public and private organizations.

We have explained that public administration is a governmental
administration or machinery for implementing public policy. Some
basic texts of renowned authorities are used as sources for the
exercise. These sources coupled with ideas of cerebrated
administrative theorists have made our discussions much clearer.
82
In this unit, we have dealt with the meaning of administration, meaning
of organization, definition of administration, basic characteristic of
administration, how organization function, administrative theories.
We learned that public administration is the machinery as well as the
internal process through which the government performs its
functions.
Also in this unit, you have learnt that the bulk of the literature on
public administration deals mainly with five approaches. Each of
these approaches-political, bureaucratic, systems, formal structural,
behavioural emphasizes different values and procedural and
structural arrangements for the operation of public administration.
Each views the individual citizen in a remarkably different way, and
each adopts a different perspective on how to develop knowledge.
These approaches are embedded in our political culture.
In this unit, you have learnt about different five approaches to public
administration in any given political system. The political,
bureaucratic, system, formal structural, behavioural approaches to
public administration are highlighted and discussed at length.


SAQ 6.1(Tests Learning Outcome 6.1)
83
1. Administration is a cooperative human effort toward achieving
some common__________
a) goals
b) agreements
c) joy
d) arrangement

2. _____________is a social unit or human grouping deliberately
constructed to pursue specific goals
a) organization
b) house
c) factory
d) vehicle

3. Examples of organization are the followings except______________
a) corporations,
b) military,
c) schools,
d) rivers

4. Administration is a ______________ concept
a) universal
b) localized
c) bogus
d) laboured

5. Administration is _____________ in any given situation where a
piece of work has to be done,
84
a) avoidable
b) available
c) inevitable
d) adorable

6. We may define administration as a _____________ to coordinate
and execute many and often conflicting social demands in a
single organism so perfectly that they should all operate as a
unit
a) capacity
b) inability
c) rapidity
d) rapacity

7. Administrative practice is based on some known _____________
a) characteristics
b) chaufinism
c) ideology
d) sociology

8. Under span of control: Employees are given authority and
responsibility that commensurate with their _____________
a) offices
b) salary
c) appetite
d) needs
85
9. Organizations are ____________ units which pursue specific goals
a) local
b) special
c) social
d) total

9.1 Systems theories have contended that organizations a
reconstructed by their_________________
a) environments
b) characters
c) luck
d) owners.

9.2 Administrative theories are postulated to establish how
resources of organizations can best be __________________
a) squandered
b) stored
c) managed
d) kept

9.3 Administrative management theory was first formulated by
________
a) Henry Fayol
b) Peter Drucker
86
c) Abraham Maslow
d) Herbert Simon

9.4 Administrative Management theory, James D. Mooney and
Allan C. Reilay formulated the ________________ principles of
organization
a) two
b) six
c) ten
d) four

9.5 Bureaucratic theory was one of the earliest theories of
organization. It was formulated by _______________
a) Henry Fayol
b) Peter Drucker
c) Max Weber
d) Herbert Simon
9.6 Maslow perceived human desire to be based first on
_____________
a) physiological needs
b) psychological needs
c) physical needs
d) spiritual needs

9.7 In political approach some scholars claim that ____________
is central to the organization of public bureaucracies
87
a) politics
b) power
c) capital
d) influence

9.8 The political approach to public administration was
perhaps most forcefully stated by ________________
a) Max Weber
b) Sayre
c) Henri Fayol
d) Herbert Simon

9.9 The political approach to public administration stresses
the values of ____________________
a) competitiveness
b) cooperativeness
c) representativeness
d) operativeness

9.9.1 Under the political approach, the structure of public
administration becomes _______________
a) centralized
b) monopolized
c) socialized
d) politicized
88
9.9.2The political approach often base its decisions on the
opinions of --_______________
a) the public
b) the masses
c) the rich
d) the state

9.9.3 Behavioural approach focuses on the internal
_______________ within the administrative organizational
behaviour of individual
a) dynamics
b) control
c) beliefs
d) dynamo

9.9.4 In the behavioural approach, there is strong concern with
procedures for collecting and utilizing ----------------
a) patterns
b) data
c) system
d) resources

9.9.5 __________________ approach identifies the formal
structure of governmental administration as asignificant feature
that could form the focus of study
a) the system
89
b) bureaucratic
c) formal structural
d) political

9.9.6 When formal structural approach is applied to the study of
public administration, it is essentially ______________, which can
be extended to include comparison and prescription.
a) descriptive
b) prescriptive
c) suggestive
d) imperative

9.9.7 The system approach looks at the _________________
a) essential parts of organization
b) the internal parts of organisation
c) external parts of organisation
d) entire parts of organization

9.9.8 According to the systems theorists, a system is made up of
interdependent parts, which interact with the _____________
a) environment
b) itself
c) output
d) input
90
9.9.9 In system theory, the administration of demands in a
conversion process is delivered as
a) outputs
b) inputs
c) feedback
d) opinion

9.9.9.1 The bureaucratic approach is concerned with the
application of the _____________ concept of bureaucracy in the
context of government administration
a) Weberian
b) Liberian
c) Norwegian
d) Nigerian

9.9.9.2Max Weber contends that his model is ideal and important,
as any organization that is characterized by its features will
function both rationally and _____________
a) a efficiently
b) b periodically
c) c regularly
d) d concurrently
91
References and Suggestions for Further Readings
Adebayo, A. (2000). Principles and Practice of Public Administration
in Nigeria (2nded).Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Adebayo, (2004) Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration.
Onitsha: Abbot Books Limited.
Eneanya A. N. (2010) Public Administration in Nigeria; Principle,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos, Concept Publications.
Fayol, H. (1984) Industrial and General Administration quoted in
Adebayo, A. Principles and Practice of Public Administration in
Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books and John Wiley
Koontz, H.; et al. (2008). Management: A Global and
Entrepreneurial Perspective (12thed.). New Delhi. McGraw-Hill.
Maduabum, C.P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in
Nigeria: The Journey So Far. Badagry: ASCON Press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration
in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept Publications Limited.
Noun, Lagos.
Nnoli, O. (2003) Introduction to Politics Revised Second Edition,
Enugu: Pan African Center for Research on Peace and Conflict
Resolution (PACREP)
Nwosu, H.N. (1983) “The Universality of Administration” In,
Nwosu, H. N (ed.) Problems of Nigerian Government, Enugu:
Fourth Dimension
92
Onuaha, B. (1999) “Public Administration: Basic Principles,
Techniques and Process. In Adebayo, Augustus (ed.) Elements of
Polinaidu, S. (2004). Public Administration. New Delhi: Galgotia
Publications PVT.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management
Thought (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.
Simon, H. Smithburg, D. and Thompson, V (1950) Public
Administration. In Ujo, A.A. (2004). Understanding Public
Administration. Kaduna: Joyce
Graphic Printer & Publishers Company.
tutor via the LMS.
08033366677
93
Study Session 7: Methods of Inquiry in Public Administration
Introduction
Public administration has evolved and developed over time, this has
been possible because of relentless investigations into issues
bothering on the improvement of the discipline. Major methods of
inquiry into the discipline that will be discussed here are historical
method, descriptive method, experimental method, survey method and
case study method.

7.1 Explain Historical Method
7.2 Examine Descriptive Method
7.3 Describe Experimental Method
7.4 Discuss Survey Method
7.5 State Case study Method
7.1 Historical Method of Inquiry in Public Administration

Historical sources may be classified into two major categories, namely,
documents and relics. Documents are usually written whereas relics
are generally archaeological or geological remains such as tools and
utensils. Relics are not written. For instance, a letter written by
President Goodluck Jonathan would be a document from the
standpoint of the information it contains but would be a relic from the
standpoint of spelling errors or other aspects which are not part of
what Jonathan intended to transmit. Among the various documentary
sources are:
94
1. Official records, minutes of meetings, committee reports
and legal documents
2. Institutional records, attendance rolls, university bulletins
3. Memoirs, biographies, diaries, personal letters, books on
the philosophy of a known scholar, and so on.
Historical sources can further be classified into primary and secondary

sources; Primary sources are data provided by actual witness to the
incident in question.
Secondary sources of data come from a middleman who acts between

the original witness and the present consumer.
Secondary data are subject to an inherent danger of inaccuracy.

Whenever evidence is transmitted from one individual to another, it
tends to become distorted. Occasionally secondary sources have been
so carelessly compiled that they are in a category of unverified hearsay
or rumor. For this reason, reliable historians rely as much as possible
on primary sources, using secondary sources only as hypotheses to
bridge the gaps between the various pieces of primary data, and at
times the historian may have to rely on secondary sources. He must
bear in mind the limitations of such data. In the event that numerous
gaps in the primary source cause his over – reliance on secondary
source, he should refrain from attempting the study at all.
7.2 Descriptive Method

Descriptive method is concerned with the collection of data for the
purpose of describing and interpreting existing conditions, prevailing
95
practices, beliefs, attitudes and ongoing process. Descriptive inquiry is
that investigation which specifies the nature of given phenomena.
The specification can be simple or it can be complicated. The importance

of descriptive inquiry in public administration as well as other fields of
educational endeavour clearly implies complexity of phenomena. The
need for systematic ways of telling what a situation is, means that the
situation is no longer simple. It can no longer be understood directly
and without synthesis.
Descriptive inquiry gives a picture of a situation or a population. Any

consideration of phenomena generally begins with a full
understanding of the phenomena. Accurate descriptions are
imperative for making a wide range of policy decisions. For example
the Nigerian department of labour makes detailed surveys of
unemployment; these attempt to describe unemployment in the
Nigerian economy for the purpose of knowing what the situation is.
Such surveys provide the basis for eliciting possible policies considered
and those ultimately accepted as a result of the inquiry, represent
value decisions. While the research findings may have been useful, it
cannot be concluded that the policies were determined scientifically.
Descriptive inquiry is basic for all types of research in assessing the

situation as a prerequisite to inferences and generalizations. While
descriptive inquiry is a prerequisite for finding answers to questions, it
is not in itself sufficiently comprehensive to provide answers.
Descriptive inquiry cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
96
From description the investigator cannot deduce conclusively the cause
of the phenomena or predict what the future phenomena will be.
Descriptive inquiry using the same design done at specified periods of
time can, indeed, show trends in description from which hypotheses
can be gleaned and later tested under controlled experimental
conditions.
7.3 Experimental method

The steps of experimental method are essentially those of the scientific
method. They may be outlined as follows:
1. Selecting and defining the problem: The problems
amenable to experimentation generally should be converted into
a hypothesis. This hypothesis can be verified or refuted by the
experimental data. The variables to be investigated should be
defined in operational terms.
2. Reviewing the related literature: This shows how the
present research fits into the scheme of things. It surveys the
research previously done on the problem and evaluates what
this research has and has not accomplished in solving the
problem currently under study. Thus in this review, the research
should point out very carefully the similarities and, more
importantly, the differences between that research and his
current study. In order to do this effectively, the researcher must
do more than consider the findings as they are reported.
He must examine the findings critically in light of the research
methodology, the specific procedure employed, the control, the
sampling and the measuring instruments used.
97
3. Drawing up the experimental design: This section should
place primary emphasis on the question of control,
randomization, and replication and should include a clarification
of such basic aspects of the design as the place and duration of
the experiment. It is generally advisable to conduct a pilot study
because of the complexity of an experiment in order to ensure
the adequacy of the design.
4. Defining the population: It is important to define the
population precisely so that there can be no question about the
population to which the conclusions are to apply.
5. Conducting the study: It is important here to insist on
close adherence to plans, especially as they relate to the factors
of control, randomization, and replication. The duration of the
experiment should be such that the variable under investigation
is given adequate time to promote changes that can be evaluated
and to insulate the influence of such extraneous factors as
novelty.
6. Assessing the outcomes: Careful consideration must be
given to the selection of the criterion on the basis of which the
results are to be assessed, for the efficiency of the experiment
depends largely on the fairness of the criterion used.
7. Analysing and interpreting the results: The researcher is
concerned with the operation of the factors under investigation.
He must be especially sensitive to the possibility that the results
of his/her study arose through the operation of uncontrolled
extraneous factors. The researcher must further insulate at a
given probability level the possibility that the experimental
findings are simply the results of chance. In no other area of
98
research is the need for competence in statistical procedures so
clearly indicated as in the analysis of experimental data as the
basis for their valid interpretation.
8. Drawing up conclusions: the conclusions of the study
must be based on the findings of the study. Care must be taken
not to over – generalize the results obtained. The results also
pertain only to the conditions under which they were derived,
and, since control may have distorted the natural situation, care
must be taken to restrict the conclusions to the condition
actually present in the experiment.
9. Reporting the result: The study must be reported in
sufficient detail so that the reader can make an intelligent
judgment as to its validity (Fisher, 1957)
7.4 Survey Method

The survey method is interested in the accurate assessment of the
characteristics of whole populations of people. Only rarely, however,
do survey researchers study whole population; they normally study
samples drawn from populations. From these samples, the researcher
infers the characteristics of the defined population or universe. The
study of sample from which inferences about population can be drawn
is needed because of the difficulties of attempting to study whole
populations. Random samples often furnish the same information as a
census at much less cost, with greater efficiency sometimes, greater
accuracy. Sample surveys attempt to determine the incidence,
distribution, and interrelations among sociological and psychological
variables.
99
Survey research focuses on people, the vital facts of people, and their
beliefs, opinions, attitudes, motivations and behaviour. Surveys are
particularly versatile and practical, especially for the administrator, in
that they identify present conditions and point to present needs.
Surveys do not make the decisions for the administrator, but they can
provide him with information on which to base sound decisions.
Surveys can be conveniently classified by the following methods of
obtaining information: personal interview, mail questionnaire, panel,
telephone and controlled observation. Of these, the personal interview
far overshadows the others as the most powerful and useful tool of
social scientific survey research (Osuala, 2005)
7.5 Case Study Method

Case study has a long history in social science research and has been
used extensively in public administration more especially in the area
of motivation. For example both Freud and Piaget typically used case
studies to develop their theories. Criticism of their techniques
damaged the case study approach, but the increased acceptance of
qualitative research and in particular, participant observation has, as
corollary, revived the acceptability of the case study.
The case study can either be quantitative or qualitative, or even a

combination of both due to the constraints of a sample of one or a
single unit being studied. With the restrictions that brings for
statistical inference, most case studies lie within the realm of
qualitative methodology. Case study is used to gain in – depth
understanding replete with meaning for the subject, focusing on
process rather than outcome, on discovery rather than confirmation.
100
Case study must involve the collection of very extensive data to produce
an understanding of the entity being studied. Shallow studies will not
make any contribution to administrative knowledge (Osuala, 2005).

This unit has outlined and discussed the various methods of inquires
used in public administration. The discussions show that the success
in the administrative work depends to a large extent on the efficient
method of gathering and applying the information at various levels.
This unit considered the following approaches for discussion; Historical

Method, Descriptive Method, Experimental Method, Survey Method,
Case study Method, The Institutional Approach, and Comparative
Approach. It discussed their theoretical assumptions, usefulness and
weaknesses as a mode of inquiry in public administration.


11.1 Historical sources may be classified into two major
categories, namely, documents and ________________
a) relics
101
b) archives
c) safes
d) files

11.2 In historical method, documents are usually _________________
a) unwritten
b) written
c) scarce
d) implied

11.3 Apart from documents, __________ is another source of
historical method
a) relics
b) helics
c) selics
d) melics

11.4 All except one, are the various documentary sources:
a) Official records, minutes of meetings, committee reports and
legal documents
b) Institutional records, attendance rolls, university bulletins
c) Memoirs, biographies, diaries, personal letters, books etc.
d) Museum artefacts
102
11.5 In historical method, primary sources are data provided by
_________ to the incident in question.
a) a actual witness
b) b secondary witness
c) c proxy witness
d) d third party witness

11.6 _____________ sources of data come from a middleman who
acts between the original witness and the present consumer.
a) primary
b) secondary
c) tertiary
d) ambiguous

11.7 Secondary data are subject to an inherent danger of ____________
a) loss
b) accident
c) abuse
d) inaccuracy

11.8 Reliable historians rely as much as possible on ____________
a) primary sources
b) secondary sources
c) tertiary sources
d) ambiguous sources
103
Descriptive method is concerned with the collection of data for the
purpose of ____________ and interpreting existing conditions,
a) describing
b) categorizing
c) classifying
d) manipulating
11.9.1 The importance of descriptive inquiry in public administration
clearly implies _____________
a) simplicity of phenomena
b) complexity of phenomena
c) uprightness
d) biases of phenomena.

11.9.2 Accurate descriptions are imperative for making a wide range of
_____________
a) policy decisions.
b) policy focus
c) policy considerations
d) policy initiatives

11.9.3 Descriptive inquiry is basic for all types of research in assessing
the situation as a prerequisite to inferences and________________
a) generalizations
b) limitations
c) postulations
104
d) description

11.9.4 While descriptive inquiry is a prerequisite for finding answers to
questions, it is not in itself sufficiently __________ to provide answers.
a) proactive
b) intensive
c) comprehensive
d) impressive

11.9.5 From description the investigator cannot deduce conclusively
___________ of the phenomena or predict what the future phenomena
will be.
a) the cause
b) the strength
c) the size
d) the nature

The steps of experimental method are essentially those of the__________
a) unscientific method
b) scientific method
c) arbitrary method
d) crude method

They may be outlined as follows:
105
11.9.7 Under the experimental method, the problems amenable to
experimentation generally should be converted into a ___________
a) hypothesis
b) crucibles
c) generalizations
d) explanations

11.9.8 Under the experimental method, the variables to be investigated
should be defined in ____________.
a) occasional terms
b) optional terms
c) operational terms
d) concessional terms

11.9.9 Reviewing the related literature, ________________previously done
on the problem and evaluates what this research has and has not
accomplished in solving the problem currently under study.
a) surveys the research
b) confirms the research
c) dismisses the research
d) promotes the research

11.9.9.1 In drawing up the experimental design, it is generally advisable
to conduct
a) a pilot study
b) a case study
106
c) a minor study
d) a general study

In defining the population, it is important to define the population
precisely so that there can be no question about the population to
which the conclusions are to apply ____________
a) adversely
b) advancely
c) precisely
d) concurrently

11.9.9.3 In conducting the study, it is important here to insist on close
adherence to
a) plans,
b) options
c) claims
d) conclusions

11.9.9.4 In assessing the outcomes, careful consideration must be given
to the selection of the ______________, on the basis of which the results
are to be assessed,
a) criterion
b) instruments
c) categories
d) hypothesis
107
11.9.9.5 In analysing and interpreting the results, the researcher is
concerned with the __________ under investigation.
a) operation of the factors
b) operation of the factors
c) modulation of the factors
d) inclusion of the factors.

11.9.9.6 In drawing up conclusions, the conclusions of the study must
be based on the
a) findings of the study.
b) instruments of the study
c) methods of the study
d) hypotheses of the study

11.9.9.7 In reporting the result, the study must be reported in sufficient
details so that the reader can make an intelligent judgment as to its
_______________
a) subjectivity
b) objectivity
c) validity
d) incredibility

11.9.9.8 The survey method is interested in the ____________ assessment
of the characteristics of whole populations of people.
a) inaccurate
108
b) bias
c) accurate
d) equal

11.9.9.9.9 Only rarely do survey researchers study whole population,
they normally study ___________ drawn from populations.
a) samples
b) types
c) extracts
d) phenomena

11.9.9.9.1 Random samples often furnish the same information as a
census at _____________
a) a much less cost
b) b much more cost
c) c no cost
d) d all cost,

11.9.9.92 Survey research focuses on ______________
a) people.
b) resources.
c) locations
d) methods
109
Surveys do not make the decisions for the administrator, but they can
provide him with ____________ on which to base sound decisions.
a instruments
b methods
c information
d ideas

11.9.9.4 Surveys can be conveniently classified by the following
methods, except one, of obtaining information
a) personal interview,
b) mail questionnaire,
c) controlled observation.
d) inordinate observation

11.9.9.95 With the restrictions that it brings for statistical inference,
most case studies lie within the realm of_________ methodology.
a) qualitative
b) quantitative
c) deterministic
d) calculative

11.9.9.96 Case study must involve the collection of very ___________ to
produce an understanding of the entity being studied.
a) compulsive data
b) extensive data
c) expensive data
110
d) intensive data

Adamolekun, L. (1983) Public Administration: A Nigerian and
Comparative Perspective, New York, Longman Ltd.
Fisher, R. A (1957) The Designs of Experiments, London: Oliver and
Boyd
Jones, T. (1971) Conducting Political Research, New York: Harper
and Row Publishers
NOUN (2012) INR123 Introduction to public administration, Noun,
Lagos.
Onah, R. C (2005) Public Administration, Nsukka: Great AP Express
Publishers Ltd.
Osuala, E. C (2005) Introduction to Research Methodology; The
Millennium Edition, Enugu: Cheston Agency Ltd
tutor via the LMS.
111
08033366677
112
Session 8: Public and Private Administration
Introduction
In the last study session, you had an idea about ecology of public
administration. This session will take you a step further into the public and
private administration. You will be exposed to the meaning of public and
private administration, the features of public organisations, the difference
between public and private administration and the similarities between
public and private administration and the differences between
administration and politics.

At the end of this session you should be able to:
8.1 Define public and private administration
8.2 Examine the feature of public organisation.
8.3 Distinguish between public and private administration
8.4. Identify the similarities between public and private administration
8.5 Distinguish between administration and politics.
8.1 Meaning of Administration

Administration has to do with getting things done through the co-
operative accomplishment of objectives using organisational resources
and support of the people. Gulick and Urnick (1939) conceptualised
administration as getting thing done with the accomplishment of the
defined objective. Administration is the organisation and direction of
persons in order to accomplish a specified end (Adebayo, 2001).
towards the analysis of policies, identification of options and to a
113
substantial degree, the implementation of programmes as well as
efficient allocation of resources. Administration, therefore exists
whenever people cooperate to achieve the goals of their groups and
such achievements require planning, organization, command,
coordination and control.
However, administration is preferably, used in public institutions such

as agencies, departments, public or private institutions. It can take
place with laid down rules, regulation, code of conduct, principle and
procedures to achieve standard objectives or goal of an organisations.
Therefore, administration exists in all organisations be it public or
private for the purpose of effectiveness and efficiency of services in
schools, company, governments, ministries, agencies or parastatal‟s ,
church or mosque. Thus, administration exists in all facet of human
life.
8.1.1 Meaning of Public Administration

Public administration is that part of the boarder field of administration
which deals with governmental affairs and operates in political setting.
It relates to the activities carried out by central, state and local
governments. For example, there are three levels of public
administration in Nigeria, which are: Federal government
administration, State Government Administration and Local
Government Administration. Hence, public administration and public
management are the same and used interchangeably.
Public Administration could be define as that aspect of government that

deals with the various ways in which men and materials are mobilized
in order to achieve the goal of government vis-a-vis those society.
114
Therefore, public administration is part of the political process and
therefore help in policy formulation through a feedback mechanism.
Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines public administration as the
function that has to do with getting things done or the
accomplishment of defined objectives. It is essentially concerned with
the management of organisations in the pursuit of desired public goal
and objectives. The ultimate goal of public administrations is how to
maximize the efficiency and social effectiveness of public
administration as the organisation and direction of human and
material resources to achieve desired ends. However, it is machinery
for implementing government policies and programmes at all level of
government – natural, state and local. Adamolekun (1983), states
that public administration is commonly used to refer to both the
activities concerned with the management of government business
and the study of these activities. Balogun (1987), sees public
administration as the marshalling of human and material resources in
order to achieve the objectives of public policy. This according to him,
brings to the fore two vital aspects in the study of public
administration which must go with policy implementation and become
important areas of attention in the study of public administration.
Public administration means the manner in which central or federal
provincial or state, local institutions within their procedural, legal,
regulatory, revenue extraction, and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such services a defence, social service and
economic infrastructure. (Mhome, 2003). Public administration is the
process by which the objectives are defined, plan and policies
115
formulated, institutions created and managed, human energies
interest. (Stone, 1939).
8.1.2 Meaning of Private Administration

Chandler (2000) observed that the boundaries of what is public and
private re never clear-out, they fade imperceptible into one another
because both sectors area necessarily closely entangled in the
complex of relationship. Private administration consists in the
management of private business enterprise owned and operated by
private individuals. In some private organisations services are more
effective and efficient and are highly patronised by members of the
public. Private organisations are profit making oriented and equally
rendering services to the public. Decisions making and
implementation are carried out by private administration. While
government only provide regulatory law for private organisation
though the nature of recruitment are the same both in private and
public organisations and efficiency and high productivity are the
watchword. Examples of private organisations are Nestle Plc, Chevron
Nigeria Plc, John Holt Ltd, Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc (LBN), TV
Continental (TVC), the African Independence Television (AIT), and
Channel Television etc.
8.2 Features of Public Organizations

In every organisation be it public or private organization they all possess
feature which assist every public organisations to attain effectiveness
116
and efficiency of the goal and objectives of public organisation. The
features of public organisations are the following:
1. Public servants must be neutral and impartial in their day-to-day
activities. Which means they are not allowed to be partisan, that is
they should not support any government in power to the extent of
jeopardizing their work.
2. Public servant should be seen and not heard. That is a public
servant does not receive praises or blame for any government
policies, although they advise the minister on what policy to adopt.
Therefore, it is the minister who has ultimate responsibility. This is
the principle of anonymity which the public servant enjoy.
3. Public servant should protect the image of the government at all
time without antagonizing the activities of the government. The
interest and policies of the government must be protected and
must share the visions of the government.
4. Public organizations are established through an Act of
Parliament, which specified the power and functions through the
constitutional provision.
5. Public organisation has hierarchical in structure and also contain
chain of command, unity of control etc. which facilitate efficiency
in such organisations.
8.3 Differences between Public and Private Organisations or

Administration
The following are some points of difference between public and private
administration
i.) Political Direction: Public administration operate within the
political environment and under the direction of the ruling group
117
of political leaders. In democracy, public administrators are
supposed to do things as deemed by the representatives of the
people while private administration is marginally affected by
political factors. It is not subject to political direction, except in
times of the gravest emergency. Its objectives generally do not
depend up political decisions. The end it pursues are of its own
device.
ii.) Personnel Recruitment: In private administration, the
shareholders appoint the board of directions for articulating and
formulating policies, while the board appoints the managing
director to implement the company‟s policies. Employees of
private organisation are recruited based on technical
qualifications and competence. While public organisations, the
president or governors are elected as representatives of the
people. They implement government policies for the welfare of
the citizenry. Employees of private organisations are also
recruited through technical qualification and competence.
iii.) Nature of the Organisation: Public administration is more
complex than private administration. Private administration has
a narrow focus, in the fact that it concentrates attentions and
resources on one line of activity. This is usually economic in
nature and concerns are specified or specific aspect of economic
life. It is for this very reason that the field of public
administration is too broad because each of these services arise
out of different need which press themselves upon individual in
modern society.
iv.) Accountability: Public administrators are accountable to
the Nigerian public through the legislature. This is often used as
118
a yardstick for measuring good governance. In a private
organization, accountability for good management is measured
by the shareholders during organisation annual general meeting.
v.) Test of Efficiency: Efficiency is thus axiom number on
the value scale of administration. In comparison to public
administration, efficiency in private administration can be easily
measured. This is because private business is almost invariably
conducted for profit, and this forms an automatic measure of
efficiency. A private business enterprise is considered to be
more efficient if it earns more profits. But in most cases, the test
of profit cannot be applied to measure the efficiency of
performance of public agencies. In public administration, the
core yardsticks for interpreting efficiency are not always
available, nor are they always appropriate, whereas in private
administration, profit-making is sometimes used as a measure of
efficiency. Thu, the level of efficiency in private administration is
superior to that of public administration.
vi.) Nature of Environment: Public administration inevitably
operates within a political environment. It is the political context
of public administration which make it necessary for it to lay
down and adhere to elaborate rules and regulations and comply
with the consuming procedure. However, a private
administration is not subjected to political direction except in
terms of the gravest emergency. Its objectives generally do not
depend upon political decision. Private administration decides
the course of action on the basis of cost benefit analysis at least,
this is the belief.
119
a. Similarities Between Public and Private Administration
Irrespective of the numerous differences that have been listed before,
there are also many areas of commonality shared by both practices.
These features are:
1. They mobilize resources: human, money and material to achieve
specific goals.
2. Both of them review their goals in the context of existing
resources.
3. They motivate their employees for higher performances.
4. Both private and public administration are involved in
bureaucracy, especially as some private organisations have
become large in size, which had made administration complex.
5. Both private and public administration pay attention to social
responsibility in the communities where they operate.
8.5 Dichotomy between Polities and Administration

For more than a century, the politics and administration dichotomy has
been one of the most disreputable issues in the field of public
administration. It explains and contracts raises and falls, but never go
away (Svara and Overeem, 2006). Nchachuwe (2007), simply
stipulates that in theory politics and administration are two different
activities with the former “politics” having to do with expression of the
will of state or formulation of public policies and the latter”
administration” having to do with the execution or implementation of
that will or policies. As such, they should be separated to make each,
especially administration, more efficient and effective.
Woodrow Wilson made an “evolutionary distinction” between polities and

administration” “according to which politics has gradually diminished
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to the point of leaving little but administrative tasks for government.
Wilson contended that any “practicable government” it is important to
establish line of demarcation between administrative and political
functions. Wilson (1887) thought that there was a major distinction
between politics and administration in government operations. In
other words, he averred that politics was the proper activity of
legislative bodies and other or policy-making groups, while
government was the proper activity of public administrators, who were
to carry out the policies stated in the laws of the jurisdiction or
government (Chandler and Plano, 1988).
Frank Goodnow (1900) argued that certain aspects of administration

were harmed by politics and should have been shielded from it.
According to him, political control over administrative function is
liable to introduce inefficient administration in that it makes
administrative officers feel that what is demanded of them is not so
much work that will improve their own department as compliance
with the behests of the political party. While supporting the dichotomy
of politics and administration, Pfiffiner (cited in Sharma and Sadana,
2009) remarked that they cannot always be separated and isolated.
According to him “the realisation of this fact should not, however
vitiate the basic soundness of a gentleman‟s agreement, growing out
of tradition that one will not encroach upon the other in a middlesome
manner.. The success to be attained in this direction will depend
largely (upon the extent to which partisan politics is kept out of
administration and upon the assurance of tenure given to technical
and expert personnel. Pfiffiner concludes that politics should stick to
its policy determining sphere and leave administration to apply its
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own technical process free from the blight of political meddling
(Sharma and Sadana, 2009).
Willoughby in his own view, likened government business to a typical

company with a Board of Directors and General Manager, the
administrator. According to him the two of them have district
functions. While the former (politician) formulates policies, the later
(administrators) implement them. Willougby therefore advocated the
commercial conduct of public or government business for its efficiency
and effectiveness. He went to the extreme of not merely separating
administration from politics but also setting it up as the fourth arm of
government along with the legislature, the executive and the judiciary
(Adamolekun, 2001).
A more contemporary view posit that politics and administration are

intertwined in multiple way and that managers are involved in policy
formulation at all level of public sector management. Management is
therefore partly politics and partly administration. Ugwu (2007) gives
many other reasons which make it impossible to separate politics from
administration. These includes:
a) The role of career officials in defining policy options, analysing
the environment, anticipating problems and preferring suitable
advice to government.
b) The role of administrators in assembling, storing and retrieving
data open which decisions are based;
c) Their role in interpreting the data and spirit of laid down
policies;
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d) Their role in marshalling and deploying human and material
resources to achieve policy objectives and in timing
implementation decision.
e) The scope of government policies which correspondingly has
generated more expectations for it. These expectations have
largely fallen on the shoulders of public administrators to
implement public-oriented programmes.
f) Lastly, policy-makers sometimes allow those responsible for
implementing laws and policies the flexibility to make the
adjustment necessary to solve problems and to learn from trial
and error. Policy evaluation requires clear goal and standards
against which policy, implementation efforts can be measured.
But that kind of electricity is often lacking and, when it exists,
the policy (political) tasks overwhelm the resources available to
public administrators.
In a nutshell, the issue of separating politics from administration can

never be resolved at the debate continues. However, management
activities are now bridging the gap between politics and
administration. However the techniques have been adapted to solving
societal problems. Hence, politics and administration are now
interconnected.

In this study session, you have learnt the meaning of administration as
it was given by the various scholars vis-a-vis definitions of both public
and private administration. However, the features of public
organisation was equally examined. This study session has been able
to distinguish between public and private administration while
123
similarities between public and private administration were identified.
Lastly, the dichotomy between politics and administration was
enumerated.


1 ___________ has to do with getting things done through the co-
operative accomplishment of objectives using organisation
resources and support of the people
a) Management
b) Politics
c) Administration
d) Organisation

2. The aspect of government that deal with the various ways in
which men and materials are mobilized in order to achieve the
goal of government vis-a-vis those society is known as
___________________
a) Administration
b) Private Administration
c) Management Administration
124
d) Public Administration

3. ___________ relates to the activities carried out by central, state and
local governments
a) Public Administration
b) Private Administration
c) Politics
d) Management

4. _____________ are profit making oriented and equally rendering
services to the public
a) Public organisation
b) Private organisation
c) Public Administration
d) Management

5. All are the examples of private organisation except _____________
a) Chevron Nigeria
b) Lever Brothers Nigeria Plc
c) John Holt Ltd
d) Nigerian Railway Corporation

6. All are the features of public organisation except
_______________
a) They are profit-making oriented organisation
125
b) Public servant must be neutral and impartial
c) Public servant should be seen and not heard
d) They are hierarchical in structure

7. The following are some points of difference between public and
private administration except __________________
a) Political Direction
b) Personnel Recruitment
c) Politics of Administration
d) Test of Efficiency

8. _____________ is not subjected to political direction except in terms of
the gravest emergency.
a) Private Administration
b) Public Administration
c) Management
d) Administration

9. All are similarities between public and private administration
except _____________
a) They mobilize resources, human, money and materials to
achieve specific goals.
b) Both of them review their goals in the context of existing
resources.
c) They motivate their employees for higher performance
d) They are all profit making oriented organisation
126
10. __________ stick to its policy determining sphere and leave
administration to apply its own technical process free from the
blight of political meddling.
a) Administration
b) Politics
c) Management
d) Organisation

Adebayo, A. (1986). Power in Politics, Ibadan: Spectrum Book Ltd,
127
Akpala, Agwu (1988). Management: An introduction and search for
Nigerian System, Unpublished Manuscript.
Akpan, N.U. (1982). Public Administration in Nigeria, Lagos:
Longman Nigeria Ltd
Balogun, M.J (1983). Public Administration in Nigeria: A
Development Approach, Lagos: Macmillan
Eneanya, A.N (2009). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Limited.
Pffiffner, J.M (1935). Public Administration, New York: The Ronald
Press Company.
Ugwu, S.C (2007). Introduction to Public Administration Enugu:
Academic Printing Press.
tutor via the LMS.
08033366677
128
Study Session 9: Formal and Informal Organization
Introduction
This study session introduces you to the basic concept of
organization, principles of organization and functions of an
organization. You will be exposed to the types of organization, the
characteristics of both formal and informal organization as well as
merits and demerits of formal and informal organizations.

9.1 Define the concept of organization
9.2 Explain the principles of organization
9.3 List the functions of an organization
9.4 Discuss the importance of an organization
9.5. Examine the types of organization and its characteristics
9.6 Enumerate the merits and demerits of formal and informal
organization
9.1 The Concept of Organization

Organization is prior to all administration. There can be no
administration unless, there is first organization to run it. Therefore,
organization is a group of people working together co-operatively
under authority towards achieving goals and objectives that mutually
benefit the participants and the organization. Urwick, (1945), defines
organization as determining what activities are necessary to any
purpose and arranging them in groups which may be assigned to
individuals. Allen (1950), states that an organization is the process of
identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and
129
delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing relationship
for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in
establishing of objectives. He states further that the essence of this
definition is that people who work together require a defined system or
structure through which they relate to each other and through which
their efforts can be coordinated. Kossen (1978), states that, an
organization is a group of individuals co-ordinated into different levels
of authority and segments of specialization or the purpose of achieving
the goals and objectives of the organization.
Organization is a social unit of people that is structured and managed

to meet a need or to pursue collective goals. All organizations have a
management structure that determines relationships between the
different activities and the members, and subdivide and assigns roles,
responsibilities, and authority to carry out different tasks.
Organizations are open systems; they affect and are affected by their
environment. An organization in its simpler form is a person or group
of people intentionally organized to accomplish an overall, common
goal or set of goals. An organization is a mechanism with which a
management directs, co-ordinates and controls the activities of man.
However, it is also the formation of an effective machine, the
management of an effective executive and the administration of an
effective direction.
Therefore, organization is the foundation upon which the whole

structure of management is built. Organization is related with
developing a framework where the total work is divided into
manageable components in order to facilitate the achievement of
objectives or goals.
130
9.2 Principles of Organization
These principles are guidelines for planning an efficient organization
structure. The principles are the following:
1. Determination of Objectives: The objective of an organization
must be clearly defined for the entire organization, for each
department and even for each position in the organization
structure. Every part of the organization must be directed to
achieve this basic objective.
2. Division of Work: It is also referred to as the division of labour
and specialization. The work should be divided and grouped in
accordance with the nature and objectives of the organization.
The process of grouping work usually known as
departmentalization, is necessary for specialization and
coordination.
3. Unity of Command: No employee should be asked to report to
more than one superior. That means that everyone should have
only one boss and report to him only. This will avoid conflict and
confusion in the organization.
4. Span of Control: No superior or superior should be required to
supervise more subordinates than he can effectively manage
because of the limitation of time and ability. However, the exact
number of subordinates to be supervised will depend upon many
factors like nature of the job, personal capability of the
supervisor, established rules and procedures in the organization
etc.
131
5. Unbroken Line of Authority: It signifies the scalar principles of
the chain of command. Authority and responsibility should be in
a clear unbroken line from the highest executive to the lowest
executive. As far as possible, the chain of command should be
short. The clearer the line of authority from the chief executive in
the organization to every subordinate position, the more effective
will be decision-making and organization communication.
6. Flexibility: The organization must permit growth and expansion
without dislocation of operations. The structure of the
organization should be flexible/enough to adapt easily and
economically itself to changes in the environment and due to
technical motivation. Good organization is not a straight jacket.
7. Continuity: The organization should be structured as to have
continuity of operations. There should be arrangements to enable
people to gain experience in positions of increasing diversity and
responsibility. There should be continuous supply of necessary
personnel and continuous efforts for improvement in different
parts of the organization.
8. Coordination: The performance of various activities by personnel
in the organization who are doing specialized jobs necessitates
that these subdivided activities should be systematically
interrelated. This coordination. Its purpose is to secure unity of
effort and economy in functioning.
9. Stability: The organization should be as stable as possible so
that it may have continuity. It should be able to withstand the
losses of specific personnel without serious loss of its
effectiveness.
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10. Delegation of Authority: Adequate authority should be
delegated to the subordinates for carrying out the jobs assigned to
them. Authority delegated should be commensurate with
responsibility.
9.3 Functions of an Organization

An organization performed some certain functions. These functions are
known as the fundamentals in every successful organization. The
functions are the following:
1. Division of Labour: Since an organization is a structure of
human association for the achievement of common goals, it
involve individuals and groups of individuals. When two or more
individuals join together to perform certain tasks, it follows that
some division of work is done. Therefore, work is divided among
those who participate in a productive organization. With effective
planning and organization in an enterprise, the division of
labour leads to a fixing of responsibility, the delegation of
authority, specialization, and other conceptual schemes which
are frequently called the principles of an organization.
2. Combination of Labour: Since work are divided and assigned to
the members of an organization, their activities are grouped
together, forming operations; and operations are arranged to
establish systems and procedures. This grouping of activities
result in units, departments and divisions of an organization.
The basis for this grouping of activities may be the skills of the
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workers, the tools and machinery used, the nature of the
product the materials employed or some other element.
3. Co-ordination: This principle emerges because of the need in
every organization for the integration of activities and the co-
ordination of individuals and groups of individual performing
their tasks. Co-ordination is achieved through leadership; in the
structural sense, it involves the fixing of responsibility and the
delegation of authority.
9.4 Types of Organisation

9.4.1 Formal Organizations: It is an organization that is deliberately
planned, designed and only sanctioned by competent authority. It is
the organization as shown on the organization chart or as described in
the manual and rule. Schein, (1988), defined formal organization as
the planned co-ordination of the activities of a number of people for
the achievement of some common, explicitly purpose or goal, through
division of labour and function, and through a hierarchy of authority
and responsibility. Therefore, the formal organization can be seen as a
coalition of individuals with a number of sub-coalitions. Examples of
the formal organization are rules and regulations, policy manuals,
standing orders and job descriptions.
9.4.2 Characteristics of Formal Organization

The formal organization has the following main characteristics:
a) It has a clearly defined structure of activities which is
predetermined by the top management;
b) Comparatively, a formal organization is stable;
c) A formal organization grows and expands;
134
d) The organization structure is based on division of labour and
specialization;
e) The structure is based on the jobs to be performed and not
according to individuals who are to perform jobs;
f) The organization does not take into consideration emotionally
aspect. It is deliberately impersonal;
g) The authority and responsibility relationships created by the
organization structure are to be honoured by everyone;
h) Organizational charts are usually drawn. All the positions from
General Manager down to lower levels appear on the formal
chart of the organization.
9.4.3 Informal Organisation

Informal organization can be described as a shade organization. It grows
within the formal organization. Therefore there cannot be an informal
organization without a formal organization. It is a shadow of the
formal organization because it reflects the latter. Informal organization
is loose, flexible and hazy usually. It is difficult to precisely determine
the membership in an informal organization, and the interaction
among its members is without definite objectives. In other words,
members of an informal organization, do not have clearly defined
objectives or organizational objectives on which consensus might have
been reached. However, an informal organization is the pattern of the
actual behaviours and often differs from the behaviour as expected in
the formal organization. The informal organization arises from the
interaction of people working in the organization, their psychological
and social news, and the development of groups with their own
135
relationships and norms of behaviour, irrespective of those defined
within the formal structure.
9.4.4 Characteristics of Informal Organisation

An informal organisation has its own characteristics which are the
following:
a) Generally a society evolves its own laws beliefs and controls
regarding what is desirable behaviour and what is
understandble. This is what an informal organisation also does.
People think and act alike in groups and this continuous
cooperation gives rise to common values and common code of
behaviour.
b) The leadership in it is also informal
c) There is satisfaction also within an informal organisation in
which is based on several factors.
d) It forces the members of the group to observe the common rules.
It is a very effective organisation to impose penalties on or
punish those who violate these rules.
9.4.5 Functions of the Informal Organisation

The informal organisation can serve a number of important functions.
1. It provides satisfaction of member‟s social needs, and a sense of
personal identity and belonging.
2. It provides for additional channels of communication, for
example, through the 'grapevine' information of importance to
particular members is communicated quickly.
136
3. It provides a means of motivation for example through status,
social interaction, variety in routine or tedious jobs, and
informal methods of work.
4. It provides a feeling of stability and security, and through
informal „norms‟ of behaviour can exercise a form of control over
members.
5. It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or weaknesses in
the formal organisation - for example, areas of duties or
responsibilities not covered in job descriptions or outdated
systems and procedures.
6. It may be used when formal methods would take too long, or not
be appropriate to deal with an unusual or unforeseen situation.
9.5. Merits of Formal Organization

If the organizational process is carried out properly and the organization
structure is carefully designed the following benefit would occur:
1. Available resources will be utilized in the most effective way.
2. Directional and operational goals and procedures will be
determined clearly and energies devoted to their achievement.
3. An orderly hierarchy in which people are related in a meaningful
sequence will result. Individual responsibilities will be known
clearly and the authority to act would be defined.
4. Workers will benefit from planned superior subordinate
relationships in which each work receives essential support and
direction.
5. The activities of the individuals and the groups will be one more
rational, stable and predictable.
137
6. Individuals will be selected on the basis of ability to perform
expected tasks. Simplification and specification of job
assignment is possible in a more effective way.
9.5.1 Demerits of Formal Organization

However, a structured organization is not free from certain drawbacks,
such as:
1. Very often the fixed relationships and times of authority seem
inflexible and difficult to adjust to meet changing needs.
2. Individual creativity and originality may be shifted by the rather
rigid determination of duties and responsibilities.
3. Interpersonal communication may be slowed or stopped as a
result of strict adherence to formal lines of communication.
4. Workers may become less willing to assume duties that are not
formally a part of their original assignment.
5. Organizations tend to fail to account for important differences in
workers as human beings.
6. They produce anxiety in individual workers by pressing to
heavily for routine and conformity.
9.5.2 Merits of Informal Organization

1. A Source of Social Needs: The most important advantage and
the primary reason of informal organization is that they are
source of social needs and affiliation. People like to get
connected with co-workers and colleagues at a person level.
They talk with each other beyond their jobs, and many of them
may require the social motive to bring out the best of them.
Strong informal structures provide them a source of their social
motive.
138
2. Grapevine Communication: This is a form of communication
through informal and unofficial channels. Informal structures
play the most important role in the grapevine method. Grapevine
can be equally important for both the employees and
management. This is why it is one of the biggest advantages of
informal organization that they make grapevine communication
possible.
3. Feedbacks: Informal organizations make it possible to receive
quick and accurate feedbacks. Either through grapevine
communication or by direct intervention of management,
informal structures can provide accurate feedback on many
important aspects.
4. Better Bonding, Collaboration and Teamwork: Since people
are personally connected with each other in informal structures
it leads to better bonding, collaboration and teamwork among
the individuals. As managers start learning about their sub-
ordinates and employees personalities, motives and personal
needs, they can make better use of their services.
5. Compensate the Shortcomings of Formal Organizations:
Formal structures can be very rigid, tiresome and
unaccommodating for employees. Too much of formal
organizations can demodulate employees, create job stress and
result in job dissatisfaction. Informal structures can make up for
that and compensate the shortcomings of formal organizations.
9.5.3 Demerits of Informal Organizations
139
Despite the above advantages, informal organizations can also be a bit
disadvantageous for organizations. Some of the notable disadvantages
of informal organizations are given below:
1. Contrary to Organizational Goals: Informal structures never
contribute directly to organizational goals and objectives. It is
important to remember that it is the formal structure that is
created to support the goals of organizations. On the other hand,
the informal structures are created by the employees, for the
employees.
2. Rumours: Another disadvantage of the informal organization is
that they spread a lot of rumours, instead of factual statements
and meaningful communication. Such rumours not only halt the
development and growth of the organization, but may also create
disturbance and conflict among employees.
3. Leads to Conflicts: They lead to conflicts among employees. It
is well known that not every conflict is necessarily bad and
dysfunctional for the organization. However, informal structures
usually lead to relationship conflict which is considered outright
bad, negative and harmful.
4. Wastage of Time: Informal organizations waste a lot of
important time that could be put to better use. For instance,
when individual involve in personal interaction with each other,
they should be doing their job instead. Similarly, as informal
structures head to relationship conflict, it also requires
managers to intervene and resolve the conflict.
140
In this study session, you have learnt the concept of organization as a
group of people working together co-operatively under authority
towards achieving goals and objectives that mutually benefit the
participants and the organization. Also we are able to explain the
principles, functions and importance of an organization. This study
session has been able to examine the types of organization such as
formal and informal organizations and its characteristics. However,
merits and demerits of formal and informal organization were also
enumerated.

how well, you have fared? Would you like to test your understanding
of the session? Then see if you could answer the following assessment
with your lecturer in next tutorial you will have.
Tutor-Marked Assignment
Question:
a) Define an organization. What are the principles of organization?
b) Explain vividly the functions and importance of an organization.
c) Examine the types of organization and its characteristics.
d) Enumerate the merits and demerits of formal and informal
organization.
141
Allen, Louis (1950). Management and Organisation, New York:
McGraw Hill
Kossen, Stan (1978). The Human Side of Organisation, San-
Francisco: Canfield Press.
Mamona, C.B and Gankar, S.V (2011). Personnel Management:
Text and Cases, Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Mullins, J. Laurie (1999). Management Organizational Behaviour,
London: Financial Times and Pitman Publishing.
Schein, E.H (1988), Organization Psychology, Third Edition. New
York: Prentice Hall, Pg. 15.
Seybold, G. (1964). Personnel Audits and Reports to Top Mgt, in
Studies in Personnel Policies, No 191, NICB, 1964.
Urwick, L. (1945). The Elements of Administration, New York
City: Harper & Brothers.

Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do

not hesitate to contact the DLI IAG Center by e-mail or
phone on:
08033366677
142
Study Session 10: The Civil Service
Introduction
In order for the government of a country to function effectively and
efficiently, such a government needs the activities and loyalty of
committed citizens to work in the various departments and agencies.
Those people that work in these various departments and agencies are
referred to as civil servants. Therefore, the civil service is an
instrument both for policy advice to the political leadership in the
executive and for policy implementation after policies are decided.
However, recruitment of civil servants on the basis of personal
qualities and professional capacities is a late development in many
countries. Appointments in the past were determined principally
because the government wanted either to reward some services
rendered or because they wanted to assure themselves of good
following.

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
10.1: Define the concept of civil service
10.2: Discuss the structure of the Nigeria civil service
10.3: Explain the civil service commission and its functions
10.4: Highlight the features of the Nigerian civil service
10.5: Identify why the power of civil servants has increased in recent
years
10.6: Describe the functions of the civil service
10.7: Enumerate the control of the civil service
10.8: List the problems of the civil service
143
10.9: Itemise ways in which the performances of the civil service may be
improved
10.1 The Civil Service
The executive arm of government is assisted by a body of professional
administrators who are responsible to enforce the will of the state. The
civil service refers to all government ministries and departments. Civil
servants are officials who work in government ministries and
departments, excluding the police and the armed forces. The civil
service is directly under the executive arm of government. The
government use the civil service for the day to-day administration of
the country. Furthermore, the political head of a government ministry
is a minister while the administrative head is the permanent
secretary. It is imperative to note that civil servants are different from
politicians. While civil servants are appointed by the government and
have security of tenure, politicians are usually elected although a few
are appointed to political offices and hold office for a specified period
of time.
10.2 Structure of the Nigerian Civil Service

The structure of the Nigerian civil service was modelled after the British
civil service. Civil service in Nigeria comprises four classes which are:
a) The Administrative Class: This is the highest and the most
prestigious class in the civil service. Officials in this class
include the permanent secretary, under-secretary,
administrative officers, etc. The permanent secretary is the
professional head and the chief administrative office of a
ministry. Recruitment of this class is done by the civil service
144
commission, based on profession of a good university degree and
a pass in competitive examination and an interview. Competent
official from the executive class are sometimes promoted into
administrative class. Officers in this class advise the minister in
the formulation of policies and making decisions.
b) The Professional Class: This comprises officials with
professional or technical qualifications or backgrounds. They are
professionals or specialists such as doctors, lawyers, engineers,
educationist, financial experts, etc. They are employed to give
technical advice and to assist in the execution of government
policies. This class is also a prestigious class. Sometimes there
are conflicts between the general administration and the
specialist administration. They are also recruited by the civil
service commission.
c) The Executive Class: There are executive officers of various
grades. This class is mainly concerned with the execution of
government policies and decisions. It comprises executive
officers, secretaries, technologists, and other intermediate
grades. The minimum qualification for recruitment is a good
university degree or GCE Advanced level holders from lower
classes may be promoted into the class.
d) The Clerical and Manipulation Class: This is the lowest grade
in the civil service. It comprises junior officers of lowest cadre in
the civil service such as receptionists, telephonists, typists,
messengers, drivers, gardeners, security officers, etc. They
constitute the manipulative class. They are recruited by
individual ministers and not by the civil service commission. It
145
must be noted that promotion from one grade to each other in
this class is generally slow.
10.3 Civil Service Commission

The civil service commission is an independent body established by the
government to oversee and regulate the activities of the public
servants.
In Nigeria, there are Federal Civil Service Commission and the State
Civil Service Commission. The Federal Civil Service Commission is
responsible for the recruitment of officers into the federal civil service
and managing the affairs of the federal public servant. State civil
service commission is also responsible for the appointment and
promotion of the state civil servants. Members of the federal civil
service are appointed by the President of the country while those of
the state civil service commission are appointed by the governor of the
state.
10.3.1 Functions of the Civil Service Commission

1. The civil service commission conducts all examination and
interviews for selecting applicants into the civil service. The
nature of recruitment of civil servants is always rigorous.
2. The commission always exercises disciplinary control over the
civil servants.
3. It also advises the government on matters relating to the civil
service.
4. The commission is responsible for the dismissal of civil servants
for incompetence or misconduct.
146
5. It also responsible for the promotion of civil servants and
determining their conditions of service.
6. The commission facilitates efficient salary scheme and provides
a rational wage system in the public service.
10.4 Features of the Nigerian Civil Service

The Nigerian civil service is a non-political civil service, like the British
civil service. Appointment is not based on political considerations. The
civil service commission is an independent body and should not
receive instruction from the government in power. The features of the
civil service include the following:
a) Permanence and Continuity: This means that a civil servant
retains his job or continues in office until he chooses to resign or
reaches the retirement age. It means that a civil servant should
not be dismissed because a new government has come to power.
A civil servant can only be dismissed for misconduct or grave
offence and not because there has been a change of government.
Invariably, the civil servant have a security of tenure. What it
means is that the civil servants remain in office while
government office holders are subjected to periodic changes.
b) Neutrality and Impartiality: Civil servants are supposed to be
non-partisan and politically neutral in the performance of their
duties. A civil servant is supposed to be loyal to his minister and
government by giving honest advice and co-operating with the
government. This means whether a civil servant supports the
party or the government in power or likes its policies or not, he
is required to execute the policies of the government faithfully. In
doing his work, a civil servant must forget about his own
147
political belief. He must work for the government in power, give
advice and execute government policies whether he supports
those policies or not.
c) Anonymity: It simply means that the civil servant should be
seen and not heard. That is, a civil servant does not receive
praises or blame for any government policies, although it is the
civil servants that advice the minister on what policy to adopt.
Therefore, it is the minister who has ultimate responsibility. If
the policy turns out to be a good one, he takes the credit. And if
goes bad, he takes the blame too. A civil servant is never called
upon to defend any government policy. That is the responsibility
of the minister. However, the minister goes to the legislature to
defend the ministry‟s policies and he accepts the blame for any
lapses or shortcomings that may be detected in the policies.
10.5 Why the Power of Civil Servant has increased in Recent Years.
The power of civil servant has increased tremendously in recent years
due to the following reasons:
a) Delegated Legislation: In recent times, civil servants and
government departments have been given great powers to make
rules and order. Such powers are given to them by the
legislature.
b) Quasi-Judicial Function: Civil servants have been called upon
to serve on rent control tribunal and other administrative
tribunals. While these tribunals are not courts in the proper
sense of the words, they act as courts in the sense that they
judge cases, settle cases and prosecute offenders.
c) The Advent of Military: Under the military rule, civil servants
tend to exercise a great deal of power. They become directly
148
involved in political decision making and give advice to military
rulers. When soldiers come to power, they tend to rely on top
civil servants for advice, support and guidance. This is because
soldiers have little experience in civil administration. In the
process, civil servants become very powerful.
d) Size of Government Departments: In recent years, the size of
government departments has increased tremendously due to
increasing roles and responsibility of government. It means that
the ministers are not able to supervise the whole of their
ministries effectively and efficiently. They therefore rely on and
whatever their civil servants tell them because they consider
their advice as expert opinion.
10.6 Functions of the Civil Service

The civil service performs the following functions in the political system:
1. Policy Implementation: The civil servants help in the
implementation of government policies. For instance, various
government ministries implement government policies such as
primary health care by the Ministry of Health in order to improve
human life.
2. Preparation of Budgets: The civil servants provide detail
information needed for planning and equally provide strategies
for implementing the budget.
3. Policy Making: The civil servants provide the ministers with
advice and information needed in the formulation of policies.
Their expert advice is equally important.
4. Negotiation with Pressure Groups: They assist the government
in its consultation, negotiation and bargaining with pressure
groups. They equally see themselves as protecting the national
149
interest especially when there are conflicting demands among
various groups in the political system.
5. Performance of Quasi-Judicial Functions: Civil servants
perform quasi-judicial functions which are not purely
administrative, such as rent controls, price control, welfare and
administrative tribunals.
6. Preparation of Answers to Legislative Questions: Civil
servants assist ministers in answering questions pertaining to
their ministries. They provide necessary data and information as
well as answers to questions which are likely to be put to the
minister
10.7 Control of the Civil Service

The civil servants are subject to various forms of control which are:
a) Legislative Control: The legislative approves the budget of the
various ministries and ensures that money is spent only for the
programmes approved. They may create and abolish government
agencies and may even starve them of funds.
If the money appropriated for a particular project is diverted, the
parliament will call the minister for questioning by its
committee.
b) Executive Control: The executive exercises direct political and
administrative control over the civil service. It coordinates the
activities of the various ministries and administrative agencies
and appoints ministers, permanent secretaries and other top
civil servant officials. It maintains discipline, provides
promotion, training and motivation.
c) Judicial Control: The judiciary exercises greater control over
the civil service through civil and criminal cases involving official
150
misconduct. It may issue writs of mandamus to compel the
performance of official duties and injunctions to prevent
wrongful act by the civil servants. This measure of control is
more effective on the civil service.
d) Public Control: Public criticism of the civil servants'
performance indirectly leads to greater efficiency on the part of
the civil servants. This criticism may instigate reform that will
lead to more administrative efficiency on the part of the civil
service.
10.8 Problems of the Civil Service

The criticisms against the civil service include the following:
1) Delay in Taking Decisions: Civil servants are often criticized for
being slow in taking decision. They cannot act promptly when
they are confronted with problems that requires a pragmatic
solutions. The decision making procedure in the civil service
involves many stages and processes.
2) Poor Attitude to Work: Civil servants are often accused of
showing poor attitude to work. They do not show sufficient
commitment or seriousness in their work. They are lazy. They
engage in truancy absenteeism, etc.
3) Bribery and Corruption: The entire facet of civil service is
corrupt. They collect bribe from the pubic before performing
their duties. They inflate the prices of contact awarded and
engage in kick back.
4) Embezzlement and Misappropriation: The civil servants often
engaged in embezzlement and misappropriation of funds. For
instance, the tribunals set up by the military government in
151
previous years brought this into limelight. In fact, senior civil
servants embezzled and misappropriated large sums of public
money. They converted public property to private use and
directed public funds into private accounts.
5) Ineffective Organization: Critics also say that the civil service
is poorly organized. There are no effective links between
departments in the same ministry or among different ministries.
As a result of this poor organization, files and important
documents are often misplaced, functions are duplicated and
records are not properly kept.
6) Waste of Manpower: in the civil service, there are many people
doing the same job. The result is that staff are underutilized,
many civil servants have too little work to do and yet they are
paid.
7) Bureaucracy and Red-tape: In the civil service, decision making
involves long and unnecessary processes. Therefore, many
obstacles and unnecessary rules are to be observed. The result
is unnecessary delay in file processing, decision making and
policy implementation.
10.9 Ways in Which the Performances of the Civil Service may be

improved.
1) There should be close supervision of the activities of the civil
servants in order to make them to be more efficient on their jobs.
2) Civil servants should be encouraged to use their initiative
instead of relying on precedent because the problem at hand
may require pragmatic solutions.
152
3) The civil service commission should exercise greater disciplinary
control one civil servants who are corrupt or engage in acts of
indiscipline that will be inimical to the progress of the civil
service.
4) Civil servants should be granted facilities such as housing loans,
car loans and scholarships for their children all at low interest
rates.
5) There should be a reorganization of the civil service in order to
avoid waste of manpower and duplication of duties which lead to
under-utilization of staff.
6) The salaries of the civil servant should be increased and
improved of their conditions of services and other fringed
benefits.
7) Bureaucratic practices and redtapism should be eliminated. All
these are inimical to improved performance of the civil servants.
8) Constant training and overseas courses should be encouraged in
order to facilitate professionalism.

In this study session, you have learnt the concept of civil service. The
structure of Nigerian civil service has also been discussed. Moreover,
there are detailed explanations of the civil service commission and its
functions. Furthermore, the features of the Nigerian civil service was
highlighted. In addition, functions, controls and problems of the civil
service were enumerated while ways in which the performances of the
civil service may be improved is also itemized.
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 10
153
Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how
well you have achieved the learning outcomes by answering the
following questions. Write your answers in your study diary and
discuss them with your study support meeting members. You can
check your answers at the end of this course material.

1. ______________ is an instrument for policy advice to the political
leadership in the executive and policy implementation
a) Technocrat
b) Civil servant
c) Civil service
d) Executive arm

2. The administrative head of a government ministry is
the__________.
a) Director General
b) Minister
c) Permanent Secretary
d) Director of Administration

3. The class of civil servants that are recruited by individual
ministers and not by the civil service commission is known as
____________.
a) The Professional class
b) The Executive class
c) The administrative class
154
d) The manipulative class

4. The highest and the most prestigious class in the civil service is
referred to as _________________.
a) The Administrative Class
b) The Executive Class
c) The Professional Class
d) The Clerical Class

5. __________________ is an independent body established by the
government to oversee and regulate the activities of the public
servant.
a) Ombudsman
b) Pubic complaint commission
c) Civil servant commission
d) Civil service commission

6. All are the features of the civil service except _______________
a) Training and scholarship
b) Anonymity
c) Neutrality and impartiality
d) Permanence and continuity
SAQ 10.7 (Test Learning Outcomes 10.4)
155
7. ________________ is simply means the civil servants should be seen
and not heard and does not receive praises or blame for
execution of government policies.
a) Neutrality and impartiality
b) Anonymity
c) Permanence
d) Continuity

9. All are the reasons why the power of civil servant has increased in
recent year except __________________
a) Democratization
b) Delegated legislation
c) The advent of military
d) Quasi-judicial function

9. None is a the function of the civil service except _______________
a) The advent of the military
b) Negotiation with pressure group
c) Delegated legislation
d) Approval of the budget

10. All are means of controlling of the civil service except
____________
a) Legislative control
b) Judicial control
c) Public criticism
d) Executive high handedness
156
157
Akinbade, J.A (2008). Government Explained (Plus Questions and
Answers) (Lagos: Macak Book Ventures)
Anifowose, Remi and Enemuo Francis (eds). (1999). Elements of
Politics, Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.
Ball, A.R. (1975). Modern Politics & Government, London: The
Macmillan Press Limited.
Diamond, Larry; A. Kirk- Greene and Oyeleye Oyediran (eds (1997).
Transition without end: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society under
Babangida, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers.
Dudley, B.J (1973). Instability and Political Order: Politics & Crisis
in Nigeria, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
Olusanya, G.O (1975). The Evolution of Nigeria Civil Service 1861-
1960: The Problems of Nigerianisation, Lagos: University of Lagos.
Oyebola, A. and Ojelabo, A. (1971). A Textbook of Government for
West Africa, Ibadan: Educational Research Institute.
Oyediran Oyeleye (2007). Introduction to Political Service. Oyediran
Consult International: Ibadan.
Oyediran Oyeleye (ed), (1984). Nigeria Government and Politics
Under Military Rule, London: Macmillan Publishers.
Sanni, H.A (1999). Control of Nigeria Civil Service Size. Okene:
Desmond Tutu Publisher.


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08033366677
phone on:
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Study Session 11: Local Government Administration
Introduction
In this study session, attempt is made to present the basic idea about
local government administration. This study session we shall be
looking at the meaning of evolution of local government institutions,
in pre and post-colonial era, the principle underlying the creation of
local government, the legal framework of local government
administration in Nigeria as well as reasons, functions, sources of
finance and control of local government will be discussed.

11.1 Define meaning of Local government administration
11.2 Explain evolution of local government administration in Nigeria
11.3 Identify the legal framework and principles underlying the
creation of local government institutions
11.4 Discuss the reasons for the establishment of local government
11.5 State the functions of local government
11.6 Describe the sources of finance of local government
11.7 List the control of local government
11.8 Enumerate the problem of local government
11.1 Meaning of Local Government Administration

Local government is another area of study in public administration.
Local governments around the world strive to meet peoples demands
for goods and services in a cost effective manner (Mello, 2012),
Agbakoba and Ogbonna (2004:2) equally define local government from
160
legal perspectives. They see it as a political administrative unit that is
empowered by and to administer a specific loyalty. Akpan (2008:3)
define local government as a separate tier of government that enjoys
some reasonable measure of autonomy, with elected representatives
as officials especially in democracy. Ola (1984:8) claimed that local
government exist to bring about democracy and provide the local
people the opportunity to participate politically in activities that
revolve around them. He opined that local government is equally
established as a training ground to socialise the citizens politically. He
explained further that local government exist to provide essential
services and serve as a vehicle for rural development.
Adamolekun(1983) posited that the goal of local government is to
provide efficient service delivery vis-a-vis rural development.
Therefore, local governments are established as an avenue by which
people can participate in decision making at the grass roots level.
Aluko, (20110 described local governance as a product of
decentralized administrative. It is a government at a local level that
operates through a representative council established by law to
exercise specific powers within defined area. It is responsible for the
creation of an appropriate and conducive environment in which all
sectors of the economy can performed optimally and it is this catalytic
role of local governments that propelled governments all over the
world to search continuously for better ways to deliver their services.
From the above definitions, one can say that local government is the
third tier system of administration and government at the grass roots
level. It is a device to give local expression to purely local opinion, with
the fundamental objective of spreading development to every work and
corner of a country. In a nutshell, local government is an autonomous
161
or independent body created by law and dealing with matters of local
importance within the area defined by that law.
11.2 Evolution of Local Government Administration in Nigeria
Evolution of the modern local government system in Nigeria, shall be
discussed in six stages/phases, which are:
a) The pre-colonial period
b) Post –colonial period
c) Early military Era (1967-1976)
d) Late Military Era (1976-1979)
e) The Second Military 1979
f) The second military Era
11.2.1The Pre-colonial Period

This period marked the beginning of modern local government system in
Nigeria. Though local government system in Nigeria had passed
through many different stages. Before the colonial era, local
communities had their own system of administration. The traditional
institutions were at liberty to practice any system of administration
that suits their environment. Under the colonial administration, local
government was known as native Authority. It was a form of
indigenous rule under colonial authorities whereby traditional
institutions of chiefs and other traditional rulers administer the native
under the supervision of British Administrative Officer that was the
existing governing structure before the advent of colonialism. Though
the system of traditional institution (indirect system rule) was not a
perfect system because the traditional rulers or chiefs, very few of
them or if any at all had western education and exposure in modern
governance to be able to run the newly introduced local government
162
administration. The policies were transmitted to the traditional rulers
who hardly understood the logic and rationale of the policies.
Nevertheless, they transmitted those policies to their people and
expected compliance. In a nutshell, lack of exposure to Western
education and modern governance hampered their administrative and
service delivery capacity in the Native Authority system. The Native
Authority system comprised of four main interdependent parts which
are: The resident who provided direction and control; The Native
Authority usually headed by a chief who enjoyed legitimacy under the
indigenous political system, and often supported by a council of
elders. The Native Treasury, and the native courts composed of
representatives of the native administration. Hence, due to the corrupt
attitude of the traditional institution, the power of these institutions
was allegated.
11.2.2 Post Colonial Period

Modern local systems started emerging at different times in the regions
following various reforms that brought educated Nigerians into the
system. Also, democratic practices were introduced whereby
councillors and chairmen were elected and the council were accorded
a measure of autonomy in revenue generation and award of contracts.
Therefore, with the advent of independence, the local government
became de-factor agent of administering regional projects and
programmes at the local level. It is important to note that during first
republic that is 1960 – 1966, so much attention was focused on the
government at the centre while power tussles between the government
at the centre and the regional governments resulted to crises that led
to the military coup that terminated first republic.
163
11.2.3 Early Military Era (1967-1976)
Under military administration and during the Gowon regime which
lasted from 1967 – 1975, different state operated different system of
local government. In the northern states, the emirs retained some of
their powers and influence because the councillors appointed by the
military governors were traditionally and spiritually expected to defer
to the authority of the emir.
The eastern states and the Midwest abandoned the councillor system
adopted in the 1950s for development administration, modelled after
the French system of decentralisation
11.2.4 Late Military Era (1976 – 1979)

Local governments underwent their first major reform in 1976 during
the military administration of General Olusegun Obasanjo. These
reforms formed the foundation of the present day local government
system and were an attempt to restructure the local government
administration to a form fitting for modern society. The fundamental
result of the 1976 reforms was to introduce a uniform system of local
government administration throughout the country. It was based on a
conviction that a strong local authority with clearly define roles and
responsibilities in a power sharing relationship with the states was an
institutional imperative. Based on the 1976 reforms, the local
government became recognised as a tier of government entitled to a
share of the national revenue consequent on its constitutionally
allocated functions. In short the 1976 local government reforms
corrected variations in the structure of local governments nation-wide
by introducing a uniform structure based on 301 local governments
with the same one-tier, multipurpose administrative structure.
164
11.2.5 The Second Republic 1979
By virtue of the provision of the 1979 constitution regarding the status
of local governments in Nigeria, based on the 1976 local government
reforms, the local governments, as the third tier of the government,
should be co-ordinate (rather than subordinate) to both the state and
federal governments in the country.
There was no remarkable achievement in the local government evolution

process at this period. With the emergence of new democratic
dispensation, expectation were high the hope that local government
administration will take development to the grass root level. But
reverse is the case, because political appointments were made into the
councils on partisan patronage, thereby employing corrupt and
unqualified personnel to steer the affairs of local governments. This
led to the failure of the local council in all ramification.
11.2.6 The Second Military Era (1984-1999)

The trend of local government administration continued like this until
1984throughout this period there was no remarkable development at
the grass roots level. The military that assumed office were not
satisfied with the state of development of local government levels. This
unsatisfactory trend led to the Dansuki panel of 1984 which was
assigned representative to look into the affairs of the council‟s and
stipulate guidelines for operation and efficient administration. The
committee in its report attributed the problem of local government as
operational factors arising directly from the behaviour and attitude of
the persons who operated the system. The panel recommended that:
165
1. The councils should be directly funded and granted autonomy
status.
2. The abolition of the local government ministries
3. Decentralisation of the service provided by local governments.
Unfortunately these recommendations could not be implemented as

Buhari‟s administration was over thrown in a palace coup that
brought General Ibrahim Babangida regime in 1985.
11.3 The Principles Underlying the Creation of Local Government

Institutions
The concern for local government institutions emanated from the facts
that people living within a geographical territories are of different
background and for them to live in a peaceful co-existence there must
be an organised government that will project development at the grass
roots level and bring their hope and aspiration into limelight through
the creation of local government institutions. The following factors
should be considered when creating local government institutions.
a) The state should put people that are homogenous in nature
together in a local government where there is boundaries
differences, adjustment should be made on the boundary to
allow common interest.
b) The state should guide against designating on excessive number
of units as councils as would result in overlapping powers and
implications of functions.
c) The state government should reserve the executive‟s power to
appoint and remove officers entrusted with the administration
of state laws.
166
However, local government institutions is set up by laws and therefore
its existence is continuous. The powers and function of local
government is clearly spelt out by the constitution which give it a
legal entity.
11.4 Reasons for the Establishment of Local Government

The following are the reason for establishing local government in Nigeria:
i. Grass-root Democracy: Modern governments are based on the
principles of Democracy. For the operation of this principle to be
real, the people must be adequately represented and involved in
the government. This is made possible through local
governments.
ii. Political Participation and Mass Mobilisation: Local
government provide opportunities for the people to involve in the
making of policies which affect them. They are therefore placed
in a position to identify their problems in their order of priority.
iii. Even Development: Local Government help in the realisation of
even development by catering for local interests. Matters of local
importance which would have been otherwise ignored by the
central government are now taken care of through local
governments.
iv. Political Stability: Since Nigeria is a multi-cultural and multi-
lingual country, cultural differences have given rise to ethnic
antagonism and the majority – minority problem. Local
governments can be used to bring a sense of belonging but also
see themselves as being autonomous.
167
v. Political Education and Training: Local government not only
facilitates the exercise of democratic self-government but also
encourages initiative and leadership potentials. The electorates
are educated on the principles and working of democracy.
Therefore, it serves as training grounds for future national
leaders.
11.5 Functions of Local Government

The functions which are performed by the local government include the
following:
1. Maintenance of Law and Order: The basic function of any
government is the maintenance of public order. Therefore local
governments help the central government to maintain law and
order.
2. Provisions of Essential Services: Local governments provides
basic social amenities such as schools, health, centres, markets,
minor roads, drains, cemeteries and motor parks.
3. Making of Bye-laws: Local government are vested with minor
legislature powers to make bye-laws. They make bye-laws on
subjects within their legislative competence such as allocation
and use of markets, registrations of births, deaths and marriage
certificate and control of motor parks.
4. Collective of Revenue: A local government collects various
taxes or fees either for its own use or on behalf of the central
government.
5. Mobilisation of the People: The central government often make
use of local governments to mobilize the people in support of
168
government policies and programmes or to carry out self-help
projects.
6. Administration of Justice: Local government are vested with
judicial power. Therefore, they assist in protecting the rights and
privileges of the people. For example, local councils operate
minor courts such as customary courts which help to relieve the
higher courts the large burden of outstanding litigation.
11.6 Sources of Finance of Local Government

Local governments in Nigeria have various sources of income. Basic
among these are:
1. Government Grants: In Nigeria, local government received
grants or subventions from both central and state governments.
It is important to note that local governments almost virtually
depend on government subvention for sustenance. The federal
government allocate 13% of federal revenue to the local
government.
2. Rates: The local government also get funds through rates levied
on male adults living in the local government area. This varies
from property rates collected mainly in townships on landed
properties like building based on their value. Other include
water rates, personal income, property or any service.
3. Special Levies: A special levy is imposed on all the inhabitant
of a council area for a special purpose. Examples are education
levy or market levy. In Nigeria, the levy can only be imposed with
the specific permission of the state government.
4. Loan: A local government may borrow money from financial
institutions to execute specific projects. Generally, loans are
169
taken to finance ambitious projects which grants or subventions
may not be able to cover.
5. License and Permits: Local councils grant license such a dog,
radio, television, liquor and fire arms license.
6. Court Fees: Court fines also supplement the income of local
councils. The principle is that court fines and fees should be
paid to the local governments. They are supposed to be used in
maintaining the court.
11.7 Control of Local Government

The powers and activities of local governments need to be checked or
controlled to guide against abuse of powers or functions. This control
is exercised in a number of ways.
1. Legislative Control: Local government are created by an Acts of
Parliament and parliament can amend the law setting up a local
council. It may abolish or modify the law creating local
governments. Therefore, a bye-law made by a local council that
is inconsistent with a legislature enactment is null and void.
2. Financial Control: State governments can as well control
governments by curtailing, their financial power. The annual
budget of local governments are subject to the approval of each
state government. They reserves the power to approve such
budget or not to. It may decide to trim down the size of the
budget or approve part thereof. Also, the state governments may
choose to reduce or withhold their annual grants to the local
government.
3. Judicial Control: If local government exercise power and it goes
beyond power being allotted to them. Therefore, the activities of
170
such a local government will be declare as ultra-vires, null and
void, unconstitutional and illegal by the court.
4. Political Control: There are several method of political control,
the commissioner for local government in Nigeria is required to
approve any bye-law made by a local authority. Local
government submit their development plans and other long term
programmes for ministerial approvals. Also, the state
government man suspend or dismiss local government or it
officials or order an enquiry into their affairs.
11.8 Problem of Local Government

The success of local government in Nigeria has been marred by a myriad
of problems, among which are the following:
1. Shortage of Skilled Personnel: There is cute shortage of the
right calibre of personnel for local governments. Local
governments need competent, well trained and experienced
administrative, financial, technical and specialist staff to provide
an efficient and effective service to the public.
2. Parochialism and Partisan Politics: The efficiency and
effectiveness of local governments have declined owing to party
politics. When recruitment of local government employees is
based on political patronage, there is the tendency for the party
in control of government to employ unskilled party members and
ignore the misbehaviour of some councillors.
3. Corruption: Corruption is one of the major problems
confronting local governments in Nigeria. The meagre financial
resources earmarked for economic development are either
misappropriated or embezzled and so disappear under the
171
charge of unscrupulous politicians. As a result, money meant for
economic development is diverted to private pockets.
4. Lack of Funds: There is lack of adequate funds for the local
councils to carry out their functions. Some of the local
governments are so poor that they cannot raise enough funds to
employ and retain the services of qualified professional or skilled
officers.
5. Gradual Erosion of Power and Autonomy: State governments
have taken many services, hence local government councils have
no major roles to play. Sometimes, the state authorities‟
milestone with the affairs of local governments by usurping their
allocations from the federation Account and making nonsense of
financial autonomy.

In this study session, you have learnt various definitions of local
government administration and also explained evolution of local
government administration in Nigeria. However, the legal framework
and principle underlying the creation of local government institutions
are identified. Therefore, reasons, functions and sources of finance of
local government were described. The study session has been able to
enumerate the control and problems confronting local government
administration in Nigeria.

well you have achieved the learning outcomes by answering the
172
check your answers at the end of the course material.

1. _________________ is an autonomous or independent body created by
law and charged with the responsibility of administering and dealing
with matters of local importance within the area defined by that law
a) Municipal Government
b) State Government
c) Local Government
d) Country Government

2. All are interdependent component of Native Authority System
except___________
a) Resident Officer
b) Native Court
c) Native Treasury
d) Warrant Officers
3. The introduction of a uniform system of local government
throughout the country was in ______________
a) 1976
b) 1967
c) 1988
d) 1999

4. The Ibrahim Dansuki Committee of 1984 recommended all
except _________________
173
a) The councils should be directly funded
b) They should be granted autonomy
c) The council should have joint account with the state government
d) Abolition of local government ministries
SAQ 11.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 11.)

5. One of the following factors should be considered when creating
local government institutions
a) The state should put people that are homogenous in nature
together
b) Expenses on the state government
c) Joint account should be in operation
d) Chairman should be appointed

6. All are the reason for the establishment of local government in
Nigeria except ______________
a) Political education and training
b) Even development
c) Development of the central government
d) Political participation and mass mobilisation

7. One of the function of local government administration is
_________
a) To allocate budget to the grass-root
b) Making of bye law for the community
c) Defending territorial integrity of the country
d) Printing of currency
174
8. All are the sources of finance of local government except
__________
a) Oil and gas revenue
b) Special levies
c) Government grants
d) License and permits

9. ____________ is the power exercised by the court to declared the
activities of local government ultra-vires
a) Court control
b) Judicial control
c) Legal control
d) Tribunal control

10. All are problems confronting local government administration in
Nigeria except _______________
a) Gradual erosion of power and autonomy
b) Parochialism and partisan politics
c) Shortage of skilled personnel
d) Rent-seeking
175
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Olu-Abbey Modem Press.
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained (Plus Corrections
and Answers), Lagos: Macak Book Ventures.
Eneanya, A.N (2010). Public Administration in Nigeria: Principle,
Techniques and Applications: Concept Publication Limited
Fatile, Jacob, et al (2013), Issues in Public Administration and
Local Government: The Comparative Perspective, Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.
Imuetinyan, F.O (2002), Issues in Nigerian Government and
Administration: Benin City: Denvic Publishing Company.
Mello, C. (2012), Local Government Cooperation for Joint
Provision: The Experiences of Brazil and Spain with Inter-
Municipal Consortia: International Centre for Public Policy
Working Paper 12-18 March.
Ojofeitimi, T. (2000), Managing at the Grassroots: Local
Government and Rural Development in the 21st Century Lagos:
Centre for Management Development.
Onyishi, A.O; Eme, O.I and Emeh, I.K.F. (2012). Problems of
Personnel Management in Nigeria: The Nigerian Local
Government System Experience. Arabian Journal of Business
and Management Review (OMAN Chapter) 1 (6): January.

176
phone on:
08033366677
Study Session 12 – Public Corporation
Introduction
This study session introduces you to another area of study in public
administration which is of public corporations. You will be exposed to
the meaning of Public corporations, characteristics of public
corporations, functions of public corporations, sources of finance for
public corporations, the organizational structure of public
corporations, problems and controls of public corporations as well as
panacea to the problems of public corporations.

At the end of this session you should be able to:
12.1 Define the concept of public corporations
12.2 Discuss the characteristics of public corporations
12.3 Explain the reasons for the establishment of public corporations
12.4 List the functions of public corporations
12.5 Identify the sources of finance of public corporations
12.6 Describe the organizational structure of public corporations;
12.7 State the problems of public corporations
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12.8 Explain the control of public corporations
12.9 Enumerate the panacea in the problems of Public Corporation
12.1 Concept of Public Corporations

Public corporations is an organization set up by an Act of Parliament to
provide a specific essential social services for the public. The law
establishing the corporation may charge it with specific responsibility.
It is also important to note that public corporations are required to
charge for the services they provided to the public. The fees charged
are usually below the market price of the service which make it to be
more affordable to the generality of the people of the society.
Public corporations or public enterprises are organizations set up by

acts of parliament (or statutes) and run by the government in the
manner of private commercial ventures. Hence they are sometimes
referred to as statutory corporations. Also, public corporations are
enterprises set up by the government (i.e.by an Act of Parliament) to
provide certain essential goods and services for the people. They are
sometimes set up to make profits for the government.
Public corporations are the government organized business enterprises

set up to carry out specific functions which cannot be carried out by
the private and individuals due to either lack of interest or capital.
Examples of public corporations are Power Holding Corporation of
Nigeria (PHCN), Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC),
Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC), Nigeria Port Authority (NPA),
Federal Airports Authority of Nigeria, (FANN), Nigeria Deposit
Insurance Corporation (NDIC) and the Lagos State Water Corporation
(LSWC).
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12.2 Characteristics of Public Corporations
The following characteristics of public corporations can be inferred:
1. Public corporations are owned by the government which may be
federal, state or local government.
2. Public corporations are created by an Act of Parliament, decree
or edict.
3. Public corporations can be sue and be sued, hold property and
enter into contracts.
4. Public corporations enjoy a high degree of financial autonomy
5. The board is responsible for the day to day management of the
corporation
6. Employees of public corporations are not civil servants but
public servants
12.3 Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporations.

Various reasons have been advanced for setting up public corporations.
Below are some of these reasons justifying the creation of public
corporations.
1. Provisions of Goods and Services: One of the reasons for the
creation of public corporations is to make available to the public,
certain services which require huge financial inputs and which
may be beyond the capacity of private entrepreneurs to finance.
2. Control of Monopoly: Government must avoid private monopoly
of some certain services. Also, government maintains monopoly
over certain ventures for security and strategic reasons. For
example, production of fire arms in order to control misuse.
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3. Provision of Employment: To provide employment for the
people. Public corporations are large enterprises employing a
large number of people.
4. Control of Economy: Government may set up public
corporation to undertake projects which involve huge capital
outlays. Private business men may not have the means or
capital to unrest in such areas.
5. Economic Development: Public corporation may be set up to
promote economic development and facilitate the country
internal and external trade. For example, Ports, Barriers,
Insurance companies are set up for this purpose.
6. Reduce Foreign Dominate: Some public enterprises are
established to reduce foreign domination and reduce capital
flight. Such as oil and gas industries.
12.4 Functions of Public Corporations

The functions of public corporations include the following:
1. Public corporations have been of immense help to the public in
the area of employment. They provide employment for many
school leavers, graduates and other classes of people in the
country.
2. The establishment of public corporations fosters equitable
distribution of resources and income between individuals and
between rural and urban areas.
3. Since the primary objective of a public corporate is not to make
profit, it provides goods and services at the cheapest and
affordable rates.
4. They provide essential social services to the people.
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5. Public corporations provide employment opportunities to the
people.
6. Through their social responsibility programmes, most public
corporations have extended development to the rural areas. For
example, are known to have built primary schools in the
communities where they carry on their business. They also offer
scholarships to the children of some deserving workers in the
corporation.
7. The public corporation helps to protect the citizens from
exploitation by private companies
12.5 Sources of Finance of Public Corporations

1. Government Subventions: Government gives subventions
(money) to public corporations to purchase equipment‟s and raw
materials as well as to pay their staff by way of subsidizing the
service offer to the general public.
2. Loans: Public corporations obtain loans and credits facilities
from banks and other financial institutions. Applications for
loan should be approved by the government i.e. the minister who
is the head of the ministry.
3. Ploughed Back Profit: Public corporations may plough their
profits back into their business. For instance, profits made in
the past financial year may be return to current financial year
12.6 Organizational Structure of Public Corporations

It is pertinent to note that public corporations are created by
government through an Act of Parliament and are therefore
responsible to the government through the minister in charge of that
particular corporation. That is, a minister has ultimate responsibility
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for the public corporations in his ministry and he is accountable to
the government or legislature for their success or failure.
The minister is responsible for formulation of policies for the

corporations and for providing them with funds. The minister
delegates the day-to-day administration of the corporation to a board
whose members are appointed by the President of the country.
Whereas the Board is the highest decision-making organ of the
corporation and their appointment is more on political patronage than
competence.
Moreover, the Managing Director/Director-General who is also a

member of the board is the head of the management of the
corporation. He handles the routine business of the corporation and
implements the board‟s decisions as they affect the corporation and
its staff. The chief-executive is assisted by directors and other
management staff in the discharge of his duties. The officials of the
corporation are public servants and are employees of the corporation.
They have security of tenure and can only be removed in accordance
with laid down procedures. Diagram of the organizational structure
must be included.
12.7 Control of Public Corporations

The activities of public corporations need to be scrutinized from time to
time to ensure efficient and effective realization of the objectives for
which they were set up. This is done in a number of ways:
1. Parliamentary Control: Public corporation are set up by the
legislature or by an Act of Parliament to carry out specific
functions or objectives. The powers, functions and limitations of
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the corporation are clearly spelt out by the parliament while the
same parliament are vested with the power to abolish public
corporation if it is not serving the purpose in which it was
established. The annual accounts of the corporations are put
before the legislature for debate and discussion.
2. Ministerial or Administrative Control: With the powers to
appoint and to dismiss board members, the minister can exert
considerable control upon the activities of the corporation under
him. The government can use annual subvention as a means of
controlling public corporations. Subvention may be reduce
delayed, withheld or increased depending on whether the
performance of a corporation has been satisfactory or not. Also,
all loans applied for by public corporations and all major
schemes of expenditure require approval from the minister. The
minister can set up a commission to investigate any allegation of
improper misconduct or mismanagement, parliament can also
set up a commission of inquiry for this purpose.
3. Judicial Control: Since public corporations are established by
an Act of Parliament, therefore it is a legal entity. It can sue and
be sued for any breaches. The fear of litigation for corporation
misconduct forces the management of public corporations to act
in keeping with the policy guidelines of the statute establishing
the corporation. Therefore the courts exercise control over public
corporations in the following ways:
(a) Prohibition: The court can issue an injunction out on a
particular action of the public corporation
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(b) Ultra vires: When a public corporation acts beyond power
being allotted to it, such act can be declared as ultra-vires, that
is null and void, unconstitutional or illegal
(c) Mandamus: The court can issue an order of mandamus on
a public corporation. Such an order will compel the corporation
to perform its duties
4. Public Opinion: The activities of public corporations are equally
subject to the influence of public opinion. Criticisms from
members of the public expressed through the mass media go a
long way in controlling the activities of public corporations
which may compel public corporations to improve on its
performances or drop a decision taken earlier.
12.8 Problems of Public Corporations

Public corporations in Nigeria have been rendered important by a colony
of problems. These problems are:
1) Insufficient Fund: Public corporations often perform below
expectation because of lack of fund in term of money. Sometimes
government subvention is not enough and they fail to get
sufficient fund from other sources
2) Excessive Government Interference: Another course of
inefficiency for public corporations is that of government
meddlesome interference. The government is known not only to
use the services of these corporations in large scale without
paying for them but also to disrupt their schedule of duties in
the course of taking these services. For instance, many
government agencies owed Power Holding Corporation of Nigeria
(PHCN) up to the tune of billion naira.
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3) Corruption and Embezzlement of Fund: Workers of public
corporation, both junior and seniors staff engage in corrupt and
dishonest practices. For example they engage in pilfering, that
is, stealing corporation property and sell them. While senior
officers divert corporation money into private accounts. They
inflate contracts and received kick back from contractors.
4) Poor Attitude to Work: Many staffs of the public corporations
are not committed to their work. In addition, they are lazy and
engage in truancy, absenteeism and complete an abandonment
of their duties which are major setback for the corporation.
There is usually complete disregard for customer satisfaction
and market competition.
5) Excessive Politicking: The spoils system of politics in Nigeria is
another source of debilitating problems menacing public
corporations. Board members are often appointed not on merit
but on political considerations. Political patronage has been
overriding factor. Campaign managers and other political party
loyalists are usually rewarded through such appointments. Such
appointees end up lacking the qualities and skills required of
people for such posts.
6) Poor Leadership and Managerial Skills: Leadership in public
corporations to some extent is poor. This may be a reflection of
the weak and incompetent leadership in many area of our
national lives. For instance, those who are appointed to manage
public corporations to some extent are not usually the best
materials in that sector. Owing to the nature of their
appointments, these executives pander more to the interest of
their principals than to the public interest.
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12.9 Panacea to the Problems of Public Corporation
The following are the likely solutions to the problems of public
corporations:
1) Appointment of board members should be dashed on merit
rather than on political or other pre-mordial considerations. This
is necessary to avoid, kill and divide principle that has been the
bane of public corporations.
2) Reliable external auditors should be appointed by the
government to scrutinize their financial records so as to detect
financial misappropriation and embezzlement on time.
Therefore, proper accounting systems should be adopted based
on profit and loss.
3) Qualified personnel should be attracted to these public
corporations through better conditions of service.
4) There is need to insulate the corporations from politics.
Members of the boards of corporations should be qualified and
experienced administrators or experts.
5) Greater autonomy should be encouraged in order for the
management team to use their initiative for increase in
productivity and the efficiency of the corporations.
6) The public corporations should be adequately funded and
provided with equipment to function so that there will be
tremendous improvement in the productivity of the corporations.

In this study session, you have learnt the concept of public corporation
and also discussed characteristics and reason behind the
establishment of public corporation. While functions and sources of
186
finance of public corporations are also identified. The study session
has been able to described organizational structure of public
corporations. However, control and problems public corporation was
equally explained. Lastly, panacea to the problems of public
corporation was also enumerated.

well you have achieve the learning outcomes by answering the
check your answers at the end of this course material.
SAQ 12.1 (Tests Learning Outcomes 12.1)

1. ___________________ are organization set up to provide essential
social services which cannot be carry out by private enterprises
and are not profit making oriented organizations.
a) Public Limited Liability
b) Public Corporation
c) Private Corporation
d) Government Agency

2. Public corporation is an organization set up by _______________
a) Order of Mandamus
b) Statutory Commission
c) Act of Parliament
d) Prohibition
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3. All are the examples of public corporation except _______________
a) NDIC
b) FAAN
c) MTN
d) NPA

4. All are the characteristics of Public corporation except
____________
a) It is owned by the government
b) It is created by an Act of Parliament
c) It can sue and be sued
d) It is profit making oriented organization

5. One of the reasons for the establishment of Public corporations
is ________________
a) To make profit for the government
b) Reduce foreign domination
c) Provision of goods and services
d) Control of Monopoly

6. All are the sources of finance for public corporation except
a) Government subvention
b) Ploughed back profit
c) Loans
d) Bank draft
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7. The highest decisions making organs of the public corporation is
__________
a) Parliament
b) Minister
c) President
d) Board of Trustee

8. All are the methods in which public corporation can be
controlled except __________
a) Ministerial and Administrative control
b) Parliamentary Control
c) Board of Trustee control
d) Public Opinion

9. ______________ is used by the court in order to compel public
corporations to perform its duties
a) Ultra Vires
b) Mandamus
c) Prohibition
d) Interlocutory injunction

10. All are the problems of public corporation except _____________
a) Excessive government interference
b) Excessive politicking
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c) Poor leadership and managerial skills
d) Greater autonomy
190
Akinbade, J.A (2008), Government Explained (Plus Questions and
Answers), Lagos: Macak Book Ventures
Akamere, F.A.C. (2001), Government and Politics of Nigeria, Lagos:
Olu-Abbey Modern Press.
Eneanya, A.N. (2009), Public Administration in Nigeria: Principles,
Techniques and Applications, Lagos; Concept Publication
Limited
tutor via the LMS.
08033366677
191
Study Session 13: Scientific Management Theory
Introduction
There are two major sub-groupings of classical approach, they are: the
scientific management founded by Frederick W. Taylor and
bureaucracy formulated by Max Weber. The scientific management
coined by Louis Brandeis was perceived as a way to achieve greater
efficiency in the management of public business.
The best known proponent of the scientific management movement is

Frederick Winslow Taylor. He is generally acknowledged as the father
of scientific management. According to Koontz et al (1983:37) in
Ezeani (2006:102).
Probably no other person has had a greater impact on the development

of management. His experiences as an apprentice, a common
labourer, a foreman, a master mechanic, and then the chief engineer
of a steel company gave Taylor ample opportunity to know at firsthand
the problems and attitudes of workers, and the great opportunities for
improving the quality of management.
The objective of scientific management was to discover the basic

principles of motion involved in the performance of physical tasks and
then to determine the „one best way‟ of performing any task. A major
contributor to this approach was Frederick Winslow Taylor, who saw
scientific management as a mental revolution in which a scientific
approach could be brought to bear not only on the performance of
physical tasks but also on all social problems.
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In 1911, Frederick W. Taylor published his famous work titled the
“Principles of Scientific Management.” This book had three goals, the
goals include the followings.
i. To demonstrate the great losses by the United States of America
as a result of the daily inefficiencies practiced by its people.
ii. To suggest that the solution to this problem lay in
employing people of ability and in the practice of systematic
management.
iii. To prove that systematic management was based on
definite rules, laws and principles.
According to Taylor, scientific management is not an efficiency device,

nor does it belong to any group of efficiency devices. Scientific
management is no new scheme for rewarding men, it is no bonus
system, no piecework system, no premium system of payment; it is no
new method of figuring cost, it is not one of the various elements by
which people refer to it. It is not time study, nor man study; scientific
management does exist and cannot exist until there has been a
complete mental revolution on the part of the workmen working under
it, as to their duties toward themselves and toward their employers,
and a complete mental revolution in the outlook for employer, toward
their duties toward themselves, and toward their workmen. In
addition, until this great mental change takes place, scientific
management does not exist.

13.1 Explain the components of scientific management
13.2 Describe the aims and impact of scientific management
193
13.3 Explain the criticisms and relevance of scientific management
13.4 Components of Scientific Management
13.5 Aims of Scientific Management
13.6 Impact of Scientific Management
13.7 Relevance of Scientific Management
13.8 Criticisms of Scientific Management
13.1 Scientific Management Theory

This theory was propounded by Frederick Taylor. The key tenet of
scientific management is that human beings are adjunct to the
machine, thus the workers should be made as efficient as the
machine they operated in order to achieve optimum productivity and
efficiency. But human beings as adjunct of the machine can only be
applied to the lower echelon of the organization. The weakness of the
technique lies in the fact that human beings are not machine, and do
not become activated like machines. Workers are human beings with
values which require that they be differently treated in an organization
scientific management theory views productivity as the major goal of
an organization. This school of management thought is strongly
influenced by the rational systems of theoretical thinking. Frederick
Winslow Taylor applied scientific methods to develop accurate
measurements to determine what constitutes a day‟s work for each
operation by establishment standards through studying the job to find
the best way of doing it in the shortest time required.
13.2. Taylor’s Concept of Management

Taylor views management as a process of getting things done by people
operating independently or in groups. According to George in Sapru
194
(2008:95) Taylor‟s approach to the management problem is direct and
simple.
Define the problem, analyse the work situation in all its facets, apply
measuring devices to all facets capable of being measured, experiment
by holding all aspects of the job constant except one which would be
varied, development of guide or principle of management from the
observations and study, and finally, prove the validity of the principle
by subsequent application.
Taylor‟s main thesis is that prosperity to the society can come only
through the joint endeavour of the management and labour in the
application of scientific methods. He calls for mental revolution on the
part of both management and labour so that they might in the spirit of
work harmony with a view to improving their respective lots–attaining
high wages for labour and increased output at low costs for
managements. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that management is
neglecting its functions and pushing the burden of methods and
output on labour. He suggested that management must do the work of
planning, organizing, controlling, determining methods and the like
for which it is best suited.
13.3 Principles of Scientific Management

Taylor observes that what the employees want from their employers
beyond anything else is high wages; and what employers want from
their employees most of all is low labour cost of manufacturing. The
existence or absence of these two elements forms the best index to
either good or bad management. Taylor laid down four underlying
principles of scientific management as follows.
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The Development of True Science: According to Taylor, the
development of true science consists of a deliberate gathering together
of mass traditional knowledge by the management, using motion
study, time study, recording it, tabulating it, reducing it, in most
cases to rules, laws, and in many cases, to mathematical formula,
which are applied to the work of the employees. The principle,
therefore, entails the establishment of a large daily task, classified
after scientific investigation as the amount to be done by a suitable,
selected and trained person under optimum conditions. The result of
the development of a time science according to Taylor is immense
increase in output by both the employer and the employee.
The Scientific Selection and Progressive Development of the

Workmen: Taylor avers that the deliberate selection of the employees
is the second of the great duties that devolved on the management
under scientific management. The management must take a great deal
of trouble in selecting the employees in order to ensure that employee
possessed the physical and intellectual qualities necessary to achieve
output. Taylor stated that it is the responsibility of the management to
develop the workers by training them to enable them perform better,
and then pay them higher wages than ever before. The scientific
selection and progressive development of an employee is the second of
the great duties that devolve on the management under scientific
management.
The Bringing Together of the Science and the Scientifically

Selected and Trained Men:
This principle calls for mental revolution on the part of the workers and
management. According to Taylor, select and train your employees to
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the maximum. Unless there is someone who will make the men and
the science come together, they will stay apart. He noted that the
greatest resistance to scientific management comes from the side of
management. The workers, he noted are willing to cooperate in
learning to do a good job for a higher pay.
A Uniform Division of Work and Responsibility between
Management and Workers: This is the last principle of scientific
management. Here, the management and workers should share equal
responsibility – with each sector performing the work for which it is
best suited. With this intimate cooperation, the opportunities for
discord and conflict are almost eliminated since the exercise of this
authority is not arbitrary. Thus, under scientific management, science
would replace the rule-of thumb, harmony would replace discord,
cooperation would replace individualism, maximum output would
replace restricted output, and each man would be developed to his
greatest efficiency and prosperity. In his quest for a science of
management, Taylor discovered or implemented a series of
innovations pertaining to the machinery of production, the
organizational environment, and the people who use the machines.
Some of these developments include the invention of mechanical
devices, the development of cost accounting techniques, machine
room layout and design, purchase and store methods, tool
standardization and room re-organization, and mnemonic
classification systems.
13.4 Components of Scientific Management

Taylor‟s scientific management comprises mainly three components,
these are:
197
1. time and motion studies
(ii) wages incentive system
(iii) functional organisation.
Time and Motion Studies

Taylor attributed more than half of the problem of inefficiency to the
management‟s ignorance of the proper time required to perform a
task.
Accordingly, a primary task for scientific management is to establish
appropriate standards based on scientific investigations of tasks
performed using optimal methods rather than simple observations of
actual performance in the workplace. The primary tool of analysis in
this investigation is time – and – motion studies. The general
procedures employed in time – and – motion studies is to break down
physical activities into their component parts, specify the optimal
routine for the performance of each component part, and discover the
most efficient method for recombining the parts with the more
complex task. For Taylor, the following steps are involved in the time –
and – motion studies.
i. The worker is provided with the best implements.
ii. The task is divided into elementary units.
iii. Useless movements are discarded.
iv. The analyst watches a skilled employee perform the task
with the help of a stopwatch.
v. The elementary movements of the task are grouped in a
proper sequence to maximize overall efficient task performance.
vi. The proper method of task performance is recorded and
the time required to perform the task is determined.
198
vii. An allowance to the extent of 20 to 27 percent should be
added to the actual working time to allow for unavoidable
delays.
viii. Allowances should be made for the time it takes a new
employee to learn the job.
ix. Allowance should be made for rest required for a worker to
recover from body fatigue.
The intent of time-and-motion study is to establish standards for the

performance of a task, accounting for the capacity, speed, and
durability of the worker. Thus, standards established are to be
accepted only conditionally. Those standards are not to be altered,
unless a new method of performing the task is discovered. This is
required to prevent arbitrary changes in standards as productivity
increases.
In his famous studies at the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Taylor found

that a group of 75men were loading an average of 12 ½ tons of pig
iron per man per day. On the other hand, a Duch labourer called
Schmidt, selected by Taylor, increased his output to 47 ½tons per day
for the three years of the study by following detailed instructions to
handling of pig iron. Men were selected one at a time and trained to
handle pig iron at the rate of47 ½ tons per day and, in return, like
Schmidt, they received a 60 percent increase in wages. Taylor drew
attention to the need for the scientific selection of the workers.
Wages Incentive System

As stated earlier, Taylor‟s incentive system is based on the established
standards of work performance through time – and – motion studies.
199
Under this, the worker is assigned a defined task with detailed
instructions and a specified time allowed for performing the task.
When this has been accomplished, the worker is to be paid
extraordinary wages for performing the task within the allotted time
and ordinary wages if the time allotment is exceeded.
Taylor was against the method of award for day work, piecework, and
task work with a bonus or differential piecework. He also objected to
gain-sharing plans, such as those suggested by Towne and Halsey. In
Taylor‟s views, factors such as special incentives, higher wages,
shorter working hours, better working conditions, and individual
reward far overshadow the importance of the specific method of
payment.
Fredrick Winslow Taylor based incentives on prior standards of work
performance with each worker rewarded on an individual basis and
performance linked reward. Thus, under Taylor‟s incentive system,
like other pay plans, success is rewarded by higher wages and failure
is penalised by financial loss.
13.5 Aims of Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor enunciated the following aims/objectives of
scientific management. They are as follows.
i. Gauge industrial tendencies and the market in order to
regularize operations in a manner which will conserve the
investment, sustain the enterprise as an employing agency, and
assure continuous operation and employment
ii. Assure the employee not only continuous operating and
employment by correct gauging of the market, but also to assure
200
a continuous earning opportunity while on the payroll by
planned and balanced operations.
iii. Earn through a waste-saving management and processing
technique, a larger income from a given expenditure of human
and material energies, which shall be shared through increased
wages and profits by workers and management.
iv. Make possible a higher standard of living because of
increased income to workers.
v. Assure a happier home and social life to workers through
removal, by increase of income, of many of the disagreeable and
worrying factors in the total situation
vi. Assure healthful as well as individually and socially
agreeable conditions of work
vii. Assure the highest opportunity for individual capacity
through scientific ways of work analysis and of selection,
training, assignment, transfer and promotion of workers.
viii. Assure by training and instructional foremanship the
opportunity for workers to develop new and higher capacities,
and eligibility for promotion to higher positions.
ix. Develop self-confidence and self-respect among workers
through opportunity afforded for understanding of one‟s own
work specifically, and of plans and methods of work generally.
x. Develop self-expression and self-realization among workers
through the simulative influence of an atmosphere of research
and valuation, through understanding of plans and methods,
and through the freedom of horizontal as well as vertical
contacts afforded by functional organization.
xi. Build character through the proper conduct of work
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xii. Promote justice through the elimination of discrimination
in wage rate and elsewhere.
xiii. Eliminate factors of the environment, which are irritating,
and the causes of frictions, and to promote common
understandings, tolerances and the spirit of teamwork.
13.6 Impact of Scientific Management

The scientific management has made the following specific impacts or
contributions to both management and administration.
i. It has led to professionalization of management. Nwizu rightly
observed that the present practice in the modern industry of
having a specialized and trained managerial cadre had its origin
in Taylor‟s view.
ii. It led to reduction in wastage of human and material
resources utility of efforts.
iii. Scientific management contributed to greater specialization
of activities, with proper design of jobs, specification of methods,
and set time and motions studies and establishment of
standards of job performance. All these have contributed to the
private sectors.
iv. Through scientific management, managers and
administrators became aware of the importance of compensation
and other incentives to workers in ensuring increased
productivity.
v. Scientific management brought about scientific selection of
workers to ensure that only the right calibre of staff is selected.
It also led to inception of efforts at formal training of workers in
organizations.
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vi. The scientific management has greatly influenced both
theory and practice of public administration.
Scientific management elevated management by planned system and

design. It is important to note that the values and methods of
scientific management were in tune with the movement for reforms of
government and civil service such as centralization of authority, and
accountability, introduction of business methods to public
administration and the consequent acceptance of efficiency as a
primary goal of administration; establishment of merit systems;
freeing public administration from partisan politics, etc.
13.7 Relevance of Scientific Management

While Taylor‟s work is subjected to a lots of criticism, it should be
recognized that he wrote at a time of industrial growth and the
emergence of complex organizations with new forms of technology. His
main concern was with the efficiency of both workers and
management. Taylor believed his scientific management techniques
would improve management–worker relations, and contribute to
improved industrial efficiency and productivity. Drucker claims that
Frederick Winslow Taylor may prove a more useful prophet for our
times than we yet recognize… Taylor‟s greatest impact may still be
ahead… The underdeveloped and developing countries are now
reaching the stage where they need Taylor and scientific management.
But the need to study Taylor anew and apply him maybe greatest in
the developed countries (Sapru, 2008:109).
Drucker argued that the central theme of Taylor‟s work was not
inefficiency but the need to substitute industrial warfare by industrial
203
harmony. Taylor sought to do this through higher wages from
increased output; and removal of physical strain from doing work the
wrong way; development of the workers and the opportunity for them
to undertake tasks they were capable of doing; and elimination of the
boss by the duty of management to help the workers.
Taylor, in developing scientific management, made enormous

contributions to the understanding and prescription for the
management of organizations. Yet he is probably better characterized
as a synthesizer than an innovator. In dealing with industrial unrest,
scientific management promoted and called for a new look of
harmonious and whole–hearted cooperation in place of the old
tendency toward rugged individualism.
Further, scientific management, with its emphasis on research,

planning, use of standards, and cooperation, encouraged management
to take decisions based on the laws of the situation instead of
individual guess and intuition.
The scientific management movement spread far beyond the borders of

the United States, and gained wide recognition in Germany, England,
France, Sweden and other European countries. In Russia,
immediately after the revolution of 1917, Lenin referred to the Taylor
system, as a combination of subtle brutality of bourgeois exploitation
and a number of its greatest scientific management. He and Trotsky
sponsored a state–led scientific management movement aimed at
promoting labour discipline and higher productivity.
13.8 Criticisms of Scientific Management
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Scientific Management has been criticized on the following grounds.
i. It lays much emphasis on economy, efficiency and material
welfare to the neglect of the emotional and psychological needs
of the workers.
ii. Scientific management dehumanizes employees. It
considered the organization as a machine and the human beings
working in the organization as parts of the machine. Workers
were meant to do the work at a standardized rate. If they
produced below the standardized rate, they were thrown out.
iii. It encourages authoritarian leadership. This is because the
traditional approach to public administration and management
on which scientific management is based does not tolerate
composite decision – making.
iv. Scientific management recommends specialization, which
it assumes as the best way of getting things done. Yet,
specialization may be boring because of its repetitiveness and
monotony.
v. There is no one best way to carry out functions related to
values. For instance, what is the one best way to eliminate
corruption in Nigeria? Or what is the one best way to be
president of Nigeria?
vi. Scientific management wrongly assumes that individuals
first look for their own best interests before those of the group.
The Hawthorne experiment shows that workers realize that they
are disadvantaged and helpless unless they exist as a group.
vii. The scientific management techniques have been severely
criticized by the Marxists as mere efficient tools to exploit
labour.
205
The above discussion showed that, the views and concepts generated by
scientific management, though new and radical at that time, are
widely applied in today; they are accepted as standards for managerial
practice. This acceptance is itself indicative of the total effect of
scientific management.
The principles of Taylor‟s scientific approach to management appear to

be very relevant today. Many of Taylor‟s ideas are accepted by present
– day managers. We can still see examples of management practices
based on the philosophy of his ideas. Taylor gave a major impetus to
the development of modern management thinking.
Although, the Marxists criticized scientific management based on the

substantial increase in the profits of the enterprises where Taylor‟s
experiments were carried out was not matched by corresponding
increase in the wages of the workers. Still Taylor‟s scientific
management approach is relevant and accepted today.
The unit has thrown light on the scientific theory of management. The
concept and principles of management are considered alongside the
component of scientific management. The aims, impacts,
contributions, relevance and criticisms of scientific management were
also highlighted and discussed.
In the next unit, you will be taken through the discussion on the
classical theory.
206

8.1 Scientific management theory was propounded by
_______________
a) Frederick Taylor
b) Frederick Tailor
c) Frederick Maslow
d) Frederick Churchill

8.2 The key tenet of scientific management is that human
beings are ____________ to the machine
a) substitute
b) parallel
c) equal
d) adjunct

8.3 The weakness of the scientific management technique lies in the
fact that human beings are _______________
a) not machine
b) machine
207
c) spiritual
d) calculating

8.4 Scientific management theory views _______________ as the
major goal of an organization
a) productivity
b) posterity
c) profitability
d) probability

8.5 _____________applied scientific methods to develop accurate
measurements
a) Frederick Winslow Taylor
b) Fredrick Isaac Taylor
c) Abraham Maslow
d) Peter Drucker

8.6 According to George in Sapru (2008:95) Taylor‟s approach
to the management problem is direct and _________________
a) clumsy
b) complex
c) simple
d) thorough
208
8.7 The school of scientific management thought is strongly
influenced by the _________________systems of theoretical
thinking.
a) notional
b) national
c) rational
d) motional

8.8 Fredrick Taylor calls for mental ________________ on the
part of both management and labour
a) revolution
b) abolition
c) renaissance
d) energy

8.9 Taylor views _________________ as a process of getting
things done by people operating independently or in groups
a) task
b) management
c) service
d) d profit
SAQ 13.9.1(Tests Learning Outcome 13.2)

8.9.1 Taylor‟s main thesis is that prosperity to the society can
come only through the joint endeavour of the management and
____________ in the application of scientific methods.
a) labour
209
b) task force
c) skill
d) organisation

Taylor observes that what the employees want from their employers
beyond anything else is ______________
a) high recognition
b) high supervision
c) high wages
d) high morale

8.9.3 Under the scientific management principle the analyst
watches a skilled employee perform the task with the help of a
______________
a) stopwatch
b) wall clock
c) table clock
d) wrist watch

8.9.4 The proper method of task performance is recorded and
the time required to perform the task is __________________
a) examined
b) determined
c) detested
d) excluded
210
8.9.5 All but one are the intents of time-and-motion study
a) to establish standards for the performance of a task
b) make possible a higher standard of living because of increased
income to workers.
c) promote justice through the elimination of discrimination in
wage rate and elsewhere
d) plot the overthrow of management by the labour

8.9.6 In terms of its impacts, scientific management has
a) led to professionalization of management
b) led to collapse of small scale industries
c) frustrated the activities of fraudsters
d) brought about political stability to nations

8.9.7 Scientific management has greatly influenced both theory
and practice of _____________
a) public administration
b) international relations
c) c public relations
d) d individual relations

8.9.8 Taylor‟s main concern was with the ______________ of both
workers and management.
a) efficiency
211
b) deficiency
c) exigencies
d) expediency

8.9.9 One of the criticisms of the scientific management theory is
that it _________________
a) dehumanizes employees
b) emboldens employees
c) compensates employees
d) energizes employees
SAQ 13.9.9.1(Tests Learning Outcome 13.8)

8.9.9.1Scientific management recommends specialization, yet,
specialization may be _______because of its repetitiveness and
monotony.
a) tasking
b) boring
c) wasting
d) needless
SAQ 13.9.9.2(Tests Learning Outcome 13.8)

8.9.9.2The scientific management techniques have been severely
criticized by the Marxists as mere efficient tools to exploit
______________
a) the masses
b) labour
212
c) the management
d) the people
213
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th
Ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:
Ziks-Chuks Publishers.
Noun, Lagos.
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamentals of Public Administration.
Onitsha: Abbot.
Enugu: Snaap Press.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management
Thought (2nd Ed.). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.

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phone on:
08033366677
215
Study Session 14: Classical Theory of Organizations
Introduction
Herbert Simon propounded the classical theory of organization. Other
contributors of early 20th century are administrative practitioners and
theorists such as Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, J.D.
Mooney and A.C. Reiley. They were the French and American
specialists in different fields who searched for ideal administrative
structure. These early writers are known to belong to the classical
school of thought in organization theory.
The classical administrative theory grew out of Weber‟s bureaucratic

theory and Taylor‟s scientific management approach. Though classical
theory can be traced to Taylor‟s concern for functional foremanship
and planning cells, it is sometimes considered as an extension of Max
Weber‟s bureaucratic theory. In this unit therefore, you will be
conversant with some basic themes of classical theories, the main
features of classical theory, Fayol‟s definition of management and its
elements, Fayol‟s fourteen principles and then proceed to discuss the
evaluation of Fayol‟s ideas, criticism of classical theory and the
significance of the classical approach to the study of the public
administration.

14.1 Discuss the basic themes of classical theory
14.2 Identify the main features of classical theory
14.3 State the contributions of Henri Fayol to management studies
14.4 Explain the significance of the classical approach to organization
216
14.5 Criticisms of Classical Theory
14.6 Significance of the Classical Approach
14.1 Classical Theory

The classical theory of organization is also known as the structural
theory. The most important concern of the classical theory is the
formulation of certain universal principles of organization. It deals
primarily with formal organizational structure. The theory assumes
that there are certain fundamental principles on which an
organization can be established to achieve a specific objective. The
watchwords of this approach are efficiency and economy, as it
conceives that these principles, if fully adopted, can lead to maximum
organizational efficiency and economy. The structuralists were chiefly
concerned with discovering the true basis on which work can be
divided in an organization and devising proper methods of bringing
about the effective organizational coordination.
14.2 Characteristics of Classical Theory

The basic themes of classical theories include the following.
i. There are a set of basic principles to every organization. These
principles are immutable laws to manage an organization.
ii. The requisite personnel or workers have to conform to this
preconceived plan
iii. The four basic principles of classical theory are
impersonality, division of work, hierarchy and efficiency.
iv. Organizational tasks can be defined based on these
principles, and effective methods can be devised for better
coordination, delegation and control of personnel.
217
v. Classical theory advocated the use of authority as a system
of controlling personnel.
vi. The aim of this theory is the maximum organizational
economy, efficiency and productivity.
vii. The theorists had a dogmatic faith in their findings and
found them as the only one best way.
14.3 Features of Classical Theory

The classical theory of organization is generally regarded as being
covered by the standard works of Henri Fayol, Gulick Urwick, Mooney
and Reiley. Their interest was chiefly concerned with formal
organizational structure and the basic management process. They all
believed in the existence of certain universal administrative principles.
They also believed that the application of such principles could make
organizations function more efficiently. The many points about
administrative organizations, which the early administrative theorists
agreed on, were in use quite for sometimes before the Second World
War.
The classical theory of organization is also known as the “Formal
Organization Theory,” “Principles of Administration Theory”,
“Structural Theory”, and the “Administrative Management Theory”.
The main features of the classical theory are briefly noted as follows.
i. The classical theory emphasizes the anatomy of formal
organization. It views administration as a formal structural
arrangement by which work is divided, arranged and
coordinated for a definite purpose. The personnel, who are fitted
into the structure, are treated as mere cogs in the organizational
218
machine. The organization chart is regarded as the basic tool for
monitoring and controlling the entire administrative process.
ii. Classical writers hold the generic view of administration,
Henri Fayol and Lyndall Urwick, for instance, are of the opinion
that the distinction between public and private administration
does not exist. Henri Fayol opined, “We are no longer confronted
with several administrative sciences, but with one which can be
applied equally well to public and private affairs. In other words,
in the opinion of classical writers, administration is
administration wherever it is found and whatever kind of work it
undertakes. Therefore, public and private organizations share
common administrative principles and processes and the
distinction between them tend to minimize.
iii. The classical writers believe that administration is
governed by certain principles, which are said to be of universal
applicability of all forms of organization in all types of
environments. Because of this belief, all the classical
administrative theorists engaged themselves in evolving
principles of management. Gulick advocated a set of 10
principles of organization while Urwick propounded eight
principles of organization. Later he (Urwick) developed 29
principles by integrating the various principles developed by
other classical writers.
The classical writers believed that these common operating
principles of administration could guide administrators in
creating effective organization and improving administrative
practice. An organization built on these principles could achieve
efficiency and economy. It is also their belief that these
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principles could be built into a framework from which a general
theory of administration would emerge.
iv. The classical theory views public administration as a non-
political, technical, organization designed to implement public
policies with efficiency and economy. To the classical writers
such as Gulick, efficiency is not only the axiom number one in
the value scale of administration, but also the ultimate good of
all administrative activity. The objective of administration is to
achieve the maximum results with the least expenditure of
people and materials.
v. The classical writers upheld the distinction between the
line and staff activities. Line activities are concerned with the
fulfilments of the primary purpose of the organisation, while the
staff activities are concerned with the provision of specialized
advice and assistance to the line agencies. Thus, in the classical
organization theory, staff members are typically differentiated
from line members by their advisory capacity to line personnel.
The line people have considered the decision makers or order
givers. For classical theorists, this distinction between line and
staff people is fundamental.
vi. According to classical thinkers, people are motivated to
work by cash rewards such as increase in pay, and fringe
benefits and the threat of punishment. They believed that more
of such monetary rewards could keep people happy. The
classical theory manifests four features.
1. Impersonality
2. Division of work
3. Hierarchy, and
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4. Efficiency
Further, it is marked by the following six philosophical characteristics.

i. It is atomistic in the sense that it sees the individual in isolation
from fellow men.
ii. It is mechanistic because it does not explain the dynamics
of organization behaviour.
iii. It is static because it has a formal declared pattern of
relationship established by law
iv. It is voluntary because it rests upon the native belief that
the individuals are immune from the control either by the
groups or by the social factors.
v. It is rationalistic because tasks are performed according to
methods determined by the principles of scientific work
performance.
vi. It does not take any note of non-economic incentives.
14.4 Contributions of Henri Fayol

As earlier stated, Henri Fayol is called the father of the management
process or the functional management theory. As a French engineer,
he first published his experiences in the book “General and Industrial
Management” in 1916. The book arrived in England only when it was
first translated to English in 1929. He tried to approach organizations
through their general principles without making a distinction between
industrial and public service organizations. According to him,
management and administration are two sides of the same coin and
need not be distinguished. Fayol‟s theory of the scalar chain, which is
the synonym for hierarchy, is a kind of photograph of the framework.
Fayol used these principles to explain the organizational behaviour.
221
He did not consider these principles as immutable or one best way,
but maintained that the principle is the lighthouse fixing the bearings,
which can only serve those who already know the way to the port.
Fayol divided the industrial activities into six groups. These are as
follows.
i. The technical activities, which include production, manufacture
and adaptation.
ii. The commercial activities, which include buying, selling
and exchange.
iii. The financial activities that is, search for and optimum use
of capital.
iv. The security activities, which include protection of property
and persons.
v. The accounting activities, which include stocktaking,
balance sheet, costs, statistics etc.
vi. The managerial activities, which include planning,
organization, command coordination, control, etc.
Fayol also explained the four elements of administration as follows.

i. Forecasting: This involves forecasting a plan. This indicates the
need for administration to plan for future, look ahead, and adapt
plans for the prospective situations. He called it previous or
purveyance.
ii. Organizing: This involves drawing the structure of the
organization in such manner that would facilitate the
performance of basic activities in an optimal manner.
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iii. Commanding: This involves instilling sense of discipline in
the subordinates through knowledge of the task and constant
contact.
iv. Coordinating: This involves building, harmonizing and
uniting all efforts and activities.
Henri Fayol’s Definition of Management and Its Elements

This theory was first formulated by Henry Fayol, and later Luther Gulick
and Lyndall Urwick. The theory concentrates on attempts to develop
principles of administration which can be applied everywhere.
According to them, any administrative principle once developed,
should logically work in any kind of administrative institution. Gulick
and Urwick gave the discipline of public administration, the acronym
POSDCORD which means planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting.
According to Gulick and Urwick, POSDCORD constitutes the key duties

and functions of any administrator in an organization. The acronym is
criticized of having over –simplified the work of an administrator. On
their own part, still under Administrative Management theory, James
D. Mooney and Allan C. Reilay formulated the four principles of
organization which are: the coordinative principle; the scalar principle
(hierarchical structure); functional principle (division of labour); and
the staff/line principle (Onuoha, 1999).Henri Fayol was the first to put
forward a classic analysis of the nature of managerial activity, based
on his own experience of doing the job in the mining and metallurgical
combined industry. He defines management in terms of the following
five key functional elements.
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1. Planning: it is the act of forecasting future and drawing up
the plan of action.
2. Organizing: it refers to structuring the human resources
of the undertaking into jobs, departments and so on to enable
them to put the plans into action. It also involves the use of
material resources.
3. Commanding: it consists of setting the human resources
into activity toward the organization‟s objective. This is what we
today call leading.
4. Coordinating: it involves unifying and harmonizing all
activities and efforts. It permeates the other four basic functions.
5. Controlling: it means, ensuring that everything occurs in
conformity with established rule and expressed command. It
serves to make certain that all operations are proceeding
according to plan to accomplish the goals.
These five managerial activities are treated by Fayol as universal. In his

opinion, these activities have to be performed by managers of both
public and private organization.
Fayol‟s five functional elements have provided a system of concepts with

which managers may clarify their thinking about what it is they have
to do.
According to Fayol, a successful manager must possess leadership

qualities, knowledge of the business and his workers, and the ability
to instill sense of mission. A manager having these qualities can
obtain the best performance from his work force. Knowledge of
necessary administrative powers and functions that have to be
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performed would empower the manager to organize and run any
undertaking. To Fayol, good administration is a process, which is
distinct from the particular management task at hand. To put it
differently, Fayol treated administration as a universal process, which
is equally applicable to both public and private organizations. In
Fayol‟s theory, the organization chart graphically depicts the essence
of the organization. According to him, such charts of managerial staff
show each man‟s immediate superior and subordinates and are a kind
of framework of the organization at a given moment.
Fayol’s Fourteen Principles
i. Division of Work: It refers to specialization of work or
labour in both managerial and non-managerial jobs. Division of
labour allows individuals to build up skills and increases
organization productivity.
ii. Authority and Responsibility: These refer to the right of a
manager to give commands and require conformity to those
commands. Responsibility must go with authority and must
match authority.
iii. Discipline: It implies that employees obey orders of
management, if it provides good leadership.
iv. Unity of command: This specifies that each employee
should receive orders from only one superior. It eliminates
conflicting lines of command.
v. Unity of direction: this denotes that people engaged in a
group of activities must have the same objectives in a plan.
vi. Subordination of individual interest to general interest:
This implies that the interest of one employee or a group of
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employees must be subordinated to the overall interest of the
organization.
vii. Fair remuneration for effort: this principle states that
since payment is an important motivator, it should be a matter
for manager‟s constant attention.
viii. Centralisation or decentralisation: this principle states
that centralization or decentralization of an organization should
depend on the condition of the business and the quality or
culture of its staff.
ix. Scalar chain: this refers to the line of authority, from
superior to subordinate, running from the top to the bottom of
an organization. This principle is necessary for unity of
direction.
x. Order: This principle state that both material order and
social order are necessary for the proper and efficient working of
the organization.
xi. Equity: it states that all employees should be treated with
fairness, kindness and justice.
xii. Stability of tenure: stability of tenure among personnel is
necessary for the successful running of the undertaking.
xiii. Initiative: all personnel in an organization must be
allowed to show their initiative in some way. This represents a
great source of strength for business, although it requires the
manager to sacrifice some personal vanity.
xiv. Esprit de corps: This is essential for management to foster
the morale of its employees.
Henri Fayol used these principles to explain organizational behaviour.
226
He did not believe that the principles of organization and administration
were immutable laws. They may, at best, serve as guidelines for
managers in performing their duties. These principles have to be
flexible and adaptable to varying situations because management
deals with people in a wide variety of circumstances. The process of
applying them would be more of an art than a science. Fayol raised
general management to the level of science. Unlike Taylor, he was not
focused on the shop floor but found mismanagement or lack of clear
principles of management as the reason for low efficiency and
productivity. He defined management in terms of the functions of
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
There are two noticeable points in Fayol‟s, which is different from the
“one best way” theorists.
First, he never insisted that this list of principles is the final one. He
believed that principles can be added and subtracted according to the
requirement of the organization. Fayol observed that every
administrative rule or advice strengthens the human part of an
organization or facilitates its working and has its place among the
principles for so long as experience proves it to be worthy of this
important position.
Secondly, unlike his contemporaries, Fayol is not rigid about the use of
the term “principles”. He opined that, “for preference I shall adopt the
term principles while disassociating it from any suggestion of rigidity,
for there is nothing rigid or absolute in management affairs, it is all
the question of proportion.” Seldom do we have to apply the same
principle twice in identical conditions; allowance must be made for
different changing conditions to allow for flexibility in propounding
227
principles, which have made functional management a universally
applicable theory.
This has also made Fayol a more acceptable theorist in management

practices in contrasts to the classical theorists. At least his two
principles, initiative and the esprit de corps have an important place
even in the modern organisation theory based upon psychology and
behavioural sciences. His suggestion for the stability of tenure has
also been the launcher for career services in contrast to the „hire and
fire‟ system prevalent in his time.
14.5 Criticisms of Classical Theory

The classical approach to public administration is full of contradictions
for which it has come under severe criticism. It has been criticized on
many grounds. The following are some of the major criticisms brought
against it.
Classical principles are synonymous with proverbs

Herbert Simon, a distinguished behavioural administrative theorist, is
one of the critics of the principles of administration developed by the
classical administrative thinkers from simple observations. He
observed the classical theory that they are little more than proverbs in
disguise. (A proverb is a popular saying, embodying some familiar
truth based on common sense or practical experience. For example,
“look before you leap,” but on the other hand, “he who hesitates is
lost”).Simon argued that, “like proverbs, the principles of
administration appear in pairs. For almost every principle one can
find an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory principle”. Let
us consider the principle of unity of command as an example. Unity of
228
command implies that each person in an organization should receive
orders from one boss to avoid confusion. However, this principle is
incompatible with the principles of specialization. The principles of
specialization lead to a situation in which their formal superiors also
receive directives from the specialists in the headquarters. The result
is dual chain of command, which violates the principle of unity of
command. In a similar fashion, Taylor‟s „function of foremanship‟ also
violates unity of command principle. These contradictions reveal the
unreality of the principle of unity of command.
Simon revealed that other principles of administration are also

contradictory. Some of the classical theorists argued that
organizations could improve supervision and productivity, if they kept
a low span of control. In the same way, he argued that organizations
would improve their performance, if they minimized the number of
layers in the hierarchy, thus reducing communication problems and
cutting down on red tape. Thus, the principle of narrow span of
control implying a tall hierarchy comes into conflict with the principle
of minimizing the number of supervisory levels of implying flat
hierarchy.
According to classical theorists, specialization leads to efficiency of the

organisation. However, the principle of specialization fails to inform
the executive of exactly how to specialize so as to promote efficiency.
They also failed to state whether functional specialization is better
than area of specialization or vice versa.
For all the reasons stated above, the administrative principles promoted
by the classical theorist cannot claim the status of empirically tested
229
scientific principles. They have little scientific validity. They can, at
best, be regarded as administrative homilies comparable to folklore or
folk wisdom. Considerable doubt also exists as to their relationship to
actual behaviour in real administrative situations. For this reason, it
is said that the so called principles of administration are of no use as
practical guides to the administrator. Therefore, Simon has
characterized the classical administrative theory as narrow and one
that lacks realism. Furthermore, there is no unanimity among the
classical theorist‟s as regards the principles of administration. Thus,
the contention of classical administrative theorists that public
administration had already developed as a science with universally
valid and generally applicable principles was largely discredited by
Simon‟s attack against the classical approach.
Classical Theory ignores the Human Factor and Informal Groups

The classical theory of Gulick and Urwick ignored the interplay of
individual personality and the influence of informal groups in the
functioning of an organization. It ignored problems stemming from
human interactions in organizations. It did not give adequate
attention to the social and psychological factors relating to human
behaviour in organizations. It ignored virtually, all features of
organizational life beyond the formal structure. It ignored the
individual employee and his needs. Mayo‟s human relations approach
has revealed the human, the interpersonal, and the informal factors
are of crucial administrative consequence thus, Mayo‟s theory
supplied a corrective to the mechanistic approach of Gulick and
Urwick
Classical Theory treats Organizations as closed systems
230
The classical theory treats an organization as a closed system,
completely unconnected with and not influenced by its external
environment. In fact, organizations actually engaged in constant
contact with their environment. An organization and its environment
influence each other. The environment of public or government
agencies is complex and the connection between them and the outside
world are highly significant. Government agencies, for example, have
to deal with legislative committees, interest groups, the press, the
court system, individual citizens and others. The influence of this
complex external environment on the decision making process of
public agencies is highly significant. Therefore, it is said that
organizations are considered cybernetic in their behaviour with regard
to the external environment
Over simplification of Human Motivation

The classical approach has over simplified human motivation to work.
The classical theorists, in their naivety, believed that people are
motivated only by cash rewards and threats of punishments have
been questioned by the human relationists and behaviourist. They
have argued that group pressures, social incentives, nature of work,
and the attitude of each employee towards it are also as important as
pay and fringe benefits.
Other Criticisms
The classical theory is accused of a pro management bias, because it
attached much importance to the efficiency and greater productivity of
the organization.
231
It is also said that in today‟s large, complex organizations, the
distinction between line and staff have lost much of their clarity and
significance because superior–subordinate relationships are becoming
less authoritarian and more advisory.
14.6 Significance of the Classical Approach

Despite its limitations, the classical approach had an impact on the
study and practice of public administration, especially in the USA.
Federal Government and many state governments in the USA
reformed their administrative studies. These reforms were based
largely on classical tenets. This theory played a notable role in
rationalizing administrative structures and even stimulating
production. Thus, the traditional emphasis in public administration
stressed in both theory and practices a rationalized view of
administration.
The classical approach has some value even today. Owing to its
influence, such management techniques as reporting, accounting and
budgeting have come to be used in public administration. Gulick‟s
POSDCORB formula serves even today as a handy checklist of the
functions of managers both in public and private sectors.
Administration of many governments is even at present structured in

accord with the classical principles. Some techniques of personnel
administration such as formal job described and position
classification are cut from the classical mould. Therefore, the classical
administrative theorists were errant, but important. Even today, some
of their ideas and concepts are relevant.
232
The idea that administration was a separate activity and was worthy of
intellectual investigation was first propounded by the classical writers.
The classical approach formulated a set of concepts of administration
that evolved a terminology, which has provided a base for subsequent
research in the field of administration. The limitations of the classical
theory stimulated further research in organisational behaviour, thus,
becoming an important milestone in the development of organization
theories such as human relations, behavioural and social
psychological theories. In fact, the classical theory is regarded as the
foundation of the 20th century administrative thought.

In this unit, you have learnt that classical theory has played a notable
role in rationalizing administrative structures as well as stimulating
production. The classical approach has some value even today. Owing
to its influence, such management techniques as reporting,
accounting, and budgeting have come to be used in public
administration. We can also see that Gulick‟s POSDCORB formula
serves today as a handy checklist in public and private sectors. There
is no doubt that administration of many governments today or at
present is structured in accord with the classical principles. Even
today, some of the classical ideas and concepts are still relevant in our
organization.
The unit has thrown light on the classical theory of organization. The
basic themes of classical theories are considered along with the main
features of the classical theory. The contributions of Henri Fayol, his
definitions of management and its elements, Fayol‟s 14principles of
233
management, the significance, and the criticisms of classical theory
were also highlighted and discussed. In the next unit, you will be
taken through the human relations theory or school.


1. ________________propounded the classical theory of organisation
a) Henri Fayol,
b) Lyndall Urwick,
c) J.D. Mooney
d) Herbert Simon

2. The classical theory of organisation is also known as the
______________
a) structural theory
b) contractual theory
c) behavioural theory
d) cybernetic theory
3. The watchwords of the classical approach are efficiency and _______
234
a) economy
b) harmony
c) commerce
d) honesty

4. The structuralists were chiefly concerned with discovering the
true basis on which work can be __________________ in an
organization
a) provided
b) divided
c) procured
d) dismissed

5. The four basic principles of classical theory are impersonality,
division of work, hierarchy and _________________
a) efficiency
b) proficiency
c) deficiency
d) delinquency

6. Classical theory advocated the use of authority as a system of
controlling ______________
a) personnel.
b) management
c) resources
d) disputes
235
7. The aim of the classical theory is the maximum organizational
economy, efficiency and_______________
a) productivity
b) profitability
c) suitability
d) accountability

8. The classical theorists had a dogmatic faith in their findings and
found them as the ________________
a) only one best way
b) one of the best ways
c) only one way
d) only one better way

9. All the classical theorists believed in the existence of
certain___________ administrative principles.
a) unipolar
b) universal
c) unilinear
d) secular

10. The many points about administrative organizations,
which the early administrative theorists agreed on, were in use
quite for sometimes ________________
a) before the Second World War.
b) during the Second World War
236
c) after the Second World War
d) before the First World War

11. The classical theory emphasizes the ____________ of formal
organization
a) autonomy
b) monotony
c) anatomy
d) dichotomy

12. The___________ is regarded as the basic tool for monitoring
and controlling the entire administrative process.
a) organization chart
b) organization flow
c) organization vehicle
d) organization headquarters

13. Gulick advocated a set of ten principles of organization
while Urwick propounded_____________ principles of
organization.
a) six
b) four
c) eight
d) seven
237
14. To the classical writers such as Gulick, efficiency is not
only the axiom number one in the value scale of administration,
but also the _____________ of all administrative activity.
a) ultimate goal
b) ultimate end
c) ultimate necessity
d) ultimate sight

15. The classical writers upheld the distinction between the
line and_________
a) staff activities
b) management activities
c) labour activities
d) cross activities.

16. The classical theory manifests following features except
__________
a) Impersonality
b) Division of work
c) Hierarchy, and
d) Accountability

17. According to Henri Fayol, management and administration are
a) two sides of the same coin
238
b) one and the same thing
c) two separate entities
d) incompatible.

18. Fayol‟s theory of the scalar chain, is the synonym for ___________
a) hierarchy,
b) authority
c) groups
d) staff

19. Fayol divided the industrial activities into ____________ groups
a) five
b) four
c) three
d) six

20. According to Gulick and Urwick, POSDCORD constitutes
the _____________ and functions ofany administrator in an
organization
a) key duties
b) focus
c) salary
d) thinking

21. The classical theory treats organization as a ______________
239
a) closed system
b) open system
c) class system
d) thorough system

22. The classical theory is accused of ____________, because it
attached much importance to the efficiency and greater
productivity of the organization.
a) anti-management bias
b) a pro management bias
c) no management bias
d) lack of management bias

23. Organizations are considered cybernetic in their behaviour
with regards to the
a) external environment
b) literal environment
c) internal environment
d) vertical environment

24. Despite its limitations, the classical approach had an impact on the
study and practice of public administration, especially in __________
a) the USA
b) Africa
c) Asia
240
d) the Caribbean

25. The classical theory played a notable role in rationalizing
administrative structures and even stimulating _____________
a) production
b) population
c) reproduction
d) debate

26. The idea that administration was a separate activity and was worthy
of intellectual investigation was first propounded by the _________
a) neo-classical writers
b) classical writers
c) behavioural writers
d) human relations writers

27. In fact, the classical theory is regarded as the foundation
of the __________ administrative thought.
a) 20th century
b) 21st century
c) 19th century
d) 18th century
241
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th
ed.). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu:
Ziks-Chuks Publishers.
Hughes, O. E. (1998), Public Administration and Administration: An
Introduction. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Goodnow, F. J. (1914), Politics and Administration, New York,
Macmillan. Gross, B. A. (1964),The Managing of Organizations,
Glencoe.
Noun, Lagos.
Publications PVT.
Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:
Ashok Galgotiafor Galgotia Publishing Company.
242

phone on:
08033366677
Study Session 15: Human Relations Theory
Introduction
The human relations approach is an attempt to improve some of the
defects inherent in the classical management approach. This
approach emerged from the result of the Hawthorne studies, which
was conducted by Elton Mayo and his fellow researchers from Harvard
University. The proponents of this school argue that since
management involves getting things done with and through people,
the study of management should be centred on interpersonal
relations. The scholars of this school have a heavy orientation to social
psychology. They believed that if the management of an organization
showed concern for employees, increased productivity would result.
The main concern of the human relations approach is the study of an

individual as a socio-psychological being and what motivates the
243
individual. In this school, there are scholars who lay emphasis on
human relations and why the manager should develop the skill to
understand and practice. The human relations school argued that
organizations could be improved by making it less formal and by
permitting more subordinate participation in decision-making. Elton
Mayo is regarded as the founder of the human relations movement.
Some of the major contributors to this group include Robert K.
Merton, Argyris, Likert, Alex Balevas, McGregor, and Keith Davis etc.
In this unit, you shall be made aware of the relevance of human
relations theory.

15.1 Discuss the different stages of the Hawthorne experiments
or studies
15.2 Explain the basic principles of the human relations theory
15.3 State the differences between the Taylor‟s scientific
management and Mayo‟s theory
15.4 Discuss the differences between the human relations
theory and the classical theory
15.5 Identify and explain the significance of the human relations
theory.
15.6 Enumerate the criticisms of Human Relations Theory
15.7 Discuss the significance of Human Relations Theory
15.1 Human Relations Theory

Human relations theory is another method of studying organizations.
The theory is reputed as being a reaction against person as machine
244
concept of the scientific management school. The human relations
theory of organization examines the informal work group at the
assembly, that is, the line level. It tries to find out what makes these
groups of workers work or refuse to work. The theory tries to establish
what relationship exists between motivation and job satisfaction, and
how these affect efficiency and productivity in the organization.
The formulation of the theory began with the efforts of Elton Mayo in
1927. The study focused on relationship between workers and
managers, and among workers themselves. The development of the
theory continued with the efforts of Abraham H. Maslow, in what is
today known as Maslow‟s hierarchy of human needs. Maslow
perceived human desire to be based first on psychological needs
which provide the foundation for the next greatest need, which is
security. These are followed by love or belonginess, self-esteem, and
finally self-actualization. According to him, all these human needs
collectively determine productivity in any organization.
The rise of human relations school may be attributed to the scathing
criticism of the mechanical and structuralists for having neglected the
psychological and sociological aspects of organization. Elton Mayo,
who spearheaded this humanistic challenge to the classicists. Called
his approach a clinical one. He focused upon the social and
psychological aspect of an organization in his Hawthorne experiments.
The Hawthorne Experiments/Studies

The Hawthorne experiments were conducted at the Western Electric
Company of the Bell Telephone Company at Hawthorne near Chicago.
Elton Mayo, with his two other colleagues of the Harvard Business
School , F.J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickinson, conducted
245
experiments which became the basis of all humanistic studies across
the world. The relevant experiments for the students of public
administration are as follows.
The Great Illumination Experiment

The famous earlier experiment ran from 1924 to 1927. The purpose of
this experiment was to study the effects of illumination that is,
lighting on workers‟ efficiency and productivity. Two teams of workers
took part in these tests – the experimental group and the controlled
group. Each group consisted of six women.
The researchers had assumed that an increase in illumination would

lead to greater production per worker. As the amount of lighting was
increased for the experimental group, efficiency and productivity
improved. However, to the surprise of the researchers, the workers
turned out even more when the lighting was reduced. In fact, the
workers did not stop working until the room became so dark that
vision was actually impaired. The productivity of the controlled group
working under a constant illumination also increased. The research
scientists were baffled by the seemingly anomalous results of this
experiment. From a scientific management perspective, this was
puzzling indeed.
Eventually, the researchers concluded that to some extent, the workers
were responding actually to the experiment itself rather than to the
levels of illumination. This phenomenon gave rise to what is called the
Hawthorne effect- the theory that workers perform more efficiently
because special attention is being devoted to them.
Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment
246
In 1927, the Harvard Industrial Research team directed by Elton Mayo
took over the Hawthorne experiments, which had produced
unexpected results in employee performance. Mayo and his colleagues
undertook the Relay Assembly Test Room Experiment at the plant. Its
objective was to determine the effect of changing work conditions on
the efficiency and output of the workers as a group. The researchers
also wanted to examine the role of fatigue and monotony on group
productivity. In this experiment, the researchers segregated a group
of` six women who were assembling telephone relays and placed them
in a test room. For two years the researchers studied the response of
the women to various changes in their working conditions. As many
as 10changes such as shorter hours, varied rest pauses, refreshments
and a number of incentives where the team spent a great deal of time
with the work group discussing the changes before they were put into
effect. Output increased each time a change was made. Yet, when the
women reverted to their original working conditions with a 48-hour
week, no refreshments, no rest pauses, and no other incentives,
output rose again– indeed to the highest ever recorded at Hawthorne.
Another significant result was a decline in absenteeism of 80 percent.

Either under pleasant or unpleasant working conditions the response
of the women in terms of productions moved in only one direction –
up. This fact startled Mayo‟s research team. One conclusion drawn
from this experiment was that production did not vary in direct
relation to working conditions. The conclusion eventually drawn from
this important experiment was that attention and recognition in and
of itself tends to generate a positive response. According to this study,
attention centered on employees raised morale and hence also
247
production, irrespective of what particular form that attention took. In
other words, people responded more favourably to attention than they
did to physical factors or to other material inducements.
In this experiment, the women had gained enormously in work

satisfaction by the feeling that they were part of the team by the
communication between the researchers and workers. Everyone in the
group felt more valued and responsible for her performance and that
of the group as a whole. This sense of cohesiveness and self-esteem
was more important to performance than any number of
improvements in the working environment.
Another important conclusion of this investigation was that worker–

management conflict was the result of the basic emotional attitudes of
the workers rather than the objective difficulties in the work situation
such as insufficient task specialisation or inadequate wages.
According to Mayo, workers were ruled by the logic of sentiment,
whereas managers were activated by the logic of cost and efficiency.
Thus, without understanding and compromise, conflict was inevitable.
Bank Writing Observation Room Experiment

In 1931, the Harvard researchers began their most important
experiment in the famous bank writing room at the plant. The
purpose of this experiment was to determine the effect of a piece–rate
pay system on group productivity. For the purpose of this experiment,
the researchers and the management put a small group of men
engaged in making parts of telephone switches on a piece–rate system
and observed their activities. Under this system, the management
logically expected the workers to earn higher incomes by turning out
248
more output. However, most illogically, the men did not produce as
many pieces of work as they could, even though they were being paid
in accordance with their output. They had developed a work culture of
their own. They had become a cohesive and compact group with their
own codes, rules and norms. Among these rules were prohibitions
against doing too much or too little work. They informally established
a standard level for daily output and decided not to exceed that fair
range of production. Contrary to the researchers and management‟s
expectations of a great jump in productivity, the output of the men
remained the same as before.
In this experiment, the male workers‟ reaction to the wage incentive plan
of the management was not at all like that of rational economic men.
Instead, they rationalized that plan as an attempt by the management
to eventually cut some jobs or to reduce wage rates. Though the
company assured the workers that such things would not happen,
employees remained unconvinced. Taylor‟s scientific management
could not explain the irrational behaviour of the employees. In this
experiment, the employees work behaviour was very much influenced
by group norms, group pressure and acceptance, and the concomitant
security. One conclusion from his experiment is that people do not
work simply to make money. It also made it clear that economic
incentives and material rewards would never be as powerful as social
norms and social controls in increasing productivity.
Major Findings of the Hawthorne Studies

The following are the major findings and generalization of the
Hawthorne studies.
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i. The output or the amount of work of a worker is not determined
by his physical capacity but by his social capacity.
ii. Non-economic rewards and sanctions significantly affect
the worker‟s behaviour.
iii. A worker often does not act or react to management as an
individual but as a member of groups.
iv. Communication, participation, and leadership play a
central role in worker‟s behaviour
Taken as a whole, the relations between workers and their supervisors

and among the workers have significant influences on the behaviour
of the workers. The significance of the Hawthorne investigation
focused on discovering the informal organization, which it now felt,
exists in all organizations. It confirmed Mayo‟s earlier view that what
he calls the „rabble hypothesis‟ about human behaviour (that is, each
individual pursues his own rational self-interest) was false. Mayo
emphasized that management must develop a new concept of
authority and foster a new social order based on the individual‟s
cooperative attitude.
15.2 Interview with Workers
Following the seemingly anomalous results of the Hawthorne
experiments the Harvard team conducted extensive interview with
large numbers of workers to inquire into conditions in the plant. The
researchers were interested in employees‟ attitudes about their jobs.
They found themselves hearing about workers‟ dreams, their home lives,
and other topics, which at first seemed extraneous. Through these
interviews, the researchers understood that people create an
impressive variety of interest, backgrounds, and concerns to work
250
situations with them, the interview also programme revealed that the
workers derive meaning and motivation from the social situations in
work groups. They can have marked effects on the attitudes and
behaviours of organization members. These interviews brought to light
the existence and functioning of the informal organization with the
formal organization. Mayo‟s generalization is that work satisfaction
depends to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the work.
The Hawthorne experiments discovered the psychological variables that

affect workers and revealed the impact of the informal organization on
behaviour of employees in organizations. These studies also revealed
the inadequacy of Taylor‟s scientific management and disproved his
philosophy of self–interest.
15.3 The Basic Principles of Human Relations Theory

The human relations movement was inspired in large part by the
Hawthorne studies with which Mayo‟s name is forever linked. The
confluence of Mayo‟s philosophy and the findings of various studies
formed the human relations movement. This movement advocated
more humanism, dignity and democracy in the work place. The basic
principles of human relations theory may be discussed as follows.
i. Workers are essentially social beings. They must first be
understood as people if they are to be understood as
organization members. Their attitudes and effectiveness are
conditioned by social demands from both inside and outside the
work plant.
ii. Work is a group activity. The work groups enforce a
standard level of productivity upon all members through its own
codes and norm. Mayo said that human collaboration in work
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has always depended upon the evolution of a non-logical social
code, which regulates between persons and their attitudes to
one another. The small informal groups are found to be
exceedingly significant in the functioning of organizations. They
affect organization members‟ perceptions and serves as medium
of communications.
Small informal group propagate norms – expected behaviours –
about such matters as how groups deal with one another and
with superiors, which types of formally prescribed actions will be
resisted by employees, and how much will actually be
performed.
iii. Social rewards and sanctions are the strongest motivators
on the job. The workers in the Hawthorne plant responded to the
respect, recognition, affection, sense of belonging and security
and the appeals to group loyalty provided by their fellow
workers. These social and psychological factors were found to be
more powerful as motivators than the management system of
economic incentive and material rewards. Thus, non–economic
factors played an important role in determining workers‟ morale
and motivation. They are more important than the physical
conditions under which the workers operate. The behaviours of
workers cannot be separated from their feelings and sentiments.
The general hypothesis, which main emphasis is on human
relations theory, is that, motivation to work, productivity, and
quality of work are all related to the nature of the social relations
among the workers and between the workers and their boss.
iv. Mayo and his colleagues found that formal structure by no
means described the totality of an actual, functioning
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organization. The formal organization is always supplemented by
an informal organization, a pattern of social relations that crops
up outside of – and sometimes in conflict with- those prescribed
by organization charts or management. In fact, Mayo‟s most
important discovery was the existence of informal organization
within each formal organization. Mayo explained that
management could only succeed in leading an organization‟s
employees if the workers, in their informal groups, accepted that
leadership without reservation. Organizations are therefore,
social as well as technical entities.
v. The human relations theory emphasized the participative
style of management or supervision and democratic system of
administration. The Hawthorne experiments made it clear that
effectiveness and productivity of the workers will increase if
there is effective communication between the management and
the workers, and if the management is willing to allow the
workers participate in decision making. This type of
management requires every change in the work schedule and
should be preceded by manager‟s close consultation with the
informal work groups and their informal leaders.
The experiments also revealed that workers will do better if allowed to
manage their own affairs without being told what to do. While the
participative type of supervision wins the worker‟s acceptance of
organizational objectives, the democratic system of administration
would alienate the workers. The participative type of supervision
coupled with democratic system of administration would lead to the
highest level of workers‟ effectiveness and the resultant productivity.
253
The human relations approach is built on socio-psychological findings,
theories and applications, which call attention to the fact that work
environment, cannot function in terms of technical efficiency, profit
and wages. Workers are very much influenced by friendships with
colleagues, group pressures and standards, and the social
environment. Thus, the essence of human relations approach was a
focus on the organization as a social system.
15.4 Frederick W. Taylor Vs Elton Mayo

Elton Mayo‟s human relations theory is frequently presented as
somewhat opposite to that of Taylor‟s scientific management. There
are certainly some basic differences between the two approaches. The
differences include the following.
i. In Taylor‟s philosophy, productivity depends upon physical
factors and monetary incentives, whereas in Mayo‟s theory, the
informal work group norms could affect productivity in a positive
way.
ii. Taylor looked at workers as self-centred rational economic
men. In contrast, Mayo looked at them as social beings and
members of small informal work groups.
iii. They also differed as regards the sources of conflict
between management and workers. Taylor traced the causes of
such conflict to the objective difficulties in the work situation
while Mayo thought that such conflict was the result of the basic
emotional attitudes of the workers.
From the preceding discussion, one should not conclude that Mayo was
against Taylor‟s scientific management theory. Mayo was really not
254
against Taylorism. What he did was that he debunked Taylor‟s rigid
application of scientific management.
In a sense, however, Mayo‟s human relations theory and Taylor‟s

scientific management are allied. Both believed that friendly
cooperation between workers and management would eliminate nearly
all causes of conflict, dispute and disagreement between them.
However, they suggested different methods to achieve cooperation and

harmony.
Taylor felt that high wages would generally suffice to elicit employee‟s
cooperation and compliance. Mayo on the contrary, suggests such
devices as participative style of supervision from the behavioural side
of administration. He always insisted that the understanding of
human factors such as workers morale was important to his system.
In these aspects, Taylor‟s philosophy is related to that of Mayo‟s
human relations. Both were motivated to improve the productivity of
the American industry in the early twentieth century.
15.5 The Human Relations Theory Vs the Classical Theory

The human relations theory is called the neo-classical theory because
just as the classical theory, it also accepts efficiency, economy, and
productivity as the legitimate values of organization. However, to
achieve these values, the human relations approach relies on
techniques that are quite different from those of the classical
approach. The human relation theorists seek to maximize the values
of efficiency, economy, and productivity by eliminating the
255
dysfunctions caused by overspecialization, alienating hierarchical
arrangements and general dehumanization of the classical approach.
Thus, the classical and human relations theories are alike in their
objectives but they differ in the methods and techniques adopted to
accomplish those objectives. The human relations theory also differs
from the classical theory in the following respects.
i. The classical theory emphasizes the formal organization
structure consisting of jobs and job descriptions as spelled out
in organization charts and manuals. In contrast, the human
relations theory is concerned with the informal organization,
that is, the life or individual workers and workgroup within the
organization.
ii. The, classical theory takes the atomistic view of man and
views workers as various cogs in a machine. On the contrary,
the human relations theory considers workers essentially as
social beings who have the tendency to form the informal groups
in the work situation.
iii. In determining workers‟ motivation, economic rewards and
physical conditions of work are regarded by the classical
theorists as important factors. Contrastingly, the social–
psychological, factors and sanctions are considered by the
human relationists as important motivators to work.
iv. The classical theory emphasizes the authoritarian style of
supervision, while the human relations theory lays emphasis on
democratic and participative style of supervision. The preceding
discussion clearly shows that the classical and human relations
approaches have taken two different views of organizations. If
256
the classical theory viewed organizations as formal structures,
the human relations approach emphasized informal relations
within organizations. Neither of the two approaches is wholly
right, although each is partially right. In reality, an organization
is both a formal structure and informal relations. These aspects
of an organization are not contradictory but allied to each other.
It is good to recognize that informal organizations exist in all
formal organizations and are not necessarily harmful, but may
facilitate teamwork and collaboration. Therefore, it would be in
the interest of management to develop harmony between the
informal social systems and the formal organization by dealing
effectively with the dynamics of informal groups and sentiments
of the workers.
15.6 Criticisms of Human Relations Theory

Although human relations theory is an improvement over the classical
theory, it is also not free from errors and defects. Mayo‟s human
relations theory has been subjected to certain criticisms. These are
highlighted below.
i. The human relations theorists were accused of being
preoccupied with increase in material wealth through greater
productivity as the classical theorists. Mayo and his colleagues
naively assumed that happy employees would be productive
workers.
ii. Mayo‟s Hawthorne studies, from which the human
relations theory developed, have been attacked on the
procedures adopted, the analysis of the findings and the
conclusions drawn. For instance, Mayo‟s assumption that there
257
is a natural community between workers and management has
yet to be proved. In fact, the conflicts between the employers and
employees are real, based on real class differences. One of the
frequent attacks leveled against Mayo‟s philosophy is that he
failed to appreciate the value of competition and conflict in
assuring the freedom of workers. It is said of Mayo that he had a
tendency to draw conclusions than the data supported. In
addition, it is said that Mayo had failed to demonstrate any
commonality of interest between workers and management.
iii. Like the scientific management, the human relations
theory is also one sided. If Taylor and his colleagues focused on
organizations without people, Mayo and his team of researchers
concentrated on people without organizations. The human
relations theorists looked at organization members, their
motivation, satisfaction, and so on but neglected (or rather
ignored) the roles of formal structure, technology, and conflict in
influencing the behaviour of workers. Thus, Mayo‟s theory lacks
capacity to explain the multifaceted organizational behaviour
and relationships.
iv. The human relationists have overdrawn the sweeping
contrast between the formal and informal organizations and
failed to synthesize these two aspects of organization in a
harmonious way. This is an important defect of Mayo‟s theory of
human relations.
v. The Hawthorne experiments of 1927 to 1932, conducted by
Mayo and his colleagues, covered the behaviour of small groups
only and did not deal with the entire organisation. The
observations made by them about the behaviour of the small
258
experimental groups in the Hawthorne plant may not be valid
when applied to the entire organization, and its behaviour may
be at variance with the behaviours of the small informal groups
within it. They lacked a theory that could explain the set of
observations they had made about workers‟ motivation.
vi. The Mayo‟s group thought that the benevolence of
executives towards employees coupled with improved
communications with the work groups would raise productivity
and make the workers happy. The critics found this emphasis
superficial and irrelevant to the needs of the workers. The
researchers also thought that labour unions were driving
management and workers apart, increasing conflicts, and
preventing effective communication. However, the critics pointed
out that union, in fact, protected the employees against
executive power.
15.7 Significance of Human Relations Theory

The Hawthorne studies and Elton Mayo‟s philosophy have tremendous
impact on both management and academics.
i. In the first place, despite their defects and limitations, the
Hawthorne experiments were significant in stimulating an
interest in the human factors. In the words of Stephen P.
Robbins, from a historical perspective, the Hawthorne studies
began a new direction –recognition that human beings are a
complex and influential input into organizational performance.
The Hawthorne conclusions led to a new emphasis on human
beings as key contributors to the organizational efficiency,
productivity, and goal attainment.
259
According to Carol Kennedy, Mayo‟s contribution to management
thinking was seminal.
It revealed the importance, in hard bottom–line terms, of human
emotions, reactions, and respect for the business of managing
others. The Hawthorne studies constituted the first systematic
research to expose the human factor in work situations and
their impact led to a fuller realization and understanding of
human beings as workers in organizations.
ii. Central to the understanding of the human factor was the
discovery of the informal group as an outlet for the aspirations of
the worker. The informal groups could be encouraged to greater
productivity by being led to do it themselves through interest
and respect on the part of their managers. These groups are
found to be exceedingly significant in the functioning of
organizations. In the words of F.A. Nigro and L.G. Nigro, the
Hawthorne studies… established the informal group as a major
explanation of behaviour in organization and extended the
conceptual horizons of organization theory to include a huge
range of social psychological variables. The human relations
raised the status of informal work group equal to that of formal
organization as an administrative and managerial concern.
Obviously, human relations promoted a particular vision of
human nature in organizational settings; it urged cooperation
over competition and interdependence over individualism. In
fact, the Hawthorne studies allowed Mayo and the others to test
social theories that stressed values as the bases of human social
action.
260
iii. Mayo‟s Hawthorne studies pioneered the whole concept of
proper management–worker communication. He emphasized the
importance of an adequate communicating system, particular
upwards from workers to management. It is a new idea because
of the respect for the individual it required between bosses and
workers. Mayo explained that management could only succeed
in leading an organization‟s employees if the workers in their
informal groups, accepted it as authority and leader without
reservation.
Mayo‟s key concept of management-worker communication laid

the foundation for the work of later management thinkers and
writers such as Peter and Waterman and the 1950s school of
sociologists headed by Chris Arguris, Frederick Hertzberg and
Abraham Maslow. These writers and social psychologists like
Douglas M.C. Gregor, and Rensis Likert belong to the humanist
school of administration.
The above-mentioned writers accepted wholly the human relations

component in administration but carried it still further, arguing
for a more humanitarian approach to the whole administrative
problem. The humanistic theory has given importance to the
development of human personalities in the organization. The
writers of this school covered such areas of research as work–
group behaviour, need satisfaction, job satisfaction, motivation,
leadership, and so on. They have used psychological and
sociological concepts and research in analysing organisations.
Among psychologists, the studies switched the future emphasis
from fatigue to group processes.
261
iv. Lastly, the human relations approach to organisation
theory has made some valuable contributions to administrative
thought as well. It literally created the humanist school of
administrative thought, finally convincing the field that social
leadership skills for managers were at least as important as
technical knowledge. The new administrator needed to strive
toward social consolidation with workers.
According to Nesta Gallas and Laurence J.O. Toore, Jr., in their human
relations approach, attention to the social psychology of bureaucratic
life, its discovery of the informal organisation, its development of a
more complex and realistic model for human nature and its innovative
approach to organizational design, this school of theorists improved
markedly on the ideas of its predecessor.
Although, the human relations heyday (1930s to 1950s) was over, the
research and theory building continue today on many of the issues
first raised in the Hawthorne studies in the late twenties and the early
thirties. The human relations approach has great impact initially on
business administration, and later on public administration. Indeed, it
is regarded as a major development in the American administrative
through the period 1900–1939. This approach marked a major
turning point in the history of administrative theory and practice.

The human relations theory of organization rejects formal
institutionalization and considers the informal day–to–day functioning
of the structure as more revealing than the mechanistic study of
262
structure and principles of organization. However, it must be stated
that these two approaches are not mutually exclusive but rather
supplement each other.
There cannot be informal organization without a formal one, from where

the former can operate. Informal organization is a self–evident fact and
a functional necessity, which no formal structure can completely
choose to ignore.
The formal organization theory gives only a partial and incomplete

picture of organizational dynamics. The complete picture of an
organization emerges only when the formal theory is supplemented
with the informal theory. Undue emphasis on one will lead to distorted
view of organizational reality and undermining of the advantages of
both.
The unit has thrown light on the human relations theory of

organization. The Hawthorne experiments is considered along with the
basic principles of human relations theory, interview with workers,
Taylor‟s scientific management and Mayo‟s human relations theory
were discussed. The human relations theory and the classical theory
were also evaluated. The criticisms and the significance of human
relations theory of organization were highlighted and discussed.

263

1. Human relations theory is another method of studying ____________
a) organizations
b) geography
c) the civil service
d) mathematics
SAQ15.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 15.1)

2. Human relations theory is reputed as being a reaction against
person as machine concept of the ______________
a) behavioural school
b) neo-classical school
c) scientific management school
d) organizational school

3. The human relations theory of organization examines the
___________ at the assembly
a) informal work group
b) formal work group
c) semi-formal work group
d) former work group
264
4. The formulation of the human relations theory began with the
efforts of Elton Mayo in __________________
a) 1927
b) 1827
c) 2007
d) 1727

5. In the great illumination experiment, as the amount of lighting
was increased for the experimental group, efficiency and
productivity _____________
a) decreased
b) remain the same
c) disappear
d) improved

6. In the great illumination experiment, in fact, the workers did
not stop working until the room became ______________ that
vision was actually impaired
a) so bright
b) so dark
c) so dim
d) so cold
265
7. The great illumination experiment gave rise to what is called the
___________, the theory that workers perform more efficiently
because special attention is being devoted to them.
a) Canadian effect
b) American effect
c) Hawthorne effect
d) production effect

8. One of the objectives of the relay assembly test room experiment
was to determine the effect of ____________ on the efficiency and
output of the workers as a group
a) wages
b) sanctions
c) changing work conditions
d) weather

9. One conclusion drawn from the relay assembly test room
experiment was that ___________ did not vary in direct relation to
working conditions
a) production
b) input
c) job satisfaction
d) wages
266
10. In the relay assembly test room experiment people
responded more favourably to ________________ than they did to
physical factors or to other material inducements.
a) money
b) punishment
c) attention
d) instructions

11 In ______________, the Harvard researchers began their
most important experiment in the famous bank writing room at
the plant
a) 1931
b) 1921
c) 1951
d) 1941

12. The purpose of the bank writing observation room
experiment was to determine the effect of________________ on
group productivity
a) wages
b) sanctions
c) a piece–rate pay system
d) weather
267
13. In the bank writing observation room experiment, the
male workers‟ reaction to the wage incentive plan of the
management was not at all like that of ______________
a) rational economic men
b) national economic men
c) notional economic men
d) independent economic men

14. One conclusion from the bank writing observation room
experiment is that people do not work simply to make
______________
a) pride
b) money
c) friends
d) life

15. According to the Hawthorne studies, the amount of work of
a worker is not determined by his physical capacity but by his
____________
a) social capacity
b) brain capacity
c) desire
d) intuition
268
16. One of the major findings of the Hawthorne studies is that
a worker often does not act or react to management as an
individual but as __________________
a) a staff
b) a person
c) a wage earner
d) a member of groups

17. The significance of the Hawthorne investigation focused
on discovering the ____________, which it now felt, exists in all
organizations.
a) informal organization
b) informer organization
c) reformer organization
d) semi-formal

18. In Hawthorne experiments, the interview with workers
revealed that the workers derive meaning and ______________
from the social situations in work groups.
a) motivation
b) satisfaction
c) pay
d) joy

19. The Hawthorne experiments discovered the psychological
variables that affect _______________
269
a) a management
b) b profit
c) c machines
d) d workers

20. The human relations theory advocated more humanism,
dignity and _______________ in the work place
a) democracy
b) justice
c) equity
d) fairness

21. All except one are the basic principles of human relations
theory
a) Workers are essentially social beings.
b) The formal organization is always supplemented by an informal
organization,
c) The human relations theory emphasized the participative style of
management
d) Work is an individual activity

22. In Taylor‟s philosophy, productivity depends upon physical
factors and monetary incentives, whereas in Mayo‟s
theory,_____________ could affect productivity in a positive way.
a) the informal work group norms
270
b) the benevolence of the management
c) the timing of work
d) the generosity of the workers

23. Taylor looked at workers as self-centred rational economic
men. In contrast, May looked at them as _____________ and
members of small informal work groups.
a) social beings
b) cultural beings
c) ethnic beings
d) generous beings

24. In a sense, however, Mayo‟s human relations theory and
Taylor‟s scientific management are ________________
a) separate
b) conflictual
c) allied
d) contradictory

25. The human relations theory can also be called the___________
a) neo-classical theory
b) classical theory
c) parallel theory
d) alternative theory
271
26. The human relations theory is concerned with the______________
a) formal organization
b) informal organization
c) former organization
d) informer organization

27. Like the scientific management, the human relations
theory is also_____________
a) broad
b) neutral
c) one sided
d) two sided

28. Mayo‟s theory lacks capacity to explain the multifaceted
organizational_______________ and relationships.
a) behaviour
b) arrangement
c) development
d) structure

29. The human relationists lacked a_____________ that could
explain the set of observations they had made about workers‟
motivation.
a) basis
272
b) theory
c) concept
d) proof

30. The Hawthorne studies and Elton Mayo‟s philosophy have
tremendous ____________on both management and academics.
a) impact
b) view
c) stake
d) claim

31. Despite their defects and limitations, the Hawthorne
experiments were significant in stimulating an interest in the
___________
a) organizations
b) wages
c) industrial harmony
d) human factors

32. According to Carol Kennedy, Mayo‟s contribution to
management thinking was a
a) seminal.
b) topical
c) seasonal
d) timely
273
33. The humanistic theory has given importance to the
development of human ___________ in the organization
a) personalities
b) dignity
c) reasoning
d) relationships
274
Basu, R. (2004). Public Administration: Concepts and Theories (4th ed.).
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Ezeani, E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu: Ziks-
Chuks Publishers.
Hughes, O. E. (1998), Public Administration and Administration: An
Introduction. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Goodnow, F. J. (1914), Politics and Administration, New York, Macmillan.
Gross, B. A. (1964), The Managing of Organizations, Glencoe.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria.
Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in Nigeria.
Lagos. ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry
Ekwealor, E.F. (2007). Fundamental of Public Administration. Onitsha:
Abbot Books Limited.
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration (Revised
Edition). Enugu. Snaap Press Limited.
NOUN (2012) PSM 803- ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, Noun,
Lagos.
Publications PVT.
Sapru, R.K. (2008). Administrative Theories and Management (2nd ed.).
New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.
Singh, A. (2005). Public Administration: Roots and Wings. New Delhi:
Galgotia
Publishing Company.
275
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 1
(1) Public administration has been vigorously defined by numerous
thinkers, the following definitions of the discipline by some of its
leading authorities may be put in perspective.
Pfiffiner (1960), view public administration as the organization and

desired end. However, it is the machinery for implementing
government policies and programme at all ends of government-
national, state and local. Public administration is the machinery as
well as the integral process, through which the government performs
its functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated
society with which the government is concerned (Nnoli, 2001).
Gulick and Urwick (1937), define public administration as the function

that has to do with getting thing done or the accomplishment of
defined objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of
organisation in the pursuit of desired public goals and objectives. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise, the
Public administration is decision-making, planning the work to be
done, formulating objective and goals establishing and reviewing
organisations, directing and supervising employees... exercising
controls and other functions performed by government, the means by
276
which the purposes and goals of government are realized (Coronand
Harri, 1969).
Adamolekun (1983), state that public administration is commonly used

government business and study of these activities. However, it is used
in district senses, as science or as an art since it is concerned with the
practical management of human resources and as science as it
concern with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy. Public administration is the art and science
of management as applied to affairs of the state (Waldo, 1955), Coker
(1985), see public administration as the coordination of individual and
group efforts to carry out public policy. Public administration is the
art of implementing public policies, as feedback is relayed to the policy
makers. It is government in action, a collective effort of getting things
done in accordance with the laid down procedure and within the legal
framework. It presupposes planned human activities by organising
human and material resources (Mukhi 1988).
Balogun (1987) sees public administration as the marshalling of human

and material resources in order to achieve the objectives of public
policy. This according to him, bring to the fore two vital aspects in the
study of public administration which must go with policy
study of public administration. While Mohme (2003) states that public
administration means the manner in which central or federal,
provincial or state, local institutions with their procedural, legal
277
regulatory, revenue extraction and spending/procurement functions
as well as the provision of such service as defence, social services and
economic infrastructure.
Public administration can also be defined as an establishment that

interacts with the general public. It is also part of the political process,
and therefore help in policy formulation through a feedback
mechanism. However, from the definitions given above one could see
that public administration cannot be insulated from politics. That is,
the work of public servants is directly influenced by larger political
consideration.
(2) Administration is the proper ordering and organisation of the

collective activities of human efforts. It is a rational action that aims at
maximising goals by relating means to an end. Administrative is that
type of conscious and collective activity that involves rational
organisation and management of men, machines and material to
achieve some stated objectives. Augustine Adebayo (2001) defines
administration as the organisation and direction of person in order to
accomplish a specified end. Administration involves the coordination
of the men and materials deployed within the organisations for the
accomplishment of identifiable purpose. (MacRae, Stuart and Pilt,
1980). Administration, therefore, entails all activities geared towards
achieving the goals of an organisation. Administration is the capacity
to coordinate many, and often conflicting, social energies in a single
organisation in orderly manner such that they can operate in unity
(Adam, 1913 cited in Ogundele et al, 2010).
278
Gulick and Urwick (1939) conceptualised administration as getting
things done with the accomplishment of the defined objectives.
According to them, the severe of administration is the system of
knowledge whereby one may and extend relationships, predict results
and influence outcomes in any situation where people are organised
and work together for a common purpose. In the opinion of Hughes
(1998), administration includes activities connected with keeping
records and processing information paper work and activities
concerned with applying rule, procedure and policies determined by
others. Heady (1979) argued that the essence of administration is a
determined action in pursuit of conscious purpose.
Administration can be seen as rational human activity, which is

inherent in any organised social life, public or private. It occur even in
such a simple divinity as when two men cooperate to roll a stone that
neither could have moved alone. Administration consists of all those
operation that aim to achieve some purpose shared by two or more
people. What is impotent at this point is that in whatever sense the
term is used, administration has a long history and it dates back to
the beginning of the human race. Administration is an arm of
management, although the term is some times used interchangeably
with management but mostly used for public institutions (Fatile,
2007). This shows that administration has been in existence since
time immemorial. Bhagwan and Bhushn (2006) a without it, no
cooperative function can be carried out economically and efficiently.
towards the analysis of policies, identification of option and to a
substantial degree, the implementation of programme as well as
279
efficient allocation of resources. In addition to all these calculated
decisions, a typical administrative action takes into consideration the
goal of the organisation as well as the environment within which the
actions place.
Management on the other hand is seen as a process consisting of

planning, organizing, activating and controlling, performed to
determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and
resources (Terry, 1971), Follett (1920), defines management as the art
of getting thing done, through people, which implies that management
is an art (that is, depends on personal qualities), manager must have
subordinates and that they do not do the same thing as other
employees. Manager‟s tasks include making good use of the
enterprises employees to perform whatever task that may be
necessary to achieve organisational goals. Management is concerned
with human beings whose behaviour is highly unpredictable. Most
people would prefer to use administration for government businesses
and refer to any other organisation that is non –governmental
management. Koontz (1961), state that management is the art of
getting things done through and with people in formally organised
group. To manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command
to coordinate and to control (Fayol, 1930). Management is a multi-
purpose organ that manage business and manages managers and
manages workers and work. Drucker, 1985), Hiemann (1983) state
that management has three different meaning, viz... management a
noun: refer to a group of managers. 2 Management as a process:
refers to the functions of management i.e. planning, organising,
directing, controlling, etc. 3. Management as a discipline refer to the
280
subject of management. Management is an individual or a group of
individuals that accept responsibilities to run an organisation. They
plan, organise, direct and control all the essential activities of the
organisation. Management does not do the work themselves. They
motor the other to do the work and co-ordinate (i.e. bring together) all
the work for achieving the objectives of the organisations.
(3) Business administration cover all facet of managing day-to-day

accounting.

grow and succeed.

281

282
(4) Business administration cover all facet of managing day-to-day

accounting.

grow and succeed.

283

Administration within the two categories and forms of public and private
organisation differ in a number of important aspect, namely:
284
vii) Political direction
viii) Profit-motive
ix) Nature of functions
x) Public responsibility
xi) Organisational procedure
xii) Uniform treatment
vii. Political Direction: Public administration operate within the

political environment and under the directions of the political
leaders. Public administrator are supposed to do things as decreed
by the representatives of the people. While private administration
is marginally affected by political factors. It is not subject to
political direction.
viii. Profit Motive: The main aim of public administration is to serve
public interest and provide essential social services to the public at
cheap price, rate such as water, public health, electricity, postal
services, etc. While private organisation is to make profit. Hence,
work almost invariably conducted for profit.
ix. Nature of Functions: Public administration provide essential
service to the benefit of the people at cheap rate while private
administration engage in a business where public organisations
are not capable of establishing due to huge resource that is
required.
x. Public Responsibility: Public administration has responsibility to
the public, they are constantly subjected to outside scrutiny by
politicians, the media, and other private groups and individuals.
The emphasis is always on accountability in public administration
much more than in private administration.
285
xi. Organisational Procedure: Public administration is more complex
than private administration. Private has a narrow focus, in the fact
that it concentrates attention and resources on one line of activity.
This is usually economic in nature and concerns one specified or
specific aspect of economic life.
xii. Uniform Treatment: Public administration should be consistent
in procedure and uniform in dealing with the public. It cannot
accord preferential treatment to some segments of the community
to the exclusion of other. Private administration can and very often
does practice discrimination in selling its services.

(a) The term „publicus‟ is a Latin word which means, people or the
public. While „administration‟ is equally derived from two Latin words
„ad‟ and ministiare‟ which means to serve or to govern. Therefore,
administration is a universal practice and is also of universal
importance. It exists wherever people cooperate to achieve the goal of
their groups and such achievements require planning, organisation,
command, coordination and control. However, public administration
could be defined as that aspect of government that deals with the
various way in which men and material are mobilized in order to
achieve the goal of government vis-a-vis those society. For better
understanding of the meaning of public administration, we need to
examine various definitions of different scholars even though, there
was no acceptable definition of public administration.
Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines public administration as the function

that has to do with getting things done or the accomplishment of
286
define objectives. It is essentially concerned with the management of
organisations in the pursuit of desired public goal and objective. The
ultimate goal of public administration is how to maximise the
Pfiffner (1960), view public administration as the organisation and

direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends.
However, it is the machinery for implementing government politics
and programmes at all levels of government – national, state and local.
Nnoli (2001), see public administration as the machinery, as well as the

integral processes, through which the government performs its
functions. It is a network of human relationships and associated
society with which the government is concerned.
Balogun (1987) define public administration as the marshalling of

human and material resources in order to achieve the objectives of
public policy. According to him, it brings to the fore two vital aspect in
the study of public administration which must go with policy
study of public administration.
Adamolekun (1983), states that, public administration is commonly
used to refer to both the activities concerned with the management of
used in distinct sense, as science or as an art since it is concerned
with the practical management of human resources and as science as
287
it concerns with the knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient
fulfilment of public policy.
Stone (1939), defines the concept of public administration as the

process by which the objective are defined, plan and policies
formulated, institutions created and managed human energies
interest. However in Nigeria, there are 3 level of public administration
which are a Federal Government Administration b. State Government
Administration c. Local Government Administration.
Corson and Harris, (1969), view public administration as decision

making, planning the work to be done, formulating objectives and
goals. ... establishing and reviewing organisation, directing and
supervising employees... exercising controls and other functions
performed by government executive and supervisors. It is the action
part of government executives and supervisors to be realized.
Waldo (1978) see public administration as the co-operation among

people using available resources to achieve public policy and
government objectives. Public administration, therefore, is
government –oriented administration and largely bureaucratic based
on law and rule, and subject to legislation and public opinion.
However, public administration, in a wider sense, has sought to expand
it ambit by including any administration that has considerable,
impact on the public.
(b) The origin and growth of public administration in Nigeria are

articulated from tracing the origin of public administration to pre-
288
colonial period and colonial period till date. British colonised Nigeria
and established her public service system in the country. This alone
influenced the growth and development of the public administration in
Nigeria. It all began in 1861 till 1954 when regional government was
introduced. Within this period, public administration in Nigeria was
purely British pattern both in term of ethics or values, culture and
tradition as well a training and procedures. Virtually, all these are of
British Public Service Structure. During the period, the colonial
masters hardly distinguished or separated administrative
system/structure from the constitutionalism and political events. In
other words, all these three (3) institution (Political event,
constitutionalism, and Administration were combined under one
umbrella. That is to say, everything was under
administration/bureaucracy. So, the functions of the legislature,
executive and judiciary were under administration. In essence, there
was no kind of separation of powers, the same people controlled the
legislature, executive and judiciary. However, the introduction of
indirect ruled system in which the British administered her colonies
through natures. Through this system, the traditional rulers were
made to enforce the colonial policies, due to the centralised nature of
the Northern Nigeria, indirect rule system was highly successful. Also,
because of the centralised system of administration in the Yoruba
land. The indirect ruled system was also successful. In the eastern
part, it was more turbulent than what was witnessed in the western
province. In the east, there was no traditional chief, Oba or Emir as in
other provinces. It was difficult to be applied or implemented. What
the British did was to appoint some individuals or troublesome people
as chiefs that is „Warrant chiefs‟ to assumed leadership position of the
289
community. The chiefs were arrogant and often imposed arbitrary
levies on the people which led to Aba Women Riot of 1929. As a result
of, the system was dropped in the East, and the British system of local
government was to replace it which spread to other part of the
country.
In general, the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 was purely for economic

purpose of the colonial master, that is, it was not motivated to develop
the so called Nigeria. This amalgamation went extra-mile to spread
ethnic rivalry in the country. That is to say, it sowed the seed of
discord among the different ethnic groups in the country and the
legacy so far, has penetrated into public service till present and thus
undermining the smooth running of the present Nigeria
Administration.
(c) The scope of public administration is wide and complex. The complex
nature of our modern society make public administration to be more
complex. Public administration now covers not only regulatory
activities but management of public wealth, and provision of welfare
services, notably education, health and social infrastructure. It is
widely accepted that public administration is concerned with activities
of all the three branches of government. However, recent trends show
that it has more to do with activities of the executive branch of
government at all levels – national, state and local. For example in
Nigeria, government activities are currently carried within the federal
and state civil service: government institutions, public
enterprises/government agencies and local governments.
290
The tremendous increase in the number of these public organisations
has been due to the constant restructuring of the federal
administrative system, especially since independence in 1960.
Furthermore, the scope of public administration has increased with
concomitant increase in societal complexity, specialization and
differentiation. All aspects of citizens‟ lives involve public
administration or increased public regulation over private
organisations. The expectations of citizens are continually rising and
public administration is being increasing loaded with additional
responsibilities either in the name of promoting efficiency, democratic
governance, egalitarianism or in the transformation of socio-economic
development and fulfilment of public policy.
In a nutshell, public administration is becoming increasingly

challenging, as it now examines and conceptualizes administrative
policies organisations and operations comprising several aspect of life
– political, social, economic, demographic, physical and technological.
(d) Public administration is a specialised academic field, its nature is

broad and complex. The nature focuses on the concept of public
administration as earlier discussed, the evolution of public
administration and the factors that made it important. The nature of
public administration will help you understand the relevance of these
issues in improving effectiveness and efficiency in the public sector.
The conditions that led to the evolution of public administration are (i)
The existence of extensive empires (ii) the rise of absolute monarchy
(iii) The need for central management of scare resources (iv) the
introduction of money economy (v) lack of adequate communication
291
(vi) increase in literacy rate and (vii) introduction of codified laws.
Many scholars have written and argued about these condition and
how these factors have helped the emergence of public administration.

1) B
2) A
3) B
4) B
5) A
6) C
7) B
8) A

1) B
2) B
3) A
4) A
5) D
6) C
7) A
8) C
9) B
10) A
11) B
12) A
292
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. B

1) A
2) A
3) D
4) A
5) C
6) A
7) A
8) A
9) C
10) A
11) C
12) A
13) D
14) D
15) C
16) A
293
17) A
18) B
19) C
20) D
21) A
22) A
23) C
24) A
25) A
26) A
27) A

1) A
2) B
3) A
4) D
5) A
6) B
7) D
8) A
9) A
10) B
11) A
12) A
13) C
14) A
15) B
16) A
17) C
18) A
19) A
20) C
21) A
22) A
294
23) A
24) A
25) C
26) C
27) A
28) A
29) A
30) C
31) D
32) A
33) B
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions for Study session 8

1. C
2. D
3. A
4. B
5. D
6. A
7. C
8. A
9. D
10. B
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions for Study session 9

(a) Organization is a social unit of people that is structured and
managed to meet a need or to pursue collective goals. All
organizations have a management structure that determines
relationships between the different activities and the members, and
subdivide and assigns roles, responsibilities, and authority to carry
out different tasks. Organizations are open systems; they affect and
are affected by their environment. An organization in its simpler form
295
is a person or group of people intentionally organized to accomplish
an overall, common goal or set of goals. An organization is a
mechanism with which a management directs, co-ordinates and
controls the activities of man. However, it is also the formation of an
effective machine, the management of an effective executive and the
administration of an effective direction.
Therefore, organization is the foundation upon which the whole

structure of management is built. Organization is related with
developing a framework where the total work is divided into
manageable components in order to facilitate the achievement of
objectives or goals.
These principles are guidelines for planning an efficient organization

structure. The principles are the following:
Determination of Objectives: The objective of an organization must be
clearly defined for the entire organization, for each department and
even for each position in the organization structure. Every part of the
organization must be directed to achieve this basic objective.
Division of Work: It is also referred to as the division of labour and
specialization. The work should be divided and grouped in accordance
with the nature and objectives of the organization. The process of
grouping work usually known as departmentalization, is necessary for
specialization and coordination.
Unity of Command: No employee should be asked to report to more
than one superior. That means that everyone should have only one
boss and report to him only. This will avoid conflict and confusion in
the organization.
296
Span of Control: No superior or superior should be required to
supervise more subordinates than he can effectively manage because
of the limitation of time and ability. However, the exact number of
subordinates to be supervised will depend upon many factors like
nature of the job, personal capability of the supervisor, established
rules and procedures in the organization etc.
Unbroken Line of Authority: It signifies the scalar principles of the
chain of command. Authority and responsibility should be in a clear
unbroken line from the highest executive to the lowest executive. As
far as possible, the chain of command should be short. The clearer the
line of authority from the chief executive in the organization to every
subordinate position, the more effective will be decision-making and
organization communication.
Flexibility: The organization must permit growth and expansion
without dislocation of operations. The structure of the organization
should be flexible/enough to adapt easily and economically itself to
changes in the environment and due to technical motivation. Good
organization is not a straight jacket.
Continuity: The organization should be structured as to have continuity
of operations. There should be arrangements to enable people to gain
experience in positions of increasing diversity and responsibility.
There should be continuous supply of necessary personnel and
continuous efforts for improvement in different parts of the
organization.
Coordination: The performance of various activities by personnel in the
organization who are doing specialized jobs necessitates that these
subdivided activities should be systematically interrelated. This
297
coordination. Its purpose is to secure unity of effort and economy in
functioning.
Stability: The organization should be as stable as possible so that it
may have continuity. It should be able to withstand the losses of
specific personnel without serious loss of its effectiveness.
Delegation of Authority: Adequate authority should be delegated to the
subordinates for carrying out the jobs assigned to them. Authority
delegated should be commensurate with responsibility.
(b) Division of Labour: Since an organization is a structure of human

association for the achievement of common goals, it involve
individuals and groups of individuals. When two or more individuals
join together to perform certain tasks, it follows that some division of
work is done. Therefore, work is divided among those who participate
in a productive organization. With effective planning and organization
in an enterprise, the division of labour leads to a fixing of
responsibility, the delegation of authority, specialization, and other
conceptual schemes which are frequently called the principles of an
organization.
Combination of Labour: Since work are divided and assigned to the
members of an organization, their activities are grouped together,
forming operations; and operations are arranged to establish systems
and procedures. This grouping of activities result in units,
departments and divisions of an organization. The basis for this
grouping of activities may be the skills of the workers, the tools and
machinery used, the nature of the product the materials employed or
some other element.
298
Co-ordination: This principle emerges because of the need in every
organization for the integration of activities and the co-ordination of
individuals and groups of individual performing their tasks. Co-
ordination is achieved through leadership; in the structural sense, it
involves the fixing of responsibility and the delegation of authority.
(c) Formal Organizations: It is an organization that is deliberately
planned, designed and only sanctioned by competent authority. It is
the organization as shown on the organization chart or as described in
the manual and rule. Schein, (1988), defined formal organization as
the planned co-ordination of the activities of a number of people for
the achievement of some common, explicitly purpose or goal, through
division of labour and function, and through a hierarchy of authority
and responsibility. Therefore, the formal organization can be seen as a
coalition of individuals with a number of sub-coalitions. Examples of
the formal organization are rules and regulations, policy manuals,
standing orders and job descriptions.
Characteristics of Formal Organization

The formal organization has the following main characteristics:
 It has a clearly defined structure of activities which is
predetermined by the top management;
 Comparatively, a formal organization is stable;
 A formal organization grows and expands;
 The organization structure is based on division of labour and
specialization;
 The structure is based on the jobs to be performed and not
according to individuals who are to perform jobs;
299
 The organization does not take into consideration emotionally
aspect. It is deliberately impersonal;
 The authority and responsibility relationships created by the
organization structure are to be honoured by everyone;
 Organizational charts are usually drawn. All the positions from
General Manager down to lower levels appear on the formal
chart of the organization.
Informal Organisation
Informal organization can be described as a shade organization. It grows
within the formal organization. Therefore there cannot be an informal
organization without a formal organization. It is a shadow of the
formal organization because it reflects the latter. Informal organization
is loose, flexible and hazy usually. It is difficult to precisely determine
the membership in an informal organization, and the interaction
among its members is without definite objectives. In other words,
members of an informal organization, do not have clearly defined
objectives or organizational objectives on which consensus might have
been reached. However, an informal organization is the pattern of the
actual behaviours and often differs from the behaviour as expected in
the formal organization. The informal organization arises from the
interaction of people working in the organization, their psychological
and social news, and the development of groups with their own
relationships and norms of behaviour, irrespective of those defined
within the formal structure.
Characteristics of Informal Organisation

 Generally a society evolves its own laws beliefs and controls
regarding what is desirable behaviour and what is
300
understandable. This is what an informal organisation also does.
People think and act alike in groups and this continuous
cooperation gives rise to common values and common code of
behaviour.
 The leadership in it is also informal
 There is satisfaction also within an informal organisation in
which is based on several factors.
 It forces the members of the group to observe the common rules.
It is a very effective organisation to impose penalties on or
punish those who violate these rules.
(d) Merits of Formal Organization

 Available resources will be utilized in the most effective way.
 Directional and operational goals and procedures will be
determined clearly and energies devoted to their achievement.
 An orderly hierarchy in which people are related in a meaningful
sequence will result. Individual responsibilities will be known
clearly and the authority to act would be defined.
 Workers will benefit from planned superior subordinate
relationships in which each work receives essential support and
direction.
 The activities of the individuals and the groups will be one more
rational, stable and predictable.
 Individuals will be selected on the basis of ability to perform
expected tasks. Simplification and specification of job
assignment is possible in a more effective way.
Demerits of Formal Organization
301
 Very often the fixed relationships and times of authority seem
inflexible and difficult to adjust to meet changing needs.
 Individual creativity and originality may be shifted by the rather
rigid determination of duties and responsibilities.
 Interpersonal communication may be slowed or stopped as a
result of strict adherence to formal lines of communication.
 Workers may become less willing to assume duties that are not
formally a part of their original assignment.
 Organizations tend to fail to account for important differences in
workers as human beings.
 They produce anxiety in individual workers by pressing to
heavily for routine and conformity.
Merits of Informal Organization

A Source of Social Needs: The most important advantage and the
primary reason of informal organization is that they are source of
social needs and affiliation. People like to get connected with co-
workers and colleagues at a person level. They talk with each other
beyond their jobs, and many of them may require the social motive to
bring out the best of them. Strong informal structures provide them a
source of their social motive.
Grapevine Communication: This is a form of communication through
informal and unofficial channels. Informal structures play the most
important role in the grapevine method. Grapevine can be equally
important for both the employees and management. This is why it is
one of the biggest advantages of informal organization that they make
grapevine communication possible.
302
Feedbacks: Informal organizations make it possible to receive quick and
accurate feedbacks. Either through grapevine communication or by
direct intervention of management, informal structures can provide
accurate feedback on many important aspects.
Better Bonding, Collaboration and Teamwork: Since people are
personally connected with each other in informal structures it leads to
better bonding, collaboration and teamwork among the individuals. As
managers start learning about their sub-ordinates and employees
personalities, motives and personal needs, they can make better use
of their services.
Compensate the Shortcomings of Formal Organizations: Formal
structures can be very rigid, tiresome and unaccommodating for
employees. Too much of formal organizations can demodulate
employees, create job stress and result in job dissatisfaction. Informal
structures can make up for that and compensate the shortcomings of
formal organizations.
Demerits of Informal Organizations

Despite the above advantages, informal organizations can also be a bit
disadvantageous for organizations. Some of the notable disadvantages
of informal organizations are given below:
Contrary to Organizational Goals: Informal structures never
contribute directly to organizational goals and objectives. It is
important to remember that it is the formal structure that is created
to support the goals of organizations. On the other hand, the informal
structures are created by the employees, for the employees.
Rumours: Another disadvantage of the informal organization is that
they spread a lot of rumours, instead of factual statements and
303
meaningful communication. Such rumours not only halt the
development and growth of the organization, but may also create
disturbance and conflict among employees.
Leads to Conflicts: They lead to conflicts among employees. It is well
known that not every conflict is necessarily bad and dysfunctional for
the organization. However, informal structures usually lead to
relationship conflict which is considered outright bad, negative and
harmful.
Wastage of Time: Informal organizations waste a lot of important time
that could be put to better use. For instance, when individual involve
in personal interaction with each other, they should be doing their job
instead. Similarly, as informal structures head to relationship conflict,
it also requires managers to intervene and resolve the conflict.

1) C
2) C
3) D
4) A
5) D
6) A
7) B
8) A
9) B
10) D
Answer to Self-Assessment Questions for Study Session 11

1. C
304
2. D
3. A
4. C
5. A
6. C
7. B
8. A
9. B
10. D

1. B
2. C
3. C
4. D
5. A
6. D
7. D
8. C
9. B
10. D

1) A
2) D
3) A
4) A
5) A
6) C
305
7) C
8) A
9) B
10) A
11) C
12) A
13) B
14) D
15) A
16) A
17) A
18) A
19) B
20) B

1) D
2) A
3) A
4) B
5) A
6) A
7) A
8) A
9) B
10) A
11) C
12) A
306
13) C
14) A
15) A
16) D
17) A
18) A
19) D
20) A
21) A
22) B
23) A
24) A
25) B
26) A

1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
5. D
6. B
7. C
8. C
9. A
10. C
11. A
12. C
307
13. A
14. B
15. A
16. D
17. A
18. A
19. D
20. A
21. A
22. A
23. C
24. A
25. B
26. C
27. A
28. B
29. A
30. A
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Study Session 1 – Meaning of Public Administration

This study session introduces you to the basics of Public Administration

At the end of this study session you should be able to:

1.1 Meaning of Public Administration

1.2 Definitions of Public Administration

Pfiffiner (1960), view public administration as the organization and

Gulick and Urwick (1937), define public administration as the function

Adamolekun (1983), state that public administration is commonly used

Balogun (1987) sees public administration as the marshalling of human

Public administration can also be defined as an establishment that

1.3 Differences between Administration and Management

1.3.1 Dichotomy between Administration and Management

Gulick and Urwick (1939) conceptualised administration as getting

Administration can be seen as rational human activity, which is

Management on the other hand is seen as a process consisting of

Therefore, the difference between management and administration can

On the basic function, table 1 below shows the major dichotomy

1.4 Differences between Business, Public and Private

Business administration is the process of managing a business or non-

Private administration consists in the management of private business

i. Political Direction: Public administration operate within the

Summary of Study Session 1

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) For Study Session 1

Tutor Marked Assignment

Should you require more explanation on this study session, please do

Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies? Do not

Learning outcomes for Study Session 2

2.1 Concept of Public Administration

Gulick and Urwick (1937), defines public administration as the function

Pfiffner (1960), view public administration as the organisation and

Nnoli (2001), see public administration as the machinery, as well as the

Balogun (1987) define public administration as the marshalling of

Stone (1939), defines the concept of public administration as the

Corson and Harris, (1969), view public administration as decision

Waldo (1978) see public administration as the co-operation among

2.2.1 The Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

In general, the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 was purely for economic

2.2.2. The Control of Public Administration

2.3 Scope of Public Administration

The tremendous increase in the number of these public organisations

In a nutshell, public administration is becoming increasingly

2.4 Public Administration as a Discipline

Summary of the Study Session 2

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) For Study Session 2

Tutor Marked Assignment

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 3

3.1 How Public Administration can be considered as a ‘Science’

In Public Administration there has been a quest to find out universal

3.2 How Public Administration can be considered as a

3.3 Deficiencies of Public Administration as a Social Science

3.4 Why despite the identified deficiencies, one can still

3.5 Arguments of practitioners who claim that Public

Summary of Study Session 3

Section A: Objective Questions

SAQ 3.2 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.1)

SAQ 3.3 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.2)

SAQ 3.4 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.3)

SAQ 3.5 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.3)

SAQ 3.6 (Tests Learning Outcome 3.4)

Are you in need of General Help as regards your studies?

Public administration performs a variety of functions which complement

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 4