Rancidity of Used Cooking Oil and Heavy Metal Analyses

on Selected Street-Vended Foods

Annabelle A. Callano
University of the Immaculate Conception

Abstract

Intake of unsafe food causes many acute and life-long diseases, ranging from
diarrheal diseases to various forms of cancer. Thus, it is imperative that safety
issues on food adulteration and heavy metals contamination be evaluated for
the benefits of the consuming public. Consequently, oxidation stability and
heavy metal analyses on used cooking oil and four selected street-vended foods
from three different sampling sites were done. Analyses of test parameters
were performed using standard methods and procedures. Overall results of
the analyses with three trials each showed that peroxide value, free fatty acids,
cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) did not conform to the allowable levels set for
the food products. The peroxide value was three to eight times higher than
the limit of 10meq/kg since it ranges from 33.33 - 86.67meq/kg whereas
Cd and Pb showed concentration of 0.60 – 1.57 ppm and 30.00-35.00
ppm, respectively. On the other hand, percent free fatty acids (%FFA) ranges
from 0.72 to 0.93% on used cooking oil while selected street-vended foods
FFA status were recorded at the range of 1.49 to 2.92%. The results clearly
indicate oxidative rancidity due to repetitive use of cooking oil and heavy
metal contamination on the test samples which were found to be significantly
higher than the maximum limits. This could mean that prolonged exposure
to these street vended foods is detrimental to human health. The high level
of POV, Cd and Pb of these products can significantly pose food poisoning,
foodborne disease, neurotoxicity and even cancer.

Keywords: rancidity, heavy metals, used cooking oil, street-vended foods

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Introduction

The proliferation of relatively inexpensive, tasty and convenient foods

in busy urban cities has brought many to turn to street foods for their snacks
or meals. These street-vended foods are accessible and found to be ubiquitous.
Street-vended foods provide a wide range of ready-to-eat foods and beverages
sold and often prepared in public places. According to the World Health
Organization (2011), street foods provide a source of inexpensive, convenient
and often nutritious food for urban and rural poor; a source of attractive
and varied food for tourists and the economically-advantaged; a major source
of income for a vast number of persons, particularly women; and a chance
for self-employment and the opportunity to develop business skills with low
capital investment.
Of immediate concern is the cleanliness of street vended foods.
Several studies have shown the poor hygienic and sanitary practices among
vendors of street foods. Muinde and Kuria (2005) found that street food
vendors practice minimal hygienic and sanitary procedures. The compromised
hygienic practices involved food preparation, handling of utensils, place for
food preparation, personal hygiene and methods of storing cooked food. Due
to lack of proper knowledge and guidance on street food vending, vendors
prepare the foods in explicitly unhygienic and unsanitary conditions.
Poor sanitary practices have resulted to foodborne diseases due to
microbiological contamination of food and water which is a major cause
of deaths and illnesses. In the South-East Asia region, approximately one
million children under the age of five die each year from diarrheal diseases
after consuming contaminated food and water. The key pathogens isolated
from diarrheal cases are Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., and Escherichia coli.
Likewise, cholera which has been controlled in many parts of the world has
been a major health concern in this region for decades. Cholera outbreaks
generally are linked to contaminated water, but transmission can occur
through contaminated foods served by street vendors and restaurants
Aside from microbial contamination, there are other parameters that
affect street-vended food quality and of concern, is its possible consequence

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to the health of the consuming public. Of interest is the term “food

safety,” which strictly implies the absence or acceptable and safe levels of
contaminants, adulterants, naturally occurring toxins or any other substances
that may make food injurious to health on an acute or chronic basis (Lizada,
2007). This means that apart from microbial contamination, other potential
contaminants such as heavy metals and adulterants may be present but at
tolerable level to safeguard the health of the consuming public. Otherwise,
their presence beyond acceptable level must be known to the consumers to
prevent further harm.
These issues and scenarios presented pose a challenge to the national
and local government units and also to the researchers from the academe to
ensure that the street-vended foods sold to the consumers (mostly students)
are safe from various agents that deteriorate food quality. With the limited
intervention by government authorities (e.g. Food and Drugs Administration,
Department of Health and other key government agencies) to strictly require
street food stall owners to ensure that key raw materials in food preparation
are free from contaminants, the researcher investigated the occurrence of
adulterants in the street foods. Consequently, assessment on the levels of
heavy metals and potential adulterants were done. The levels of total cadmium
(Cd) and lead (Pb) and potential oxidation stability of cooking oil in terms
of peroxide value and free fatty acids were conducted. This is to predict the
useful life of the raw materials used in street-vended foods.

Materials and Method

This research employed descriptive research design. The collected

street vended foods were tested for the Peroxide Value (POV), percent Free
Fatty Acids (%FFA), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) while analyses on collected
used cooking oil focused on rancidity in terms of the level of free fatty acids
and peroxide value. Results were described based on the acceptability criteria
of World Health Organization on the levels of these analytes on food products.
The selection of street-vended foods was based on the commonly
available products to the consumers. Four types of samples were obtained

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from the pre determined sampling sites located near school campuses of
University of the Immaculate Conception (UIC). The street-vended foods
investigated were kwek-kwek (hard-boiled egg coated with flour and egg),
proben (deep fried chicken proventriculus dipped in cornstarch and deep-
fried), fish ball (flour, spices, and fish flavor), and chicken intestine (deep-
fried chicken intestine coated with flour and egg). These foods were selected
since they are usually prepared through deep frying method with cooking oil
that has been used repetitively.
Composite sampling of the four selected foods was obtained from
three sampling sites. The selected sampling sites of the study were the street-
vended stalls in the vicinity of UIC Fr. Selga and Bonifacio campuses and
UM Bolton campus. These stalls were considered due to the availability of
chosen street-vended foods patronized by the students.
The levels of POV, FFA, Pb and Cd were determined through the
standard methods of analyses for food products. Laboratory analyses were
conducted at the UIC-Science Resource Center using the methods set by
Association of Official Analytical Chemistry:
The peroxide value and percent free fatty acids were analyzed using
volumetric methods. Volumetric analysis is a method that involves the
measurement of volume of a solution of known concentration which is used
to determine the concentration of the analyte. The levels of cadmium and
lead were determined via atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Atomic
absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is a spectroanalytical procedure for the

Table 1
Parameters and Methods
Parameters Methods
Peroxide value, meq/kg Volumetric analysis
FFA, % Volumetric analysis
Cd, ppm Atomic absorption spectrophotometry
Pb, ppm Atomic absorption spectrophotometry

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quantitative determination of chemical elements employing the absorption

of light by free atoms in the gaseous state.
Evaluation of the data involved computing the mean and standard
deviation values for each parameter. The mean values obtained were then
compared against the allowable limits of POV, FFA, Pb and Cd posted by
World Health Organization on food products.

Results and Discussions

Peroxide value (POV) and Percent Free Fatty Acids (%FFA)

.Overall results of the three trial-test for Peroxide Value (POV) of the cooking
oil used by street vendors (Table 2A) show a POV range of 33.33 - 86.67meq/
kg. The increased level which is 3 to 8 times higher of POV on the cooking
oil indicates oxidative rancidity due to repetitive use of cooking oil. A similar
finding was recorded for selected street vended foods showing a range of POV
value of 29.59 – 47.66 meq/kg (Table 2B). This confirmed the findings of
Naohiro, et., al. (2006) which showed that vegetable oils, which contain
highly unsaturated fatty acids, tend to become rancid easily. Furthermore, the
end products of cooking oil degradation which are responsible for rancidity,
color change, off-odors and flavors are aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids,
peroxides and polymers. The maximum level for peroxide value of edible fats
and oils was established at 10 milliequivalents per kilogram of fats or oils.
Consumption of deteriorated cooking oils causes not only loss of its
nutritive value due to essential fatty acids (linoleic acid) and vitamins (A, D
and E) destruction but also potentially damaging health effects due to the
toxic substances produced where some are carcinogenic polymers.
On the other hand, expired vegetable oils may undergo either
hydrolytic rancidity. Hydrolytic rancidity involves the splitting apart of the
triglyceride molecule into its three fatty acids plus glycerol. This process
occurs in the presence of water and water components and can result in the
release of volatile free fatty acids. To evaluate the rancidity of the test samples
through hydrolysis, %FFA of the test samples were determined and shown
below in Table 3A.

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Table 2A
Peroxide Value in (meq/kg) of Used Cooking Oil for Street Vended Foods
Trial
Sampling site Mean S.D.
1 2 3
1 20.00 50.00 30.00 33.330 15.27530
2 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.000 0.00000
3 90.00 90.00 80.00 86.670 5.77350

Table 2B
Peroxide Value (meq/kg) in Selected Street Vended Foods
Trial
Vended street foods Mean S.D.
1 2 3
Proben 42.06 28.17 48.78 39.670 10.51080
Fish ball 38.10 43.69 39.41 40.400 2.92350
Chicken intestine 40.54 54.19 48.25 47.660 6.84410
Kwek kwek 24.15 30.30 34.31 29.590 5.11740

Table 3A
Percent Free Fatty acids of Used Cooking Oil for Street Vended Foods
Trial
Used Cooking Oil Mean S.D.
1 2 3
Station 1 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.930 0.00000
Station 2 0.62 0.62 0.93 0.720 0.17900
Station 3 1.23 0.61 0.93 0.920 0.31010

Table 3B
Percent FFA of Selected Street vended foods
Trial
Vended street foods Mean S.D.
1 2 3
Proben 1.43 1.51 1.54 1.490 0.05640
Fish ball 1.53 1.52 1.52 1.520 0.00430
Chicken intestine 2.91 3.00 2.84 2.920 0.07630
Kwek kwek 1.47 2.95 2.98 2.470 0.86490

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As reflected in Tables 3A and 3B, results of the analyses show that

there was a minimal %FFA value both for cooking oil and selected street
vended foods. It was revealed that the %FFA ranged in cooking oil from 0.72
to 0.93% while in selected street vended foods, it was recorded at the range
of 1.49 to 2.92%. The maximum allowable % FFA according to the food
sanitation law in Japan is 3% (Naohiro and Wada, 2006). This means that
these products show slow oxidation through fatty acid hydrolysis due to the
absence of moisture or other water components such as H+ and OH- ions.
On the other hand, high concentration of free fatty acids in food products are
known to generate sour, astringent, pungent, and burning bitter taste (Rush,
et al. 2007).
Levels of Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb) in Street Vended Foods.
The Environmental Protection Agency has developed reference dose for both
Cd and Pb in water and food (NSF International, 2003). The reference dose
for Cd was 0.001 ppm/day while 0.025 ppm/day was established for Pb in all
age groups (infants, children and adults). Exposure of the general population
on Cd and Pb is most likely to occur through ingestion of contaminated food
and water.
Table 4 shows the level of Cadmium (Cd) in the four selected street
vended foods. It was revealed in the results that the concentrations of Cd in
these foods range from 0.60 – 1.57 parts per million (ppm) while the level of
Pb in the four selected street vended foods shown in Table 5 were found to be
higher at the range of 30.00 to 35.00 ppm. Results of the analyses of the four
selected street vended foods signify very high level of Cd and Pb which exceed
the allowable limit of 0.001 ppm/day and 0.025 ppm/day, respectively. This
result indicates heavy metal contamination on the test samples which require
immediate intervention by proper authorities. In this manner, frequent
ingestion of these food products can also lead to food poisoning with known
detrimental health effects.

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Table 4
Cadmium (Cd) Level in ppm of Street vended foods
Trial
Vended street foods Mean S.D.
1 2 3
Proben 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.600 0.10000
Fish ball 0.80 0.90 0.90 0.870 0.05770
Chicken intestine 1.40 1.00 1.20 1.200 0.20000
Kwek kwek 1.80 1.10 1.80 1.570 0.40410

Table 5
Lead (Pb) level in ppm of Street vended foods
Trial
Vended street foods Mean S.D.
1 2 3
Proben 33.00 38.00 34.00 35.000 2.64580
Fish ball 41.00 32.00 21.00 31.330 10.01670
Chicken intestine 28.00 26.00 38.00 30.670 6.42910
Kwek kwek 33.00 36.00 21.00 30.000 7.93730

Conclusions

Peroxide Value (POV) of the used cooking oil showed a POV range
of 33.33 - 86.67meq/kg. A similar finding was recorded for selected street
vended foods showing a range of POV value of 29.59 – 47.66 meq/kg. The
%FFA ranges from 0.72 to 0.93% while on selected street vended foods,
%FFA were recorded at the range of 1.49 to 2.92%.
The concentrations of Cd in street vended foods range from 0.60 –
1.57 parts per million (ppm) while the level of Pb in the four selected street
vended foods was found to be at the range of 30.00 to 35.00 ppm.

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The levels of POV in both used cooking oil and selected street vended
foods extremely exceed the allowable limit of 10meq/kg. The %FFA in both
types of test samples are within the allowable limit. The four selected street-
vended foods have very high levels of Cd and Pb which exceed the allowable
limit of 0.001 ppm/day and 0.025 ppm/day, respectively.
Repetitive use of cooking oil to prepare street vended foods is highly
not recommended due to autooxidation of fats and oils that causes formation
of deleterious substances.
Constant monitoring of food contaminants and heavy metals like Cd
and Pb in street- vended foods must be done to ensure that its concentration
is within the maximum allowable limit of 0.001 ppm for Cd and 0.025 mg/
kg for Pb. Likewise, risk assessment analysis for each type of street-vended
foods must be done so that these foods are of high quality and conform to
the safety standards.

References

Lizada, C. 2007. Food Safety In the Philippines: Problems, Issues and

Opportunities for the Small farmers and Producers. Retrieved
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Safety-in-the-Philippines-Problems-Issues-and-Opportunities-for-the-
Small-Farmers-and-Produ

Muinde, O. and Kuria, E. 2005. Hygienic and Sanitary Practices of Vendors

of of Street Foods in Nairobi, Kenya. African Journal of Food and
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Naohiro, G. and Wada, S. 2006. The importance of peroxide value in

assessing food quality and food safety. Journal of the American Oil
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NSF international, 2003. 20 January 2012. http://www.nsf.org

Rush, A. C et.,al. 2007. Evidence for Human Orosensory (Taste?) Sensitivity

to Free Fatty Acids.Oxford Journals, Life Sciences  &  Medicine
Volume32, Issue5 pp. 423-431

World Health Organization. 2011. Essential Safety Requirements for Street-

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int-/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/en/streetvend.pdf

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