Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 197 (2020) 110627

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoenv

A socio-environmental perspective on pesticide use and food production

Hiago de O. Gomesa, Jorge Marcell C. Menezesa,c, José Galberto M. da Costaa,

Henrique Douglas M. Coutinhoa,∗, Raimundo Nonato P. Teixeiraa, Ronaldo F. do
Nascimentob

a Department of Biological Chemistry, Regional University of Cariri, R. Cel.

Antonio Luis 1161, 63105000, Crato, CE, Brazil
b Department of Physical Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Federal University
of Ceará, R. Humberto Monte S/N, 60455700, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
c Science and Technology Center, Federal University of Cariri, Av. Ten
Raimundo Rocha 1639, 63048080, Juazeiro Do Norte, CE, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O

Keywords:
Pesticide
Food production Environment Human health
A B S T R A C T

Pesticides are part of a large group of organic compounds with different

physicochemical characteristics, de- signed to control and prevent pests in
various crops and plantations, improving productivity. This works pro- vides a
perspective on pesticide use in current agriculture with the aim of identifying
the influence of pesticides on food production and their impact on the
environment. Therefore, it is necessary to highlight the importance of determining
pesticide residues in food, aiming to ensure food safety, since these
compounds can represent risks to human health and the environment. The effects
of pesticides on humans range from headaches, nausea and skin and eye irritation
to chronic problems such as cancer and neurological disorders, and extend to
other non-target organisms such as birds, fish and bees, contaminating water,
soil, and plants, as opposed to the benefits of increased production,
consequently other measures for pesticide consumption need to be evaluate to ensure
human health, food safety and environmental protection. It is important to note
that chromatographic techniques and mass spectrometry assist in the
determination of pesticide residues and evaluate the quality of the food that
reaches the consumer, and together with the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs),
established by the legislation of each country, these instrumentation act to
control the exposure of population to pesticides. Although the MRL is used as
a parameter for food quality, the global differences in pesticide legislation do
not
guarantee the consumer safety. In this sense, a brief analysis of MRL
inefficiency is also present in this paper.
1. Introduction

The worldwide environmental movement began with Rachel Carson, a

marine biologist and writer, encouraging the care of nature and preserving the
environment, above all, warning about the control of pesticides, so harmful to
humans and the environment (Bonzi, 2013).
In this context, the focus was on the use of DDT (di-
chlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), an organochlorine insecticide that be- came
important in World War II to combat typhus, yellow fever and malaria-
transmitting insects (D'Amato et al., 2002). Its effectiveness in controlling
malaria-transmitting insects was so high that between 1946 and 1970 all control
programs employed DDT to eradicate the disease. However, due to its high
toxicity, there was a decline in the con- sumption of this insecticide
in later years. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
emphasizes DDT's environmental per- sistence and bioaccumulation, highlighting
the search for alternatives in the use of this pesticide (UNEP - United
Nation Environment Programme, 2008; Vanden Bilcke, 2002).
During the last years, it is observed that pesticide residues have
spread throughout the environment, contaminating different ecosys- tems and
compromising food and water resources. It is noted that this contamination
comes from population growth, since such growth would not be possible
without an increase in food production, and this is closely linked to the use of
pesticides and fertilizers (Carvalho, 2017).
Agrochemicals, being toxic substances, need a correct application, because,
otherwise, excessive use and incorrect selection of pesticides cause a high
number of residues in the food being consumed. Residues of these substances can
remain in plant tissues (e.g. fruits) and, in the long run, cause problems
to human health such as cancer, depression and infertility. This control is
done by the regulatory agencies of each country (e.g. EPA, EFSA, ANVISA), and
is based on the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL), varying according to the active
principle and the intended culture (Handford et al., 2015).
However, the current outlook is that the world population will continue
to increase, further expanding the demand for food (Saath and Fachinello, 2018).
Therefore, in addition to regulating the pesticide use, it is necessary to
investigate other ways that offer less risks to public health and ecosystems.

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hdmcoutinho@gmail.com, hdmcoutinho@urca.br (H.D.M. Coutinho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110627
Received 12 December 2019; Received in revised form 3 April 2020; Accepted 9
April 2020
0147-6513/ © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
H. de O. Gomes, et al.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 197 (2020) 110627

2. Socio-environmental perspective

Pesticides make up a large group of organic compounds that effec- tively

contribute to the current agricultural system. Through its use, since the
last century, a considerable increase in crop yield and food production has
been achieved (Carvalho, 2017). Pesticides are cur- rently designed
according to the desired mode of action in order to be effective on target
organisms, however, non-target beings are affected, causing, for example, endocrine
disorders in rats, birds and fish (Kohler and Triebskorn, 2013).
The intensive fight against pests and diseases using pesticides began about 50
years ago, originated after the world wars, when these poisons were used as
chemical weapons (Londres, 2011). At the same time, the insecticidal properties
of DDT were discovered. Synthesized in 1874 and with its insecticidal
activities discovered in 1939, DDT is con- sidered the most well-known
insecticide in the organochlorine class (D'Amato et al., 2002).
The relationship between DDT and cancer in humans, which is currently
classified as possibly carcinogenic, has not yet been proven, as there are studies
portraying the relationship between DDT and cases of uterine cancer, but, in
contrast, there is no association between DDT and pancreatic cancer risk
(Andreotti et al., 2009; Cohn et al., 2015). However, the rampant use of this
pesticide in the last century aroused the concern of several governments and
the world population, which led to the ban on the marketing and
production of DDT in several countries between the 70's and 80's (Bonzi, 2013;
D'Amato et al., 2002).
Although harmful, DDT was responsible for the reduction of malaria cases
worldwide until the early 1980s, and in 2006 the World Health Organization
(WHO) recommended the use of DDT to combat malaria using indoor residual
spraying in epidemic regions and high rates of disease transmission
(Rehwagen, 2006; van den Berg et al., 2012).
On the other hand, it must be admitted that the use of pesticides greatly
assists in increasing agricultural production, where about 30% of agricultural
production losses are a result of pest action (Pang et al.,
2006), resulting in estimated losses of US$ 1.4 trillion in recent dec- ades.
The misuse, however, generates several problems, which include damage to human
health, contamination of water, soil and food, and bioaccumulation (Prestes et
al., 2009). As a result, many farmers are highly exposed and suffer poisoning
from irrational pesticide use. Given this, the use of manual and automatic
techniques, including aerial spraying, to spread pesticides on crops, has
created a high risk for workers and local biota. It is estimated 355 million
people die each year as a result of acute exposure and inadequate pesticide use
(Carvalho,
2017).
The effects of pesticides on human health vary depending on the chemical
groups of the active principle. These include organopho- sphate,
organochlorine, pyrethroid, carbamate, strobilurin, triazole, dithiocarbamate
etc. Organochlorines are considered the most ag- gressive; are fat
soluble compounds with high persistence in the en- vironment. They can cause
endocrine and mitochondrial dysfunctions, besides being possibly carcinogenic
and mutagenic compounds, af- fecting the reproductive system of humans and
animals (Wu et al.,
2014); there are also studies that relate organochlorines to cases of
obesity and diabetes (Lee et al., 2014). Pesticides belonging to chemical groups
such as organophosphates, pyrethroids and carbamates, may present symptoms of
acute intoxication such as weakness, vomiting, seizures to chronic problems
involving delayed neurological effects, liver damage and chromosomal changes.
Organophosphates and car- bamates act on the central nervous system, inhibiting
the action of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (Goulart et al., 2015).
et al. (2011) shows that albatrosses and petrels suffer contamination by
organochlorine pollutants. Theses migratory birds use high energy (obtained
from lipid reserves) for biological activities, and the utiliza- tion of
lipid reserves implies in a redistribution of organochlorine contaminants
in the organism, that has a negative impact on breeding period. Organochlorine
pesticides also affect development of fish, acting as neuroendocrine
disruptors and suppressing male and female reproduction system; in addition,
metabolic functions are altered (Martyniuk et al., 2020).
Currently, pesticides play a fundamental role in modern agriculture, because,
according to the UNO, the world population in 2030 will be over 8 billion
people and in 2050, more than 9 billion, which contrasts with the
availability of new agricultural land worldwide. FAO states that there are no
more agricultural land reserves in South Asia, West Asia and North Africa,
and that areas of agricultural expansion are concentrated in South America and
sub-Saharan African countries. This shows that world population growth is
linked to increased food pro- duction, and this strengthens the need for
pesticide use (Saath and Fachinello, 2018). Therefore, it is important to
highlight the pesticide use in food production which, unfortunately, it is
associated with dif- ferent risks.
In order to guarantee the food security of consumers, effective
monitoring of residual pesticides levels in food consumed is necessary. Therefore,
national and international regulatory agencies have im- plemented strict
guidelines and programs to monitor the presence of these compounds in
agricultural products (Ferreira et al., 2016). Most countries adopt the Maximum
Residue Limit (MRL) to regulate the use of agrochemicals. The MRL is defined as
the highest legally accepted concentration level for pesticide residues in food
(expressed in mg/kg), based on good agricultural practice, and to ensure the
lowest exposure levels for the consumer. MRL values depend on the regulatory
agency in the country, the active principle employed, and the culture
produced (ANVISA, 2016). For example, in Table 1, some data can be found on
the limits allowed for pesticides in oranges, clarifying the differences between
MRLs and comparing them with Brazilian, European and American
legislation.
The Maximum Residue Limit also generates many discussions about the food safety
of consumers, as it is a value that is subject to different legislations which
can differ dramatically from one country to another. For example, according to Table
1, in Brazil and the European Union, azoxystrobin is permitted in oranges with an
MRL of 0.5 and 15 mg/kg respectively; 30 times higher for the EU. Therefore, it is
difficult to use the MRL as a quality parameter for a given crop, as there is no
con- sensus, in many cases, between current legislation (Gomes et al., 2020;
MAPA, 2019; EC, 2018). Global harmonized pesticide regulation is a worldwide
challenge. Even though the international parties (e.g. Eur- opean Union, Codex
Alimentarius Commission) try to establish a stan- dard MRL, the underdeveloped
nations lack effective legislation (Matthews et al., 2011).
In addition to the food safety, global difference in pesticide legis- lation
cause serious problems in international trade. Developed nation prohibit some
hazardous pesticides, which prevent food imports from countries that has no
careful with pesticide regulation, causing barriers to trade, cost to
producers and increasing food prices. Thus, it is

Table 1
MRL according to different legislation for orange

Pesticides MRL for orange (mg/kg)

Brazil (MAPA, 2019) USA (USDA, 2019) EU (EC, 2018)

Some pesticides, while remaining in the environment or reaching
the aquatic environment, present risks to animal species due to their
toxicity and the possibility of bioaccumulation along the food chain. Recent
studies indicate that sulfoxaflor, the active principle that con- trols
insects that attack fruits and grains, is related to the reduction of
pollinating bees (Cheng et al., 2018). The study proposed by Colabuono
Acephate 0.2 –
0.01
Azoxystrobin 0.5 15.0
15.0
Glyphosate 0.2 0.5
0.5
Imazalil 5.0 10.0
5.0
Trifluralin 0.05 0.05
0.01

2
H. de O. Gomes, et al.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 197 (2020) 110627

common to reject crops that contain pesticide residue above the max- imum
limit establish by the national MRL (or when there is no MRL). For that
reason, developing nations are severely prejudicated by the rigorous standards
of pesticide regulation for food safety in developed countries (Handford et al.,
2015). These problems portray, therefore, the inefficiency of the MRL as a
parameter for ensuring food quality and safety.
Regardless of the legislation in each country, several pesticide re- sidue
control programs have been developed. In Brazil, PARA (Food Pesticide Residue
Analysis Program) began in 2001 to evaluate the concentration levels of
pesticide residues in foods of plant origin. So far, more than thirty
thousand samples of 25 types of foods have been analyzed. Controlling the
use of pesticides through this program is ef- fective, however, there are still
samples that have residues of pesticides not allowed by law, and others that
have residues above the maximum limit established. Alarming cases were
exposed through the PARA; in one of the published reports, the results of the
analysis showed that about 91% of the bell pepper samples were contaminated
with pesticide residues above the permitted MRL, alerting authorities to pay
greater attention to the abusive use of agricultural defenders (ANVISA, 2016).
Contributing to the growth of programs for the determination of pesticide
residues, there are modern analytical techniques, among which stand out
the chromatographic and spectrometric techniques, widely used for the
determination of pesticide residues, as they have, for example, high efficiency
separation and obtaining structural in- formation of the compound, respectively
(Chiaradia et al., 2008). The coupling between the two techniques allows to
obtain the greatest advantages offered by both: chromatography as a separation
method and mass spectrometry as an identification tool (Lanças, 2009). Dif-
ferent matrices can be analyzed by chromatography and mass spec- trometry, as
shown in Table 2.
However, in addition to advanced compound separation and quantification
techniques, the determination of pesticide residues re- quires a sample
preparation step, as analytes are generally found in low concentrations, in complex
matrices (Prestes et al., 2009). Commonly, the QuEChERS (pronounced as catchers)
method is used. The acronym of the method refers to its main features: Quick,
Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe. This method employs acetonitrile and
dispersive solid phase extraction to determine food residues and contaminants. The
ease and low cost imposed by the QuEChERS makes it a very viable option in sample
preparation (Anastassiades et al., 2003).
Brazil is currently the world's largest consumer of pesticides. This reflects
the high statistics pointed out: between 2007 and 2015 over 84 thousand cases of
poisoning by pesticides were registered, a number that grows annually (Brasil,
2018). In 2019, 474 new products were authorized by the Brazilian
government, the highest number in 14 years. In addition, in July 2019, ANVISA
approved a new regulatory framework for the classification of toxicity in
relation to the use of pesticides. The proposal is linked to the fact that the
old toxicological classification used in Brazil was at odds with the
classification used worldwide, based on the Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals – GHS. This reclassification brings
many controversies, since, for example, the number of pesticides classified as
extremely toxic was 702, now there are only 43 (Cancian, 2019; Moreira,
2019).
Interconnected with these numbers, there are cases involving the
rampant use of pesticides, such as the Chapada do Apodi – CE – Brazil (Carneiro,
2015). In this region, there is a pole of banana production, a crop that is
susceptible to several pests, among which is the yellow Sigatoka, a disease
caused by the fungus Mycosphaerella musicola Leach, which causes yellow striae
on banana leaves, resulting in loss of up to
50% of production due to ripening and premature death of the fruits. Because of
this, it is common to use broad spectrum systemic fungicides to control the
disease, however such active principles have high toxicity and persistence in the
environment (Carneiro, 2015).
As a result of aerial spraying in the region, it is estimated that over
440 thousand liters of pesticides are released annually into the en-
vironment. There are reports of the resident population near the plan- tations
of constant headaches, nausea, vomiting and allergies, symp- toms resulting from
contact with the active ingredients. Even more, the release of pesticides in the
region damaged the residents' water supply system, which has also
contaminated by the compounds (Londres,
2011).
It is important to note, that the use of pesticides has a direct impact on
water contamination. In Ceará – Brazil, recent studies have eval- uated the
potential for surface water and groundwater pesticide con- tamination in the
Baixo Jaguaribe region, which represents an im- portant agribusiness area in
the state. In surface waters, pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, diphenoconazole,
paraquat and propiconazole were considered to have high contaminant potential
and could be trans- ported dissolved in water or associated with sediment
(Milhome et al.,
2009).
Ecosystems contamination, damage to human health, food safety and inefficiency of
the MRL supports the urgent modification of current agriculture perspectives, since
population growth (associated with the need for producing more food) and
environmental protection are lar- gely affected by pesticide use. Intensive
agriculture is unlikely to stop using pesticides in the coming years, so some
measures can decrease the negative impact of these pollutants, which includes
the precise appli- cation of pesticides, causing less contamination in
soil and water; treatment of contaminated water and soil using adsorbent
materials; and increase workers’ awareness of the use of pesticides with
lower health risks (Carvalho, 2017; Alencar et al., 2020).
As well, biopesticides present less toxicity for human health and the environment,
due to their origin in natural resources. In this sense, development of
biopesticides consists in another path for a socio-en- vironmental security,
based on the success in the control of different pests and greater safety
than synthetic compounds (Wei et al., 2019). Fortunately, population's interest
for balanced and healthy diet increase the need for organic products, and can
be a path to greater production of pesticide-free food (Alcântara et al., 2019).
Furthermore, the alter- native ways for use of pesticide in food production must
guarantee the lowest exposure of humans and the environment, while also
assuring food security.

3. Conclusion

There are a lot of problems related to human and environmental contamination

due to the unrestricted use of pesticides. Due to several social and environmental
problems related to the use of pesticides, it is necessary to reevaluate the
employability of such compounds, given their countless deleterious effects on
society. Other paths need to be

Table 2
Analytical techniques used in the determination of pesticide residue in food.

Analytical technique Sample

Pesticides
Reference

GC-SQ/MS Melon
35 multiclass pesticide Sousa et al.
(2013) UHPLC-MS/MS Banana
128 multiclass pesticide Carneiro et
al. (2013)
LC-MS/MS Orange
115 multiclass pesticide Golge and
Kabak (2015a) LC-MS/MS
Tomato 109 multiclass pesticide
Golge and Kabak (2015b)
GC-QqQ-MS Honey
160 multiclass pesticide García et al.
(2017)

3
H. de O. Gomes, et al.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 197 (2020) 110627

taken to achieve healthier food production, supplying the global de- mand
for food.
Investments in organic production and in the use of biopesticides, as well as the
ban on active ingredients that have proven harmful effects, are proposals that
need to be investigated to mitigate the damage caused by the irregular use
of pesticides, especially in non-target or- ganisms. Research to obtain more
selective pesticides and better ap- plication techniques, as well as changes in
the population's eating ha- bits, are also viable options that need to be
studied. Therefore, despite the clear commercial and economic importance,
focused on the ex- panding food production, the use of pesticides should not
overlap with human health.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hiago de O. Gomes: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - original draft,

Writing - review & editing. Jorge Marcell C. Menezes: Investigation, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing. José Galberto M. da Costa:
Resources, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Henrique
Douglas M. Coutinho: Methodology, Project administration, Writing - original
draft, Writing - review & editing. Raimundo Nonato P. Teixeira: Data
curation, Formal ana- lysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
editing. Ronaldo F. do Nascimento: Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding
acquisition, Project administration, Writing - original draft, Writing -
review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- ence the work
reported in this paper.

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