Parrot

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For other uses, see Parrot (disambiguation).

Parrots

Temporal range: Eocene–

Holocene 50–0 Ma 

PreꞒ

Pg

N
 Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Clade: Psittacopasserae

Order: Psittaciformes
Wagler, 1830

Superfamilies

 Cacatuoidea (cockatoos)
 Psittacoidea (true parrots)
 Strigopoidea (New
Zealand parrots)
 Range of parrots, all species (red)

Parrots, also known as psittacines (/ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/),[1][2] are birds of the roughly

398 species[3] in 92 genera comprising the order Psittaciformes (/ˈsɪtəsɪfɔːrmiːz/), found
mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three
superfamilies: the Psittacoidea ("true" parrots), the Cacatuoidea (cockatoos), and
the Strigopoidea (New Zealand parrots). One-third of all parrot species are threatened
by extinction, with higher aggregate extinction risk (IUCN Red List Index) than any other
comparable bird group.[4] Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several
species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The
greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia.
Characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright stance, strong
legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are
multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual
spectrum. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length.
The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and
other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories
and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and soft fruits. Almost all
parrots nest in tree hollows (or nest boxes in captivity), and lay white eggs from which
hatch altricial (helpless) young.
Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are among the
most intelligent birds, and the ability of some species to imitate human
speech enhances their popularity as pets. Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, as
well as hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species, has diminished wild
populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of
birds. As of 2021, about 50 million parrots (half of all parrots) live in captivity, with the
vast majority of these living as pets in people's homes. [5] Measures taken to conserve
the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have also protected many of the
less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems.

Contents

 1Taxonomy
o 1.1Origins and evolution
o 1.2Etymology
o 1.3Phylogeny
o 1.4Systematics
  2Morphology
 3Distribution and habitat
 4Behaviour
o 4.1Diet
o 4.2Breeding
o 4.3Intelligence and learning
 4.3.1Sound imitation and speech
 4.3.2Song
 4.3.3Cooperation
 5Relationship with humans
o 5.1Pets
o 5.2Trade
o 5.3Culture
o 5.4Feral populations
o 5.5Threats and conservation
o 5.6World Parrot Day
 6See also
 7References
 8Cited sources
 9External links

Taxonomy
Origins and evolution

Fossil dentary specimen UCMP 143274 restored as a parrot (left) or an oviraptorosaur

Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may

have evolved in Gondwana, centred in Australasia.[6] The scarcity of parrots in the fossil
record, however, presents difficulties in confirming the hypothesis. There is currently a
higher amount of fossil remains from the northern hemisphere in the early Cenozoic.
[7]
 Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years
ago (Mya) (range 66–51 Mya) in Gondwana. The three major clades of Neotropical
parrots originated about 50 Mya (range 57–41 Mya).[8]
A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP 143274), found in
deposits from the Lance Creek Formation in Niobrara County, Wyoming, had been
thought to be the oldest parrot fossil and is presumed to have originated from the Late
Cretaceous period, which makes it about 70 million years old.[9] However, other studies
suggest that this fossil is not from a bird, but from a caenagnathid oviraptorosaur (a
non-avian dinosaur with a birdlike beak), as several details of the fossil used to support
its identity as a parrot are not actually exclusive to parrots, and it is dissimilar to the
earliest-known unequivocal parrot fossils.[10][11]
It is generally assumed that the Psittaciformes were present during the Cretaceous–
Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg extinction), 66 mya. They were probably
generalised arboreal birds, and did not have the specialised crushing bills of modern
species.[7][12] Genomic analysis provides strong evidence that parrots are the sister
group of passerines, forming the clade Psittacopasserae, which is the sister group of
the falcons.[13]
The first uncontroversial parrot fossils date to tropical Eocene Europe around 50 mya.
Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmark's Early Eocene Fur
Formation and dated to 54 mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes. However, the
rather nondescript bone is not unequivocally psittaciform, and it may rather belong to
the ibis genus Rhynchaeites, whose fossil legs were found in the same deposits. [14]

Fossil skull of a presumed parrot relative from the Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming

Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and
Germany.[15] These are probably not transitional fossils between ancestral and modern
parrots, but rather lineages that evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos: [16]

 Psittacopes
 Serudaptus
 Halcyornithidae
o Cyrilavis
o Halcyornis
o Pulchrapollia
o Pseudasturides
 Vastanavidae
o Vastanavis
 Quercypsittidae
o Quercypsitta
 Messelasturidae[17]
o Messelastur
o Tynskya
The earliest records of modern parrots date to around 23–20 mya. [18] The fossil record—
mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to
anatomically modern parrots.[19] The Southern Hemisphere contains no known parrot-like
remains earlier than the Early Miocene around 20 mya.[18]
Etymology
The name 'Psittaciformes' comes from the ancient Greek for
parrot, ψιττακός ('Psittacus'), whose origin is unclear. Ctesias (5th century BCE)
recorded the name Psittacus after the Indian name for a bird, most likely a parakeet
(now placed in the genus Psittacula). Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) in his Natural
History (book 10, chapter 58) noted that the Indians called the bird as "siptaces";
however, no matching Indian name has been traced. [20][21]
Phylogeny
Parrots    
     

Psittacoidea 
 
 

Cacatuoidea 
 
 

Strigopoidea 
 
Other birds
 

Phylogenetic relationship between the three parrot

superfamilies[6][22][23]

The Psittaciformes comprise three main

lineages: Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea.[24] The Strigopoidea were
considered part of the Psittacoidea, but the former is now placed at the base of the
parrot tree next to the remaining members of the Psittacoidea, as well as all members of
the Cacatuoidea.[6][22][23] The Cacatuoidea are quite distinct, having a movable head crest,
a different arrangement of the carotid arteries, a gall bladder, differences in the skull
bones, and lack the Dyck texture feathers that—in the Psittacidae—scatter light to
produce the vibrant colours of so many parrots. Colourful feathers with high levels
of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than
white ones.[25] Lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae, [26]: 45  but are
now considered a tribe (Loriini) within the subfamily Loriinae, family Psittaculidae. The
two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots (two genera in the
tribe Cyclopsittini) and budgerigar (tribe Melopsittacini).[6][22][23]
   Strigopoidea   
Nestoridae 
     
 
Strigopidae 
 
   Cacatuoide
  a  Cacatuidae
 
 Psittacoide Psittacid  
a  ae Neotropical parrots
 
     
Psittacinae
 
  Psittrichasii  
dae Psittrichadinae
   
   
Coracopseinae
 
Psittaculida  
e Psittaculinae
 
     
Broad-tailed
   
     
Fig parrots
     
   
Budgerigar
   
 
Lories
 
s
   
Bolbopsittacus
   
   
Hanging parrots
   
 
Lovebirds
 
 
Psittacella
 

Phylogenetic relations between parrots[6]

Systematics
Main article: List of parrots
The order Psittaciformes consists of roughly 393 species belonging to 92 genera. [27][6][22][24]
[28][29][30][31]

Skeleton of a parrot
Superfamily Strigopoidea: New Zealand parrots

 Family Nestoridae: two genera with two living (kea and New Zealand kaka)

and several extinct species of the New Zealand region
 Family Strigopidae: the flightless, critically endangered kakapo of New
Zealand
Superfamily Cacatuoidea: cockatoos

 Family Cacatuidae
o Subfamily Nymphicinae: one genus with one species, the cockatiel.
o Subfamily Calyptorhynchinae: the black cockatoos
o Subfamily Cacatuinae
 Tribe Microglossini: one genus with one species, the
black palm cockatoo
 Tribe Cacatuini: four genera of white, pink, and grey
species
Superfamily Psittacoidea: true parrots

 Family Psittacidae
o Subfamily Psittacinae: two African
genera, Psittacus and Poicephalus
o Subfamily Arinae
 Tribe Arini: 18 genera
 Tribe Androglossini: seven genera.
 Family Psittaculidae
o Subfamily Psittrichasinae: one species, Pesquet's parrot
o Subfamily Coracopsinae: one genus with three species.
o Subfamily Platycercinae
 Tribe Pezoporini: ground parrots and allies
 Tribe Platycercini: broad-tailed parrots
o Subfamily Psittacellinae: one genus (Psittacella) with several
species
o Subfamily Loriinae
 Tribe Loriini: lories and lorikeets
 Tribe Melopsittacini: one genus with one species,
the budgerigar
 Tribe Cyclopsittini: fig parrots
 o

Blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna) skeleton on display at the Museum of

Osteology.

Subfamily Agapornithinae: three genera

o Subfamily Psittaculinae
 Tribe Polytelini: three genera
 Tribe Psittaculini: Asian psittacines
 Tribe Micropsittini: pygmy parrots

Morphology

Glossy black cockatoo showing the parrot's strong bill, clawed feet, and sideways-positioned eyes
Living species range in size from the buff-faced pygmy parrot, at under 10 g (0.4 oz) in
weight and 8 cm (3.1 in) in length,[26]: 149  to the hyacinth macaw, at 1 m (3.3 ft) in length,
[32]
 and the kakapo, at 4.0 kg (8.8 lb) in weight.[33] Among the superfamilies, the three
extant Strigopoidea species are all large parrots, and the cockatoos tend to be large
birds, as well. The Psittacoidea parrots are far more variable, ranging the full spectrum
of sizes shown by the family.[33]
The most obvious physical characteristic is the strong, curved, broad bill. The upper
mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes to a point. It is not fused to the
skull, which allows it to move independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting
pressure the birds are able to exert. A large macaw, for example, has a bite force of
35 kg/cm2 (500 lb/sq in), close to that of a large dog.[34] The lower mandible is shorter,
with a sharp, upward-facing cutting edge, which moves against the flat portion of the
upper mandible in an anvil-like fashion. Touch receptors occur along the inner edges of
the keratinised bill, which are collectively known as the "bill tip organ", allowing for
highly dexterous manipulations. Seed-eating parrots have a strong tongue (containing
similar touch receptors to those in the bill tip organ), which helps to manipulate seeds or
position nuts in the bill so that the mandibles can apply an appropriate cracking force.
The head is large, with eyes positioned high and laterally in the skull, so the visual field
of parrots is unlike any other birds. Without turning its head, a parrot can see from just
below its bill tip, all above its head, and quite far behind its head. Parrots also have
quite a wide frontal binocular field for a bird, although this is nowhere near as large as
primate binocular visual fields.[35] Unlike humans, the vision of parrots is also sensitive to
ultraviolet light.[36]
Parrots have strong zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two back) with sharp,
elongated claws, which are used for climbing and swinging. Most species are capable of
using their feet to manipulate food and other objects with a high degree of dexterity, in a
similar manner to a human using their hands. A study conducted with Australian parrots
has demonstrated that they exhibit "handedness", a distinct preference with regards to
the foot used to pick up food, with adult parrots being almost exclusively "left-footed" or
"right-footed", and with the prevalence of each preference within the population varying
by species.[37]

Eclectus parrots, male left and female right

Cockatoo species have a mobile crest of feathers on the top of their heads, which they
can raise for display, and retract.[38] No other parrots can do so, but the Pacific lorikeets
in the genera Vini and Phigys can ruffle the feathers of the crown and nape, and
the red-fan parrot (or hawk-headed parrot) has a prominent feather neck frill that it can
raise and lower at will. The predominant colour of plumage in parrots is green, though
most species have some red or another colour in small quantities. Cockatoos, however,
are predominately black or white with some red, pink, or yellow. [39] Strong sexual
dimorphism in plumage is not typical among parrots, with some notable exceptions, the
most striking being the eclectus parrot.[26]: 202–207  However it has been shown that some
parrot species exhibit sexually dimorphic plumage in the ultraviolet spectrum, normally
invisible to humans.[40][41]

Distribution and habitat

Most parrot species are tropical, but a few species, like this austral parakeet, range deeply into temperate
zones.

See also: List of Psittaciformes by population

Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents and regions
including Australia and Oceania, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central America, South
America, and Africa. Some Caribbean and Pacific islands are home to endemic species.
[42]
 By far the greatest number of parrot species come from Australasia and South
America.[43] The lories and lorikeets range from Sulawesi and the Philippines in the north
to Australia and across the Pacific as far as French Polynesia, with the greatest
diversity being found in and around New Guinea.[42] The subfamily Arinae encompasses
all the neotropical parrots, including the amazons, macaws, and conures, and ranges
from northern Mexico and the Bahamas to Tierra del Fuego in the southern tip of South
America.[44] The pygmy parrots, tribe Micropsittini, form a small genus restricted to New
Guinea and the Solomon Islands.[45] The superfamily Strigopoidea contains three living
species of aberrant parrots from New Zealand.[46] The broad-tailed parrots,
subfamily Platycercinae, are restricted to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific
islands as far eastwards as Fiji.[47] The true parrot superfamily, Psittacoidea, includes a
range of species from Australia and New Guinea to South Asia and Africa. [42] The centre
of cockatoo biodiversity is Australia and New Guinea, although some species reach
the Solomon Islands (and one formerly occurred in New Caledonia),[48] Wallacea and the
Philippines.[49]
The kea is the only alpine parrot.

Several parrots inhabit the cool, temperate regions of South America and New Zealand.

Three species—the Thick-billed parrot, the Green parakeet, and the now-
extinct Carolina parakeet—have lived as far north as the southern United States. Many
parrots have been introduced to areas with temperate climates, and have established
stable populations in parts of the United States (including New York City),[50] the United
Kingdom,[51] Belgium,[52] Spain[53][54] and Greece.[55] These birds can be quite successful in
introduced areas, such as the non-native population of red-crowned amazons in the
U.S. which may rival that of their native Mexico.[56] The only parrot to inhabit alpine
climates is the Kea, which is endemic to the Southern Alps mountain range on New
Zealand's South Island.[57]
Few parrots are wholly sedentary or fully migratory. Most fall somewhere between the
two extremes, making poorly understood regional movements, with some adopting an
entirely nomadic lifestyle.[58] Only three species are migratory – the orange-bellied, blue-
winged and swift parrots.[59]

Behaviour

Macaw parrot sitting on a tree branch

A rose-ringed parakeet

Numerous challenges are found in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch
and once caught, they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on banding or
wing tagging, but parrots chew off such attachments. [58] Parrots also tend to range
widely, and consequently many gaps occur in knowledge of their behaviour. Some
parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much of their time perched or
climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking
on branches and other supports. On the ground, parrots often walk with a rolling gait. [35]
Diet

A yellow-tailed black cockatoo using its strong bill to search for grubs

The diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and

sometimes arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of these for most true
parrots and cockatoos are seeds; the large and powerful bill has evolved to open and
consume tough seeds. All true parrots, except the Pesquet's parrot, employ the same
method to obtain the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and
the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the
remaining husk is removed.[58] They may use their foot sometimes to hold large seeds in
place. Parrots are granivores rather than seed dispersers, and in many cases where
they are seen consuming fruit, they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As seeds
often have poisons that protect them, parrots carefully remove seed coats and other
chemically defended fruit parts prior to ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa,
and Papua New Guinea consume clay, which releases minerals and absorbs toxic
compounds from the gut.[60]

Chestnut-fronted macaws, yellow-crowned amazons, and dusky-headed parakeets at a clay lick in Ecuador

Geographical range and body size predominantly explains diet composition of

Neotropical parrots rather than phylogeny.[61]
Lories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrots are
primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect it, as
well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other species also consume nectar
when it becomes available.[62][63]
Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae. Golden-winged
parakeets prey on water snails,[64] the New Zealand kea can, though uncommonly, hunt
adult sheep,[65] and the Antipodes parakeet, another New Zealand parrot, enters the
burrows of nesting grey-backed storm petrels and kills the incubating adults.[66] Some
cockatoos and the New Zealand kaka excavate branches and wood to feed on grubs;
the bulk of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects.[67]
Some extinct parrots had carnivorous diets. Pseudasturids were probably cuckoo-
or puffbird-like insectivores, while messelasturids were raptor-like carnivores.[17]
Breeding
With few exceptions, parrots are monogamous breeders who nest in cavities and hold
no territories other than their nesting sites.[58][68] The pair bonds of the parrots and
cockatoos are strong and a pair remains close during the nonbreeding season, even if
they join larger flocks. As with many birds, pair bond formation is preceded by courtship
displays; these are relatively simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots'
common breeding displays, usually undertaken by the male, include slow, deliberate
steps known as a "parade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the
eye constricts to reveal the edge of the iris. [58] Allopreening is used by the pair to help
maintain the bond. Cooperative breeding, where birds other than the breeding pair help
raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremely rare in parrots, and
has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the El Oro parakeet and the golden
parakeet (which may also exhibit polygamous, or group breeding, behaviour with
multiple females contributing to the clutch).[69]
The vast majority of parrots are, like this rose-ringed parakeet, cavity nesters.

Only the monk parakeet and five species of lovebirds build nests in trees,[70] and three

Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground. All other parrots and
cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks, or the
ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species
use termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspicuousness of the nesting site or to
create a favourable microclimate.[71] In most cases, both parents participate in the nest
excavation. The length of the burrow varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 and
2 m (1.6 and 6.6 ft) in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood
chips, and other plant material. In the larger species of parrots and cockatoos, the
availability of nesting hollows may be limited, leading to intense competition for them
both within the species and between species, as well as with other bird families. The
intensity of this competition can limit breeding success in some cases. [72][73] Hollows
created artificially by arborists have proven successful in boosting breeding rates in
these areas.[74] Some species are colonial, with the burrowing parrot nesting in colonies
up to 70,000 strong.[75] Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected,
possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own. [76]
The eggs of parrots are white. In most species, the female undertakes all
the incubation, although incubation is shared in cockatoos, the blue lorikeet, and
the vernal hanging parrot. The female remains in the nest for almost all of the incubation
period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation varies from 17 to
35 days, with larger species having longer incubation periods. The newly born young
are altricial, either lacking feathers or with sparse white down. The young spend three
weeks to four months in the nest, depending on species, and may receive parental care
for several months thereafter.[77]
As typical of K-selected species, the macaws and other larger parrot species have low
reproductive rates. They require several years to reach maturity, produce one or very
few young per year, and do not necessarily breed every year. [78]: 125 
Intelligence and learning
Sun conure demonstrating parrots' puzzle-solving skills

See also: Bird intelligence

Some grey parrots have shown an ability to associate words with their meanings and
form simple sentences. Along with crows, ravens, and jays (family Corvidae), parrots
are considered the most intelligent of birds. The brain-to-body size ratio of psittacines
and corvines is comparable to that of higher primates. [79] Instead of using the cerebral
cortex like mammals, birds use the mediorostral HVC for cognition.[80][failed verification] Not only
have parrots demonstrated intelligence through scientific testing of their language-using
ability, but also some species of parrots, such as the kea, are also highly skilled at using
tools and solving puzzles.[81]
Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that learning is
social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several
species, crèches are formed with several broods. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt
from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Generalists and specialists generally
become independent of their parents much quicker than partly specialised species who
may have to learn skills over long periods as various resources become seasonally
available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; play can be solitary or social.
Species may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An
absence of stimuli can delay the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a
group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age of 3
months; at 9 months, these birds still behaved in the same way as 3-month-olds, but
had adopted some chicken behaviour. [58] In a similar fashion, captive birds in zoo
collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped and harmful
behaviours like self-plucking. Aviculturists working with parrots have identified the need
for environmental enrichment to keep parrots stimulated.[82]
Sound imitation and speech
Main article: Talking bird
See also: Animal language
Video of an orange-winged amazon saying "hello" having been prompted by some humans

Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by scientist Irene

Pepperberg suggested a high learning ability in a grey parrot named Alex. Alex was
trained to use words to identify objects, describe them, count them, and even answer
complex questions such as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accuracy. [83] N'kisi,
another grey parrot, has been shown to have a vocabulary around a thousand words,
and has displayed an ability to invent and use words in context in correct tenses. [84]
Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air across the
mouth of the trachea in the organ called the syrinx. Different sounds are produced by
changing the depth and shape of the trachea. [85] Grey parrots are known for their
superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech, which has made them popular
pets since ancient times.[86]
Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are
generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world. The
question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score very high on
tests designed to measure problem-solving ability. Wild grey parrots have been
observed imitating other birds.[87]
Song
Parrots are unusual among birds due to their learned vocalizations, a trait they share
with only hummingbirds and songbirds.[88] The syrinx (vocal organ) of parrots, which aids
in their ability to produce song, is located at the base of the trachea and consists of two
complex syringeal muscles that allow for the production of sound vibrations, and a pair
of lateral tympaniform membranes that control sound frequency. [89] The position of the
syrinx in birds allows for directed air flow into the interclavicular air sacs according to air
sac pressure, which in turn creates a higher and louder tone in birds’ singing. [88]
Cooperation
A 2011 study stated that some African grey parrots preferred to work alone, while others
like to work together.[90] With two parrots, they know the order of tasks or when they
should do something together at once, but they have trouble exchanging roles. With
three parrots, one parrot usually prefers to cooperate with one of the other two, but all of
them are cooperating to solve the task.[91]

Relationship with humans

Pets
Further information: Companion parrot

Pet Cuban amazons in Cuba

Parrots may not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild instincts
such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very affectionate and cute
when immature, they often become aggressive when mature (partly due to mishandling
and poor training) and may bite, causing serious injury. [92] For this reason, parrot rescue
groups estimate that most parrots are surrendered and rehomed through at least five
homes before reaching their permanent destinations or before dying prematurely from
unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse. The parrots' ability to mimic human
words and their bright colours and beauty prompt impulse buying from unsuspecting
consumers. The domesticated budgerigar, a small parrot, is the most popular of all pet
bird species.[93] In 1992, the newspaper USA Today published that 11 million pet birds
were in the United States alone,[94] many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching
the description of the rose-ringed parakeet (or called the ring-necked parrot),
documented particularly in a first-century account by Pliny the Elder.[95] As they have
been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they have also
often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl says in his 1987
book The Grey Parrot that some importers had parrots drink only coffee while they were
shipped by boat, believing that pure water was detrimental and that their actions would
increase survival rates during shipping.[96] Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that the
caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds.[97]
Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or aviary; though generally, tame parrots should be
allowed out regularly on a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots may be either
wild-caught or be captive-bred, though in most areas without native parrots, pet parrots
are captive-bred. Parrot species that are commonly kept as pets
include conures, macaws, amazon parrots, cockatoos,
greys, lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars, caiques, parakeets, and Eclectus, Pionus,
and Poicephalus species. Temperaments and personalities vary even within a species,
just as with dog breeds. Grey parrots are thought to be excellent talkers, but not all grey
parrots want to talk, though they have the capability to do so. Noise level, talking ability,
cuddliness with people, and care needs can sometimes depend on how the bird is
cared for and the attention he/she regularly receives. [98]

Scarlet macaw riding a tricycle at a show in Spain

Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and intellectual

stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-old child, which many people
find themselves unable to provide in the long term. [99] Parrots that are bred for pets may
be hand fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to
help ensure they become tame and trusting. However, even when hand fed, parrots
revert to biting and aggression during hormonal surges and if mishandled or neglected.
[100]
 Parrots are not low-maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary
care, training, environmental enrichment through the provision of toys, exercise, and
social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for good health. [101]
Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have
very long lifespans, with 80 years being reported, [102] and record ages of over 100.
[103]
 Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots, and budgies, have shorter
lifespans up to 15–20 years.[104] Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many of the
larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of
new toys, branches, or other items to chew up. [98] The intelligence of parrots means they
are quick to learn tricks and other behaviours—both good and bad—that get them what
they want, such as attention or treats.[101]
The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet parrots and
their wild traits such as screaming, has led to many birds needing to be rehomed during
the course of their long lifespans. A common problem is that large parrots that are
cuddly and gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex, often demanding adults
who can outlive their owners, and can also become aggressive or even dangerous. Due
to an increasing number of homeless parrots, they are being euthanised like dogs and
cats, and parrot adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming more common. [78]: 77–
78 
 Parrots do not often do well in captivity, causing some parrots to go insane and
develop repetitive behaviours, such as swaying and screaming, or they become riddled
with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, although not commonly seen
in the wild, occur frequently in captivity.[105][106]
Trade
Hyacinth macaws were taken from the wild for the pet trade in the 1980s.[107] As a result, Brazil now has only a
very small number of breeding pairs left in the wild.[108]

Main article: International parrot trade

The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often illegal—trade in the
birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of trapping
of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible
for some species of parrot. Importation of wild-caught parrots into the US and Europe is
illegal after the Wild Bird Population Act was passed in 1992. [109]
The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, in which a parrot
expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque (Europe's largest parrot park) was
jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for smuggling hyacinth
macaws (such birds command a very high price.)[110]
Different nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade.
Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960. [111] In July 2007, following
years of campaigning by NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, the European Union (EU)
halted the importation of all wild birds with a permanent ban on their import. [112] Prior to
an earlier temporary ban started in late October 2005, the EU was importing about two
million live birds a year, about 90% of the international market: hundreds of thousands
of these were parrots.[113] No national laws protect feral parrot populations in the U.S. [114]
Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds. [115] According to a
2007 report, 65,000 to 78,500 parrots are captured annually, but the mortality rate
before reaching a buyer is over 75%, meaning around 50,000 to 60,000 will die. [116]
Culture

Moche parrot, 200 CE Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru

Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion, and music for
thousands of years, such as Aesop's fable "The parrot and the
cat"[117] the Masnavi by Rumi of Persia in 1250 "The Merchant and the Parrot".[118] Recent
books about parrots in human culture include Parrot Culture.[119]
In ancient times and current, parrot feathers have been used in ceremonies and for
decoration.[120] They also have a long history as pets, stretching back thousands of years,
and were often kept as a symbol of royalty or wealth. [121] In Polynesian legend as current
in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is mentioned as having undertaken a long
and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, to obtain the highly
prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage, 100 of
his 140 rowers died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and
captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers. [122][123] Parrots have also been
considered sacred. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped birds and often
depicted parrots in their art.[124] Parrots are popular in Buddhist scripture and many
writings about them exist. For example, Amitābha once changed himself into a parrot to
aid in converting people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught fire, the parrot
was so concerned, it carried water to try to put out the flames. The ruler of heaven was
so moved upon seeing the parrot's act, he sent rain to put out the fire. [125] In Chinese
Buddhist iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on the upper right
side Guan Yin clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak.[126]
Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the flag of
Dominica and two parrots on their coat of arms.[127] The St. Vincent parrot is the national
bird of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation.[128]
Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parrot" in the
dictionary means "to repeat by rote". Also clichés such as the British expression "sick as
a parrot" are given; although this refers to extreme disappointment rather than illness, it
may originate from the disease of psittacosis, which can be passed to humans.[129][130] The
first occurrence of a related expression is in Aphra Behn's 1681 play The False Count.
[131]
 Fans of Jimmy Buffett are known as parrotheads.[132] Parrots feature in many media.
Magazines are devoted to parrots as pets, and to the conservation of parrots.
[133]
 Fictional media include Monty Python's "Dead Parrot sketch",[134] Home Alone
3[135] and Rio;[136] and documentaries include The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill.[137]