Module-1

 Introduction to ethical philosophy: definition, nature, scope, branches.

Definition- As used originally by the ancient Greeks, the term "philosophy" meant the pursuit of
knowledge for its own sake, and comprised ALL areas of speculative thought, including the arts,
sciences and religion.

Philosophy is

 a study of the most general and abstract features of the world and categories with which
we think. This include: mind, matter, reason, proof, truth, and other related areas.

Nature of Philosophy

 Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the universe, which are often held
uncritically.

 Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our most deeply held conceptions
and beliefs.

 Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a whole.

 Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of
words and concepts.

 Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest people and for which
philosophers always have sought answers.

Few important aspects of Philosophy

 Philosophical questions are usually foundational and abstract in nature.

 It also provides a good way of learning to think more clearly about a wide range of
issues, and its methods of analyzing arguments can be useful in a variety of situations in
other areas of life.
 Philosophy is such a huge subject that it is difficult to know how to break it down into
manageable and logical sections.
 There are 4 common ways in which Philosophy can be usefully broken down or
organized:- By Branch / Doctrine, By Historical Period, By Movement / School, By
Individual Philosophers

Branches of philosophy

1. Aesthetics- Aesthetics is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature."

2. Ethics- Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad
conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil.
3. Epistemology- Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.

4. Metaphysics- Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as
existence, time, objects and their properties.

5. Logic- Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.

6. Mind and language- Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of
language.

Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, as typified
by disputes between materialism and dualism.

7. Philosophy of science- The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history,
implications and purpose of science.

 Basic Theories (Deontology, Utilitarianism, Virtue Theory, Rights Theory, Casuist Theory)
Deontology- The deontological theory states that people should adhere to their obligations and
duties when analyzing an ethical dilemma. This means that a person will follow his or her
obligations to another individual or society because upholding one's duty is what is considered
ethically correct.

Utilitarianism- Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing
on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism. Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is
the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only moral
framework that can be used to justify military force or war.

Rights- In the rights ethical theory the rights set forth by a society are protected and given the
highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid since a large or ruling
population endorses them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if they have the ability
and resources to do so.

Casuist- The casuist ethical theory is one that compares a current ethical dilemma with examples
of similar ethical dilemmas and their outcomes. This allows one to determine the severity of the
situation and to create the best possible solution according to others' experiences.

Virtue- The virtue ethical theory judges a person by his character rather than by an action that
may deviate from his normal behavior. It takes the person's morals, reputation and motivation
into account when rating an unusual and irregular behavior that is considered unethical. For
instance, if a person plagiarized a passage that was later detected by a peer, the peer who knows
the person well will understand the person's character and will be able to judge the friend.

Values- Values are “things that have an intrinsic worth in usefulness or importance to the
“principles, standards, or qualities considered worthwhile or desirable.” However, it is important
to note that, although we may tend to think of a value as something good, virtually all values are
morally relative – neutral, really – until they are qualified by asking, “How is it good?” or “Good
to whom?” The “good” can sometimes be just a matter of opinion or taste, or driven by culture,
religion, habit, circumstance, or environment, etc. 

Morals- Moral values are relative values that protect life and are respectful of the dual life value
of self and others. The great moral values, such as truth, freedom, charity, etc., have one thing in
common. When they are functioning correctly, they are life protecting or life enhancing for all.
But they are still relative values.

Ethics- A person who knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses right is moral.
A person whose morality is reflected in his willingness to do the right thing – even if it is hard or
dangerous – is ethical.  Ethics are moral values in action.  Being ethical id an imperative because
morality protects life and is respectful of others – all others. 

MORAL DILEMMA :- A moral dilemma is an irresolvable moral conflict, i.e. no fully

satisfactory resolution is possible since all possible options for action leave behind a remainder
that does not cease to be morally binding.
Moral dilemmas are often used to help people think through the reasoning for their beliefs and
actions, and are common in psychology and philosophy classes.

Steps to Solve Dilemma :-

1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral
values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained.

2. Collection of all information, data, and facts relevant to the situation.

3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as
obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc.

4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma.

5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various
alternatives.

6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed.

MORAL AUTONOMY :- Moral Autonomy is the philosophy which is self-determining, i.e.,

acting independently without the influence of others. The moral autonomy relates to the
individual ideas whether right or wrong conduct which is independent of ethical issues. The
concept of moral autonomy helps in improving self-determination.

Moral Autonomy – Skills Needed:

 Ability to relate the problems with the problems of law, economics and religious
principles 
 Skill to process, clarify and understand the arguments against the moral issues 
 Must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all the viewpoints 
 Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble 

MORAL ISSUES:- A moral issue can be understood as an issue to be resolved not only by
considering the technical stuff but also by keeping moral values in mind. “Moral issue is a
working issue of moral concern with the potential to help or harm anyone, including oneself.”

 Moral issues are those which involve a difference of belief and not a matter of preference.
 Moral issues are those, which involve the experience of a special kind of feeling.
 Moral issues are those actions which have the potential to help or harm others or
ourselves. 

Basic Ethical Principles

1-Autonomy- The duty to respect and promote individuals´ choices for themselves in achieving
what they believe to be in their best interests. It becomes limited if it infringes on the best
interests of others. This duty also includes respect for confidentiality and privacy.
2-Beneficence- The duty always to act in the best interests of the patient, client, or resident; it
must be distinguished from paternalism.

3-Non-maleficence- The duty to do not harm, and to protect the others from harm. Included in
this duty is to maintain one´s professional competence.

4-Distributive justice- All persons in society, being of equal moral worth, should be treated
fairly.

 Contemporary philosophy: action, ethics, and responsibility

Philosophy of Action- The action as a concept is one of the major sub-disciplines in
contemporary philosophy. Philosophy of action is chiefly concerned with human action,
intending to distinguish between activity and passivity. The understanding is further elaborated
to action being voluntary, intentional, culpable, and involuntary actions. The theory of action is
pertinent to legal and ethical questions concerning freedom, intention, belief, responsibility, and
so on. It is related to the mind-body problem, the concept of causality, and the issue of
determinism.

Philosophy of Responsibility- People and groups are evaluated as responsible or not, depending
on how seriously they take their responsibilities. Often this is done informally via moral
judgment. On the other side, this also is done formally through legal judgement.

The moral philosophy has tended to ask two simple questions about responsibility:

 “What is it to be responsible?” and

  “What is a person responsible for?”

The first question is usually taken while enquiring about moral agency. The second as a question
is used in case of holding people accountable for their actions.

Linking Philosophy, Ethics & Its implications

Ethics
Moral Principles a person can follow.
Comprise of moral guidelines and advice a
human can follow in his lifestyle.
There is no specific origin; has a strong
relation to religions and morality in human
society.
Cannot be separated according to period,
country and subject matter since they are
universally considered moral principles.
Philosophy
Study of the fundamental nature of
knowledge, reality, and existence as an
academic discipline.
Contains theories and ideologies postulated
by philosophers concerning specific subject
matter in life.
There are specific founders or several
pioneering figures known as philosophers.
Has varied branches according to period
school, movement, country, subject matter,
etc.
Relationship between Ethics and Philosophy:

 Philosophy details the relation of man to the world. Ethics treats man as a self-conscious
being, not a natural fact. Thus, for the discussion of the relation between man and God,
world and society, ethics has to turn to philosophy.
 Philosophy systematizes both facts and values. Ethics being a science of values is related
to philosophy because the latter systematizes both facts and values.
 Many philosophical problems come under ethics. Ethics has to explain many
philosophical problems.