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DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS:

Dr. Dinesh Kumar
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mech. Eng., MNIT Jaipur

Few major references are included here. Other references may be found in individual chapters.
1. Norton Robert L., “Machine Design: An Integrated Approach”,
Fourth Edition, Pearson Education Inc., New Jersey, 2011.
2. Shigley J. E. and Mischke C. R., Budynas R. G. and Nisbett K. J.,
“Mechanical Engineering Design“ McGraw Hill, 8th Edition, USA,
2008.
*It is impossible to write better than in the above mentioned references and paraphrasing any statements may lead to loss of technical
meanings /contents of the statements, and hence, many statements are quoted directly from these works.

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CHAPTER 5:
GEAR DESIGN: BENDING STRESS

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Stresses in Spur Gears

• Two mode of failure in gears
– Fatigue fracture due to fluctuating bending stresses at
root of tooth
– Surface fatigue of tooth surfaces
• Fatigue fracture can be prevented by keeping
state of stress within the modified Goodman line
for the material. Hence, bending endurance limit
for infinite life can be obtained for bending loads
• However, materials do not exhibit an endurance
limit for repeated surface-contact stresses.
Therefore, it is not possible to design gears for
infinite life against surface failure.
• Pitting is the most common mode of surface
failure other than abrasive or adhesive wear.

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Pitting (left) and Tooth Root Fracture (right)

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Stresses in Spur Gears-

Lewis Equation
The first recognized analysis of gear-tooth stresses
was presented by Wilfred Lewis in 1892 . It still
serves as the basis for gear-tooth bending
stress analysis but additional factors account that
were not known at that time
. Lewis made the following simplifying assumptions:
1. The full load is applied to the tip of a single
tooth.
2. The radial component, Wr , is negligible.
3. The load is distributed uniformly across the full
face width.
4. Forces which are due to tooth sliding friction are
negligible.
5. Stress concentration in the tooth fillet is
negligible. (it was not known in Lewis’ time)

Note that gear tooth is everywhere stronger than the

inscribed constant strength parabola

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Stresses in Spur Gears-Lewis Equation

The Lewis Equation (1892)-The
tooth is modeled as cantilever beam
with Wt as tip force

𝐹𝑡 3 𝑡
𝑀𝑏 = 𝑊𝑡 ℎ ; I = ;𝑦 =2
12

𝑀𝑦 𝑊𝑡 ℎ × 𝑡ൗ2 𝑊𝑡 ℎ
𝜎𝑏 = = 3 = 2
𝐼 𝐹𝑡 ൗ 𝐹𝑡 /6
12
𝑊𝑡 t2
𝜎𝑏 = where : Y =
𝑚𝐹𝑌 6mh
The principles of the Lewis Equation are still valid, but
it has been augmented with additional factors to
account for failure mechanisms only later understood

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Values of the Lewis Form Factor Y (These Values Are for a

Normal Pressure Angle of 20°, Full-Depth Teeth, and a
Diametral Pitch of Unity in the Plane of Rotation)

Y is a dimensionless
geometry factor,
called the Lewis form
Factor, that took the
tooth geometry into
account to determine
its effective strength
at the root fillet.

Source: Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design 9th ed by Budynas & Nisbett

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Values of Lewis form factor Y for standard spur gears (load applied at tip of the
tooth).

Source: Machine Component Design 5th ed by Juvinall & Marshek

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Dynamic Effects
• When a pair of gears is driven at moderate or high speed and
noise is generated, it is certain that dynamic effects are present.
• In the nineteenth century, Carl G. Barth first expressed the
velocity factor, and in terms of the current AGMA standards, they
are represented as
In SI units Attempts to account
3.05 + 𝑉 for internally
𝐾𝑣 = (cast iron, cast profile)
3.05 generated vibration
6.1 + 𝑉
𝐾𝑣 = (cut or milled profile) loads from tooth-
6.1
3.56 + 𝑉 tooth impacts
𝐾𝑣 = (hobbed or shaped)
3.56 induced by
𝐾𝑣 =
5.56 + 𝑉
(shaved or ground profile)
nonconjugate
5.56 meshing of the gear
where V is in meters per second (m/s) teeth.

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Dynamic Effects…
Introducing the velocity factor into the Lewis Equation gives

𝐾𝑣 𝑊𝑡 where the face width F and the module m are both in

𝜎𝑏 = millimeters (mm).
𝑚𝐹𝑌
• Equation is important because this form the basis for
the AGMA approach to the bending strength of gear
teeth.
• They are in general used for estimating the capacity
of gear drives when life and reliability are not
important considerations.
• The equations can be useful in obtaining a
preliminary estimate of gear sizes needed for various
applications.

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𝑊𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑤𝑖𝑠: 𝜎𝑏 =
AGMA Stress Equation 𝑚𝐹𝑌
Two fundamental stress equations are used in the AGMA methodology, one
for bending stress and another for pitting resistance (contact stress). In
AGMA terminology, these are called stress numbers. The fundamental
equations are:
(U.S) The K factors are modifiers to
account for various
(S.I) conditions.

where for U.S. customary units (SI units),

Wt is the tangential transmitted load, lbf (N)
Ka is the overload factor
Kv is the dynamic factor
Ks is the size factor
pd is the transverse diametral pitch
F is the face width of the narrower member, in
(mm)
Km is the load-distribution factor
KB is the rim-thickness factor
J is the geometry factor for bending strength
(which includes root fillet stress-concentration
factor Kf ) (m ) is the transverse metric module
These items include issues such as:
• Transmitted load magnitude
• Overload
• Dynamic augmentation of transmitted
load
• Size
• Geometry: pitch and face width
• Distribution of load across the teeth
• Rim support of the tooth
• Lewis form factor and root fillet stress
concentration

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Assumptions to Derive AGMA Equation

• The contact ratio is between 1 and 2.
• There is no interference between the tips and
root fillets of mating teeth and no
undercutting of teeth above the theoretical
start of the active profile.
• No teeth are pointed.
• There is nonzero backlash.
• The root fillets are standard, assumed smooth,
and produced by a generating process.
• The friction forces are neglected.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Bending Strength Factor J
The AGMA factor J employs a modified value of the Lewis form factor Y; a fatigue
stress-concentration factor Kf ; and a tooth load-sharing ratio mN . The resulting
equation for J for spur and helical gears is
𝑌
𝐽=
𝐾𝑓 𝑚𝑁
The load-sharing ratio
mN is equal to the face
width divided by the
minimum total length
of the lines of contact.
For spur gears, mN = 1.0

Spur-gear geometry factors J.

Source: The graph is from AGMA
218.01, which is consistent with
tabular data from the current
AGMA 908-B89. The graph is
convenient for design purposes.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Bending Strength Factor J
• Tables providing J for specific number of teeth, specific pressure
angle, for full-depth teeth, 25% and 50% unequal addendum teeth
• Different for P and G based on N
• U indicates undercutting occurs in that combination
• If mfg. is precise, then load sharing between teeth can assumed
and use HPSTC tables (Highest point of single-tooth contact), else
only one pair of teeth will take the load at tip in the worst case

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Dynamic Factor KV
• Dynamic factors are used to account for inaccuracies in the manufacture
and meshing of gear teeth in action. Transmission error is defined as the
departure from uniform angular velocity of the gear pair. Some of the
effects that produce transmission error are:
➢ Inaccuracies produced in the generation of the tooth profile; these include
errors in tooth spacing, profile lead, and runout
➢ Vibration of the tooth during meshing due to the tooth stiffness
➢ Magnitude of the pitch-line velocity
➢ Dynamic unbalance of the rotating members
➢ Wear and permanent deformation of contacting portions of the teeth
➢ Gearshaft misalignment and the linear and angular deflection of the shaft
➢ Tooth friction
•To consider these effects, AGMA has defined a set of quality numbers/quality index.
•These numbers define the tolerances for gears of various sizes manufactured to a
specified accuracy.
•Quality numbers 3 to 7 will include most commercial-quality gears. Quality numbers 8
to 12 are of precision quality.
•The AGMA transmission accuracy level number Qv could be taken as the same as the
quality number.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣

Gears Qv
Formed gears 3-4
Gears by rough methods such 5-7
as shaping, rack cutter
Gears finished by shaving or 8-11
grinding
Gears by lapping and honing >12

Recommended Gear Quality Numbers

Pitch Velocity Qv
0-4 m/s 6-8
4-10 m/s 8-10
10-20 m/s 10-12
Over 20 m/s 12-14

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Dynamic Factor KV
The following equations for the dynamic factor are based on these
Qv numbers:
𝐵
𝐴
𝐾𝑣 =
𝐴 + 200𝑉𝑡

𝐴 = 50 + 56 1 − 𝐵
where
12 − 𝑄𝑣 2/3
𝐵= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 6 ≤ 𝑄𝑣 ≤ 11
4

The terminal values of Vt for each curve can be

calculated from:
𝐴 + (𝑄𝑣 − 3 )2
𝑉𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚/𝑠
200

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Dynamic Factor KV
For gear with Qv5, a different equation is used:

Valid for Vt<13 m/s

Above that velocity, gears of higher Qv should be used

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Dynamic Factor KV
1

0.9

Qv=11
Gear Dynamic Factor kv

0.8

Qv=10
0.7
Qv=9
Qv=8
0.6
Qv=7
Qv=6
0.5
Qv<=6

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pitch Line Velocity v m/s

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
Application Factors Ka 𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣

• The overload factor Ka is intended to make allowance for

all externally applied loads in excess of the nominal
tangential load Wt in a particular application
• If either the driving or driven machine has time-varying
torques or forces, then these will increase the loading felt
by the gear teeth above the average values.
• In the absence of definitive information about the
dynamic loads in the driving and driven machines, an
application factor Ka can be applied to increase the tooth
stress based on the “shockiness” of the machinery
connected to the gear train.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Load Distribution Factor Km
• The load-distribution factor is accounted to reflect
nonuniform distribution of load across the line of
contact.
• Any axial misalignment or axial deviation in tooth
form will cause the transmitted load Wt to be
unevenly distributed over the face width of the
gear teeth.
• This problem becomes more pronounced with
larger face widths.
• An approximate and conservative way to account
for less than uniform load distribution is to apply
the factor Km to increase the stresses for larger
face widths.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Load Distribution Factor Km
• A useful rule of thumb is to keep the face width F of a spur gear
within the limits 8 / pd < F < 16 / pd, with a nominal value of 12 / pd.
• Some suggested values shown in below Table.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Size Factor Ks
• The size factor reflects nonuniformity of material properties
due to size. It depends upon
– Tooth size
– Diameter of part
– Ratio of tooth size to diameter of part
– Face width
– Area of stress pattern
– Ratio of case depth to tooth size
– Hardenability and heat treatment
• It can be used in the same way as the size factor for general
fatigue loading
• AGMA has not established specific standards to evaluate Ks.
They recommend Ks set as 1 unless the designer wishes to
count situations such as very large teeth, then Ks should be
set 1.25 – 1.5.

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Rim Thickness Factors KB
• It is account for situations in which a large-
diameter gear, made with a rim and spokes
rather than as a solid disk
• Such designs can fail with a radial fracture
across the rim rather than through a tooth
depth
• AGMA defines a backup ratio mB as

This ratio is used to define the rim thickness factor from:

𝐾𝐵 = −2𝑚𝐵 + 3.4, 0.5 ≤ 𝑚𝐵 ≤ 1.2

𝐾𝐵 = 1.0 𝑚𝐵 > 1.2
𝑚𝐵 < 0.5 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝐾𝐵 = 1.0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 − 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

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𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑚
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐼
𝐹𝑚𝐽 𝐾𝑣
Idler Factor KI
• You can apply one more factor for
idler
• An idler gear is subjected both to
more cycles of stress per unit
time and to larger-magnitude
alternating loads than its nonidler
cousins
• To account for this situation, a
factor KI is set to 1.42 for an idler
gear or 1.0 for a nonidler gear

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Ex. 12.5 : Bending stress analysis of a

spur-gear train

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Solution: Example 12-5

• Take the middle of the recommended face-width-factor range 8 /

pd < F < 16 / pd for a first calculation:

• Based on the assumption of uniform load and source, the

application factor Ka can be set to 1.

• The load distribution factor can be estimated from Table 11-16

based on the assumed face width: Km = 1.6.

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Solution: Example 12-5…

• The velocity factor Kv

•The size factor Ks = 1 for all three gears.

•These gears are all too small to have a rim and

spokes, so KB = 1.

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Solution: Example 12-5…

• The idler factor KI = 1 for the pinion and gear and KI =
1.42 for the idler gear.

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Solution: Example 12-5…

If this is an acceptable stress level, then the assumed

face width can be used. This issue will be revisited for
this design in a later example.

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