• Do not assume……get the correct understanding of the words as

defined in the standard reference documents

(mostly ICAO annexures)

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 Unit 2

• Reliability fundamental theories

• Aviation Security Human Factor

• Case study

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 Introduction
• A latest estimate shows that up to 2017, there are around 23,600 civil airplanes in the
world and this number keeps increasing at an annual rate of 5.1%.

• Each year, 3.3 billion people travel by means of airplanes.

• Reliability and Safety : obvious, concerns for civil aviation

• If high reliability and safety cannot be guaranteed in civil aviation?

• Before entering the market, it is mandatory that any commercial aircraft be

certificated for airworthiness by government aviation administration authorities.
• FAA Regulations in the United States

• EASA Regulations in the Europe

• DGCA Regulations in the India

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 Introduction
Scale and complexity of modern air-planes.

• A modern airplane, like Boeing 777 for example, comprises of 4.5 million parts
designed and manufactured in over ten different countries.

• Over 6500 employees are involved in the design and manufacturing of the airplane
and a total number of 10 million labor hours are consumed.

• Regardless of the difficulty in achieving high reliability, civil aviation industry

manages to obtain a very satisfactory result

• The accident rate of commercial airplanes worldwide in 2016 is 2.1 accidents per
millions of departure, which is by far lower than that of road accidents.

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 Reliability
• Reliability.

• The probability of performing its function all over a time interval

• Reliability is the conditional probability at a given confidence level that a system will perform its
intended function properly without failure and satisfy specified performance requirements during a given
time interval
o when used in the manner and for the purpose intended
o while operating under the specified application and operation environment stress levels.

o Typically, the design operating load limits for a large commercial transport aircraft are load factors
+2.5 and -0.5. It means that a 200 tons ac expected to withstand +500 tons and -100 tons of weight
fluctuation

o Unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of 1.5 must be applied to the prescribed flight limit
loads which are considered external loads on the structure

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 Reliability
• Reliability.
• The identification of the reliability
requirements is the first and most
important task in the reliability
engineering process of civil
airplanes.

• The reliability requirements are

often expressed in terms of
quantitative reliability indexes.

• Different reliability indexes can be

used to measure the effect of
reliability on various system
attributes

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 Reliability
• Reliability.

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 Measurement of the Reliability
• Failure Rate : Number of items failed divided by total test time

• MTBF(Mean time between failure) : Basic measure of reliability of REPAIRABLE items

• Total test time divided by number of items failed

• MTTF (Mean Time to failure): Basic measure of reliability of NON-REPAIRABLE items

• Example:
• 10 components tested for 100 hrs each
• 02 failed at 60 hrs and 80 hrs respectively

• Failure Rate= 2/40+60+800=.0022 components failed per hr

• MTBF= 1/ Failure rate= 454.5 hrs per component

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 How is Reliability Achieved?
• Maintenance of Aircraft:
• Corrective

• Preventive

• Predictive

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 How is Reliability Achieved?
• Maintenance:

• Hard time (hard life) : This is a preventative process whereby known deterioration of an item is
limited to an acceptable level by the maintenance actions carried out at time related periods
(normally flight hours).

• On condition : This is also a preventative process but one in which the item is inspected or tested
at specified periods, to an appropriate standard to determine whether it can continue in service (for
another scheduled interval).

• Conditioning monitoring :This is not a preventative process. Having neither hard time nor on
condition elements. It is one in which information on items gained from operational experience is
collected, analysed and interpreted on a continuing basis as a means of implementing correct
procedures.

• Predictive: Real time monitoring of parameters.

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 How is Reliability Achieved?
• Safe-Life Concept

• Prediction that structure remains crack free while in service

• A test Airframe for load testing

• Accelerating testing

• Observe fatigue damage and assign safe life of 1/3 or less

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 Human Factor
• Human factors directly cause or contribute to
many aviation accidents.

• Maintenance training organizations have

been delivering human factors training for
nearly 27 years.

• Mid-nineties : British Airways and Lufthansa

German Airlines in UK/Europe and,
Singapore Airlines and Singapore Technologies,
in Asia.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJ6wd5jVdUY

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 Human Factor
• By the mid-nineties, topics like Swiss Cheese
(Reason), Dirty Dozen (Dupont), and PEAR
(Johnson and Maddox) became standard fare
for engineering HF courses. By that time
ICAO and the Joint Aviation Authorities (now
EASA) had formal guidance and
recommendations for the content of such
training.

• By 2000, various regulations emerged and were

especially significant when the EASA
regulations were issued in 2002.

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 Human Factor
• Ergonomics is the process of
designing or arranging workplaces,
products and systems so that they fit
the people who use them

• The study of human/machine

interface is ergonomics, and the
application of this science is Human
Factors.

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 Human Factor

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 Human Factor
• Information processing

➢ GATHERING INFORMATION: We do this by using our

senses (sight, hearing, touch or smell)
➢ PERCEPTION OR ASSESSMENT: If our brain has seen it all
before and it is common, information is directed via the
automatic program path. If the information is new or complex,
our brain assigns it to the full conscious evaluation/decision
route
➢ EVALUATION AND DECISION MAKING :We may make
the decision immediately or store the information for a later
decision.
➢ ACTION/RESPONSE: Our action or response occurs either
consciously, with full awareness, or subconsciously using our
automatic programs.

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 Human Factor
• Dirty Dozen

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 Human Factor
• Dirty Dozen

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 Human Factor
• Dirty Dozen

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 Human Factor
• Dirty Dozen

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 Human Factor
• A list of human factors that affect AMTs

• Human factors is often considered synonymous with crew

resource management (CRM) or maintenance resource
management (MRM)

• Human factors involves gathering information about

human abilities, limitations, and other characteristics and
applying it to tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and
environments to produce safe, comfortable, and effective
human use

• In aviation, human factors is dedicated to better

understanding how humans can most safely and efficiently
be integrated with the technology

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 Human Factor
• Human Performance and Limitations
➢ Vision
➢ Hearing
➢ Information processing
➢ Attention and perception
➢ Memory
➢ Claustrophobia and physical access (55 Feet)

• Human performance is likely to degrade and

eventually 'fail' under certain conditions (e.g. stress)

• Physically, humans become fatigued, are affected by

cold, can break bones in workplace accidents, etc.
Mentally, humans can make errors, have limited
perceptual powers, can exhibit poor judgment due to
lack of skills and knowledge, etc.

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 Human Factor

• Social Psychology

➢ Responsibility: individual and group

➢ Motivation and demotivation

➢ Peer pressure

➢ 'Culture' issues

➢ Team working

➢ Management, supervision and leadership

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 Human Factor
• Factors Affecting Performance

➢ Fitness/health

➢ Stress: domestic and work related

➢ Time pressure and deadlines

➢ Workload: overload and underload

➢ Sleep and fatigue, shiftwork

➢ Alcohol, medication and drug abuse

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 Human Factor
• Physical Environment

➢ Noise and Fumes;

➢ Illumination;

➢ Climate and Temperature;

➢ Motion and Vibration;

➢ Working Environment

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 Human Factor
• Tasks

➢ Physical Work

➢ Repetitive Tasks

➢ Visual Inspection

➢ Complex Systems

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 Human Factor
• Communication

➢ Within and between teams

➢ Work logging and recording

➢ Keeping up to date

➢ Currency

➢ Dissemination of information

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 Human Factor
• Communication

➢ Within and between teams

➢ Work logging and recording

➢ Keeping up to date

➢ Currency

➢ Dissemination of information

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 Human Factor

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 Human Factor Case Study

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