Class XI Chemistry Support Material (Term-2)

केंद्रीय विद्यालय संगठन, एरणाकुलम संभाग
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

ERNAKULAM REGION
Class XI
STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL
CHEMISTRY
SESSION 2021-22 (TERM-2)
OUR PATRON
Shri. R Senthil Kumar

Deputy Commissioner
KVS RO, Ernakulam Region
OUR MENTORS
Smt. Deepti Nair Shri. Santhosh Kumar N

Assistant Commissioner Assistant Commissioner
KVS RO, Ernakulam KVS RO, Ernakulam
CO-ORDINATOR
Shri. G Sasikumar
Principal, Kendriya Vidyalaya Kollam
CONTENT DEVELOPMENT TEAM
S Name of the Chapter Name of the Contributors Name of the KV
No
1. Mrs. JAYASREE V R KV No.1 Palakkad
States of Matter
Mr. PRATHEESH N KV SAP Peroorkada
Mrs.DEEPA C K KV SAP, Peroorkada
Mrs.LAKSHMISREE M KV Kanjikode
2. Mrs. M C SANDHYA KV Kanjikode
Chemical
Mrs. NISY SEBASTIAN P KV Thrissur
Thermodynamics
Mrs. SABITHA V N KV Ernakulam
Mr. SREENIVASALU KV Idukki
3. Mrs. AJITHA.A.M KV Kannur
Chemical
Mr. VINU T V RAO K V Pattom (Shift-1)
Equilibrium
Mrs. SWAPNA SATHEES KV Pattom (Shift-1)
Mrs. DAISY JOSEPH KV RB, Kottayam
4. Mrs. AMBILI V M KV No.2, Kasargod
s-Block Elements
Ms. DEEPTHI K KV Peringome
Mrs. BIJI K KV Keltron Nagar
Mrs.BINDU T P KV Malappuram
5. Mrs. RAJI K J KV Port Trust
p-Block Elements
Mr. SATHEESH KUMAR T T V KV Ezhimala
Mrs. SEENATH M S KV Adoor (Shift-1)
Mrs. MEENA S NAIR KV Thrissur
6. Mrs. SANTHA D KV Pattom (Shift-2)
Hydrocarbons
Mrs. RASEENA M KV Kalpetta
Mrs. BROMLY THOMAS KV Pattom (Shift-2)
Mrs.SHYLA P KV Port Trust
CONTENT REVIEW TEAM

S No Name of the teacher Name of the KV
1 Mrs Shyla P KV Port Trust
2 Mr Sumesh M S KV Port Trust
3 Mrs Raji K J KV Port Trust
4 Mr Sibu John KV Kollam
INDEX
PAGE
CONTENT
No.
STATES OF MATTER
Gist of the Lesson 1
Multiple choice questions 6
Assertion-Reason type of questions 14
Case based questions 16
Descriptive questions 17
CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS
p-BLOCK ELEMENTS
HYDROCARBONS
CHEMISTRY (043)
SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2021-22 CLASS XI Term-I

S UNIT Periods Marks
1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 10 11
2 Structure of Atom 12
3 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 6
4
4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 14
6
5 Redox Reactions 4
6 Hydrogen 4 5
7 Organic Chemistry: Some basic Principles and Techniques 10
9
TOTAL 60 35
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry: General Introduction: Importance and scope of Chemistry.
Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept and molar mass, percentage composition, empirical
and molecular formula, chemical reactions, stoichiometry and calculations based on stoichiometry.
Structure of Atom: Bohr's model and its limitations, concept of shells and subshells, dual nature of
matter and light, de Broglie's relationship, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, concept of orbitals,
quantum numbers, shapes of s, p and d orbitals, rules for filling electrons in orbitals - Aufbau
principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of atoms, stability of
half-filled and completely filled orbitals
Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties: Modern periodic law and the present form
of periodic table, periodic trends in properties of elements -atomic radii, ionic radii, inert gas radii,
Ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valency. Nomenclature of elements
with atomic number greater than 100.
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure:

Valence electrons, ionic bond, covalent bond, bond parameters, Lewis structure, polar character of
covalent bond, covalent character of ionic bond, valence bond theory, resonance, geometry of
covalent molecules, VSEPR theory, concept of hybridization, involving s, p and d orbitals and shapes
of some simple molecules, molecular orbital theory of homonuclear diatomic molecules(qualitative
idea only), Hydrogen bond.
Redox Reactions:
Concept of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, balancing redox reactions,
in terms of loss and gain of electrons and change in oxidation number.
Hydrogen: Position of hydrogen in periodic table, occurrence, isotopes, hydrides-ionic covalent and
interstitial; physical and chemical properties of water, heavy water, hydrogen as a fuel
Organic Chemistry: Some basic Principles and Techniques: General introduction, classification and
IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds. Electronic displacements in a covalent bond: inductive
effect, electromeric effect, resonance and hyper conjugation. Homolytic and heterolytic fission of a
covalent bond: free radicals, carbocations, carbanions, electrophiles and nucleophiles, types of
organic reactions.
PRACTICALS
Term I: A 15-mark Practical would be conducted under the supervision of subject teacher. This
would contribute to the overall practical marks for the subject.
OR
In case the situation of lockdown continues until Nov-Dec 2021, a Practical Based Assessment (pen-
paper) of 15 marks would be conducted at the end of Term I.
Term-I Evaluation Scheme
S. No Practical Marks
1. Volumetric Analysis 8
2. Content Based experiment 2
3. Class record and viva(Internal Examiner) 5
TOTAL 15
Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments, wherever possible
such techniques should be used.
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod

2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterization of Chemical Substances (2 Marks)
1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.

2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound.
C. Quantitative Estimation (8 marks)
i. Using a mechanical balance/electronic balance.

ii. Preparation of standard solution of Oxalic acid.
iii. Determination of strength of a given solution of Sodium hydroxide by titrating it against
standard solution of Oxalic acid.
iv. Preparation of standard solution of Sodium carbonate.
v. Determination of strength of a given solution of hydrochloric acid by titrating it against
standard Sodium Carbonate solution.
SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2021-22 CLASS XI Term-II
S.No UNIT Periods Marks

1 States of Matter: Gases and Liquids 9 15
2 Chemical Thermodynamics 14
3 Equilibrium 12
4 s -Block Elements 5 11
5 Some p -Block Elements 9
6 Hydrocarbons 10 9
TOTAL 59 35
States of Matter: Gases and Liquids: Three states of matter, intermolecular interactions, types of
bonding, melting and boiling points, role of gas laws in elucidating the concept of the molecule,
Boyle's law, Charles law, Gay Lussac's law, Avogadro's law, ideal behaviour, empirical derivation of
gas equation, Avogadro's number, ideal gas equation and deviation from ideal behaviour.
Chemical Thermodynamics: Concepts of System and types of systems, surroundings, work, heat,
energy, extensive and intensive properties, state functions.
First law of thermodynamics -internal energy and enthalpy, measurement of U and H, Hess's law
of constant heat summation, enthalpy of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization,
sublimation, phase transition, ionization, solution and dilution. Second law of Thermodynamics (brief
introduction)
Introduction of entropy as a state function, Gibb's energy change for spontaneous and non-
spontaneous processes.
Third law of thermodynamics (brief introduction).
Equilibrium: Equilibrium in physical and chemical processes, dynamic nature of equilibrium, law of
mass action, equilibrium constant, factors affecting equilibrium - Le Chatelier's principle, ionic
equilibrium- ionization of acids and bases, strong and weak electrolytes, degree of ionization,
ionization of poly basic acids, acid strength, concept of pH, buffer solution, solubility product,
common ion effect (with illustrative examples).
s -Block Elements: Group 1 and Group 2 Elements -General introduction, electronic configuration,
occurrence, anomalous properties of the first element of each group, diagonal relationship, trends in
the variation of properties (such as ionization enthalpy, atomic and ionic radii), trends in chemical
reactivity with oxygen, water, hydrogen and halogens, uses.
Some p -Block Elements: General Introduction to p -Block Elements

Group 13 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of
properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous properties of first element of
the group, Boron - physical and chemical properties.
Group 14 Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence, variation of
properties, oxidation states, trends in chemical reactivity, anomalous behaviour of first elements.
Carbon-catenation, allotropic forms, physical and chemical properties.
Hydrocarbons: Classification of Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons:

Alkanes - Nomenclature, isomerism, conformation (ethane only), physical properties, chemical
reactions.
Alkenes - Nomenclature, structure of double bond (ethene), geometrical isomerism, physical
properties, methods of preparation, chemical reactions: addition of hydrogen, halogen, water,
hydrogen halides (Markovnikov's addition and peroxide effect), ozonolysis, oxidation, mechanism of
electrophilic addition.
Alkynes - Nomenclature, structure of triple bond (ethyne), physical properties, methods of
preparation, chemical reactions: acidic character of alkynes, addition reaction of - hydrogen,
halogens, hydrogen halides and water.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, benzene: resonance, aromaticity,

chemical properties: mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Nitration, sulphonation, halogenation,
Friedel Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in monosubstituted
benzene. Carcinogenicity and toxicity.
PRACTICALS
Term II: At the end of Term II, a 15-mark Practical would be conducted under the supervision of
subject teacher. This would contribute to the overall practical marks for the subject.
OR
In case the situation of lockdown continues beyond December 2021, a Practical Based Assessment
(pen-paper) of 10 marks and Viva 5 marks would be conducted at the end of Term II by the subject
teacher. This would contribute to the overall practical marks for the subject.
TERM-II Evaluation Scheme
S. No Practical Marks
1. Salt Analysis 8
2. Content Based Experiment 2
3 Project Work and Viva(Internal) 5
TOTAL 15
A. Qualitative Analysis(Marks 8)
a. Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt
Cations- Pb2+, Cu2+, As3+, Al3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, Co2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH4+
Anions – (CO3)2- , S2- , NO2 - , SO3 2- , SO42- , NO3-, Cl- , Br- , I- , PO4 3- , C2O4 2- ,CH3COO- (Note:
Insoluble salts excluded)
b. Detection of -Nitrogen, Sulphur, Chlorine in organic compounds.
B. Crystallization of impure sample of any one of the following: Alum, Copper Sulphate, Benzoic
Acid. (Marks 2)
PROJECTS scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other
sources.
Guidelines on Syllabus for Visually Handicapped students.

Schools are expected to rationalise and divide the syllabus of practicums for visually handicapped
students into two halves on the basis of collective guidelines given for the same in the complete
syllabus and as per the convenience of their students. This flexibility is given in view of the special
DESIGN OF THE PAPER QUESTION
CLASS-XI (TERM – II)
CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)
MM:35 Time: 2 Hours
1. There will be 12 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

2. SECTION A - Q. No. 1 to 3 will be very short answer questions carrying 2 marks
each.
3. SECTION B - Q. No. 4 to 11 will be short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.
4. SECTION C- Q. No. 12 will be case based question carrying 5 marks.
5. All questions are compulsory.
6. Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed
1
CHAPTER 5
STATES OF MATTER
1. STATE OF A SUBSTANCE: State of a substance is decided by a balance between

intermolecular forces and effect of thermal energy on the motion of particles.
2. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: Forces of attraction and repulsion between

interacting particles.
3. ATTRACTIVE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: These include

i) van der waals forces which include
 London forces or dispersion forces between atoms and nonpolar molecules
 Dipole- dipole forces between polar molecules.
 Dipole- induced dipole forces between polar and non polar molecules.
ii) Ion- Dipole interaction : Between an ion and a polar molecule
iii) Ion-Induced Dipole Interaction : Between an ion and a non polar molecule
iv) Hydrogen bond : Strong type of dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen and
atoms like N,O,F.
4. REPULSIVE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: Due to repulsion between electron

clouds and repulsion between nuclei of molecules when they are in close contact with
each other.
5. THERMAL ENERGY: Arises due to motion of atoms and molecules of a substance and
is directly proportional to temperature of the substance.
6. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES:

 Highly compressible
 Exert pressure in all directions equally
 Intermix completely in all proportions
 Take up the shape and volume of the container
7. GAS LAWS
1) BOYLE’S LAW : Pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
volume at constant temperature.
1
i) Pα𝟏 p = k1 pV = constant
𝑽 𝑉
2
ii) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION - ISOTHERMS
iii) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND PRESSURE

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
d= = so d =( 𝑚)p
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑘1
Pressure of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its density.
2) CHARLES’ LAW (TEMPERATURE – VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

i) Volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant pressure.
ii) Volume of a fixed mass of gas increases by 1 of its volume at 00C at
273.15
constant pressure.
𝑡 273.15+𝑡 𝑉 𝑇 𝑽
iii) Vt = V0+ V0 ; Vt = V0[ ] ; 𝑡 = 𝑡 ; =constant k2
273.15 273.15 𝑉0 𝑇0 𝑻
iv) GRAPH - ISOBAR

3
v) ABSOLUTE ZERO : The lowest hypothetical temperature at which gases are

supposed to occupy zero volume.
3) GAY LUSSAC’S LAW (PRESSURE- TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP)

i) At constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies directly with
the temperature.
𝒑
ii) p αT ; = constant = k3
𝑻
iii) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION- ISOCHORES
4) AVOGADRO LAW (VOLUME- AMOUNT RELATIONSHIP)

i) Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure contain equal number of molecules.
ii) Vα n (n = no.of moles of the gas); V = k4 n
iii) Aavogadro constant : The number of molecules in one mole of a gas. Its value
is 6.022x 1023
iv) Standard temperature and pressure (STP): 273.15K or 00C and 1 bar pressure.
At STP molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.71098Lmol-1
v) Relationship between Density and Molar mass of a gas:
𝑚 𝑚
V = k4 n ; n = ; So M= k4 = k4 d.
𝑀 𝑉
So density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass.
8. IDEAL GAS :
i) A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro law strictly.
ii) An ideal gas does not have intermolecular forces between its molecules.
iii) Gases behave ideally at low pressures and high temperatures.
4
9. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

i) Relation between four variables which decide the state of any gas, pressure,
volume, temperature and amount (no. of moles) and is called Equation of State.
ii) pV = nRT R = Universal gas constant.
iii) Combined gas Law: 𝑝1𝑉1 = 𝑝2𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑇2
iv) DENSITY AND MOLAR MASS OF A GAS : M = 𝒅𝑹𝑻
𝒑
10. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

i) The total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum
of the partial pressures of individual gases under the same conditions of
temperature.
ii) Ptotal = p1 + p2 + p3 + ........... (at constant T ,V)
iii) Aqueous Tension: Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour.
iv) PDrygas = pTotal - Aqueous tension
v) Partial pressure in terms of mole fraction : p1 = χ1 ptotal ; p2 = χ2 ptotal
11. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

i) Gases consist of a large number of particles whose volume is negligible compared to the
space between them.
ii) There is no force of attraction between the particles under ordinary conditions.
iii) Particles are always in constant random motion.
iv) Particles collide with each other and also with the walls of the container exerting a
pressure.
v) Collisions are perfectly elastic.
vi) Different particles in the gas have different speeds and hence different kinetic energies.
vii) Average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
12. DEVIATION FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOUR

i) Gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressure and at low temperature.
ii) Reason: The first two postulates of kinetic theory do not hold good at high
pressure and at low temperature.
1) At high pressure and at low temperature, molecules are close to each other and
attractive forces develop between them.
2) At high pressure and at low temperature, volume of molecules cannot be
neglected.
2
iii) Vander Waals equation for n moles of a gas: (p + 𝑎𝑛 ) (V- nb) = nRT
𝑉2
iv) Compressibility Factor z : it is the ratio of product pV and nRT.
5
CONCEPT- MAP
6
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. The pressure of a 1:4 mixture of dihydrogen and dioxygen enclosed in a vessel is

oneatmosphere. What would be the partial pressure of dioxygen?
(a) 0.8 x
105atm
(b) 0.008
Nm-2
(c) 8 x 104 Nm -2
(d) 0.25 atm
2. Which of the following would increase the (gas) pressure of a system?

(a) Increase the Temperature
(b) Pump in more gas
(c) Decrease the volume
(d) All of these
3. A plot of volume (V) versus temperature (T) for a gas at constant pressure is a
straight line passing through the origin. The plots at different values of pressure
are shown in the figure. Which, of the following order of pressure is correct for
this gas?
(a)p1 > p2 > p3 > p4

(b) p1 =p2 =p3 =p4
(c) p1 <p2<p3<p4
(d) px <p2=p3<p4
4. Dipole-dipole forces act between the molecules possessing permanent dipole.

Ends ofdipoles possess ‘partial charges’. The partial charge is
(a) more than unit electronic charge.
(b) equal to unit electronic charge.
(c) less than unit electronic charge.
(d) double the unit electronic charge.
5. The pressure of a 1:4 mixture of dihydrogen and dioxygen enclosed in a vessel is

oneatmosphere. What would be the partial pressure of dioxygen?
(a) 0.8 x
105atm
(b) 0.008
Nm-2
(c) 8 x 104 Nm-2
(d) 0.25 atm
6. As the temperature increases, average kinetic energy of molecules increases.

7
Whatwould be the effect of increase of temperature on pressure provided the

volume is constant?
(a) Increases
(b) Decreases
(c) Remains same
(d) Becomes half
7. With regard to the gaseous state of matter which of the following statements are
correct?
(a) Complete disorder of molecules
(b) Random motion of molecules
(c) None of these
(c) Both of these
8. The rate of diffusion of methane at a given temperature is twice of a gas X.

Themolecular weight of X is
(a) 64
(b) 16
(c) 32
(c) 8
9. Which of the following gases will have the highest rate of diffusion?
(a) O2
(b) CO2
(c) NH3
(d) N2
10. Vander Waal’s constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ are related with respectively
(a) Attractive force and bond energy of molecules
(b) Volume and repulsive force of molecules
(c) Shape and repulsive forces of molecules
(d)Attractive force and volume of the
molecules
11. When you heat a sample of gas, what happens to the particles that make up the gas?
(a) The particles move
faster.
(b) The particles break
apart
(c) The particles get smaller
(d) The particles become more dense
12. If helium and methane are allowed to diffuse out of the container under the
similarconditions of temperature and pressure, then the ratio of rate of diffusion of
helium tomethane is:
(a)2 : 1
8
(b)1 : 2
(c) 3 : 5
(d) 4 : 1
13. The critical volumes of four gases A, B, C, D are respectively 0.025 L, 0.312 L,
0.245L, 0.432 L, the gas with highest value of van der Wall constant b is
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
14. The value of universal gas constant R depends on

(a) Temperature of
Gas
(b) Volume of Gas
(c) Number of Moles of Gas
(d) Units of Volume, Temperature and Pressure
15. A gas deviates from ideal behavior at a high pressure because its molecules:
(a)Attract one another
(b)Show the Tyndall
Effect
(c) Have kinetic energy
(d) Are bound by covalent bonds
16. Under which of the following condition applied, a gas deviates most from the
idealbehaviour?
(a)Low
pressure
(b)High
pressure
(c) High
temperature
(d)None of the
above
17. Compressibility factor for ideal gas is

(a) 0
(b) lies between 0 and 1
(c) 1
(d) Greater than 1
18. One gram molecule of a gas at N.T.P. occupies 22.4 L. This fact was derived from
9
(a)Dalton’s theory
(b)Avogadro’s
hypothesis
(c)Grahm’s law
(d)Law of gaseous volume
19. In the ideal gas equation, the gas constant R has the dimensions
(a) mole atm
K-1
(b) erg K1
(c) L atm K-1 mole1
(d) L mole
20. Rate of diffusion of a gas is

(a)Directly proportional to its density
(b)Directly proportional to its molecular
mass
(c) Directly proportional to the square root of its molecular
mass
(d) Inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular
mass
21. In van der Waal equation of state of gas laws, the constant b is a measure of
(a) Intermolecular collisions per unit
volume
(b) Intermolecular attraction
(c)Volume occupied by the
molecules
(d)Intermolecular repulsions
22. Which of the following statement is wrong for gases?

(a) Gases do not have definite shape and volume
(b) Volume of the gas is equal to the volume of the container confining the gas
(c)Confined gas exert uniform pressure on the wall of the container in all directions
(d)Mass of the gas cannot be determined by weighing a container in which it is
contained
23. The vapour pressure of water at 300 K in a closed container is 0.4 atm. If the
volumeof container is doubled, its vapour pressure at 300 K will be
(a) 0.8 atm
(b) 0.2 atm
(c) 0.4 atm
(d) 0.6 atm
10
24. At the same temperature, the average molar kinetic energy of N2 and CO is
(a)KE1 >
KE2
(b)KE1 <
KE2
(c)KE1 =
KE2
(d)Insufficient information given
25. The volume of 2.8 g of carbon monoxide at 27°C and 0.0821 atm is
(a) 30 L
(b) 3
L
(c)0.
3L
(d)1.5 L
26. The vapour pressure of water at 300 K in a closed container is 0.4 atm. If
thevolume of container is doubled, its vapour pressure at 300 K will be
(a) 0.8 atm
(b) 0.2 atm
(c) 0.4 atm
(d) 0.6 atm
27. The state of matter that shows the uniformity of behavior:

(a) Solid Liquid
(b) Liquid
(c) Gas
(d) None of the Above
28. A gas deviates from ideal behavior at a high pressure because its molecules:
(a) Attract one another
(b) Show the Tyndall Effect
(c) Have kinetic energy
(d) Are bound by covalent bonds
29. In CHARLES' LAW, at constant pressure, what happens to temperature of a

gaswhen the volume doubles?
(a) The temperature also doubles
(b) The temperature decreases to half of its
originalvolume.
(c) The temperature doesn't change.
(d)The temperature quadruples.
30. If 20cm³ gas at 1 atm. is expanded to 50 cm³ at constant T, then what is the
finalpressure
11
(a) 20 × 150
(b) 50 × 120
(c) 1 × 120 × 50
(d) None of these
31. The law, which states that at constant temperature, the volume of a given
mass ofgas is inversely proportional is pressure, is known as:
(a) Boyles law
(b) Charles law
(c) Combine gas law
(d) Avogadro law
32. Which of these is the unit of constant ‘a’ in Vander Waals’ equation?
(a)dyne cm4
mol2
(b)Newton m4
mol-2
(c)atm litre2 mol2
(d)All of these
33. Which of these is the reason why an ideal gas does not liquefy?
(a) Its molecules are smaller in size.
(b) There is a negligible force between its
molecules.
(c) It solidifies.
(d) Its temperature is above 0°C.
34. Which of these is the unit of constant ‘b’ in Vander Waals’ equation?
(a)cm3 mol-1
(b)m3 mol-1
(c)litre mol-1
(d)all of
these
35. makes carbon dioxide obey the ideal gas laws.

(a) High temperature and low
pressure
(b) Low temperature and a high
pressure
(c) High temperature and a high
pressure
(d) Low temperature and low
pressure
12
36. All gases except He and H2 exhibit at a lower temperature.

(a) Positive deviation
(b) Positive deviation and negative
deviation(c)Negative deviation
(d)None of these
37. The Vander Waals’ force in hydrogen and helium are .

(a)Very
strong.
(b)Strong.
(c)Weak.
(d)None of
these.
38. Which of these is the partial pressure of dry gas?

(a) Equivalent to the partial pressure of the wet
gas.
(b) Lesser than the wet gas.
(c)Greater than the wet
gas
(d)None of these.
39. ‘Air at sea level is dense.’ – It is a practical application of .

(a)Charles’ Law.
(b)Dalton’s Law.
(c)Boyle’s Law.
(d)Avogadro’s
Law.
40. When 600 cc of gas is compressed to 500 cc at a pressure of 750 mm. Given
thetemperature is kept constant, the pressure would increase by:
(a) 350 mm.
(b) 250 mm.
(c) 450 mm.
(d) 150 mm.
41. Which of these will have the highest rate of diffusion, if they are in the
samecontainer and at the same temperature?
(a) 56g
N2
(b) 4g
H2
(c) 22g
CO2
13
(d) 32g
O2
42. Which law helps us find the moles of gas in a sample?

(a)Charles Law
(b)Boyle's Law
(c)Combined Gas
Law
(d) Ideal Gas Law
43. Calculate the volume that a 0.323-mol sample of a gas will occupy at 265 K
and apressure of 0.900 atm.
(a) 7.18 L
(b) 7.81 L
(c) 4.63 L
(d) 4.36 L
44. Determine the Kelvin temperature required for 0.0470 mol of gas to fill a balloon to
1.20 L under 0.998 atm pressure.
(a) 0 K
(b) 107 K
(c) 207 K
(d) 307 K
45. What pressure, in atm, is exerted by 2.50 L of gas containing 1.35 mol at 320 K?
(a)14.19 atm
(b)16.53 atm
(c)18.42 atm
(d) 22.54 atm
46. If ’n’ and ‘T’ are held constant, the ideal gas law reduces to
(a) Charles' law
(b) Boyle's law
(c) Avogadro's principle
(d) zero
47. How many moles of propane gas are in a 7.0 L tank at 20°C and 5.45atm of pressure?
(a) 0.629 mol
(b) 1.59 mol
(c) 23.2 mol
(d) 917 mol
48. If a hairspray can is heated, what can be expected of the pressure of the gas inside
the can?
(a) The pressure will increase
(b) The pressure will decrease
(c) The pressure will remain constant
14
(d) The pressure will equalize
49. At 250 k and 1.75 atm, a gas has a mass of 15.3 g and occupies 5.60 L. What is
themolar mass of the gas?
(a)32.04
(b) 42.15
(c) 48.91
(d) 54.28
50. The temperature at which all movement of all particles stops is called
(a) the triple point
(b) the sublimation point
(c) absolute zero
(d) the freezing point
ANSWER KEY
1. c 2. d 3.c 4. c 5.c 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. c 10. d

11. a 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. a 16. b 17. c 18. b 19. c 20. d
21. c 22. d 23. c 24. c 25. a 26. c 27. c 28. a 29. a 39. a
31. a 32. d 33. b 34. d 35. a 36. c 37. c 38. b 39. c 40. d
41. b 42. d 43. b 44. d 45. a 46. b 47. d 48. a 49. a 50. c
ASSERTION-REASON TYPE QUESTIONS
In the following questions a statement of Assertion followed by a statement of reason is given.

Choose the correct option out of the choices given below.
a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and reason is correct explanation of Assertion.
b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and reason is not correct explanation of Assertion.
c)Assertion is correct but Reason is false
d)Assertion is false but Reason is correct
1. Assertion: Three states of matter are the result of balance between intermolecular forces and
thermal energy of molecules.
Reason: Intermolecular forces tend to keep the molecules together but thermal energy of
molecules tends to keep them apart.
2. Assertion: At constant temperature, pV vs V plot for real gases is not a straight line.
Reason: At high pressure, all gases have Z >1 but at intermediate pressure, most gases have Z<1
3. Assertion: At zero kelvin, the volume occupied by a gas is negligible.

Reason: All molecular motion ceases at 0K
4. Assertion: The value of van der Waals constant ‘a’ is higher for ammonia than for nitrogen.
15
Reason: Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is present in ammonia.
5. Assertion: The deviation of gases from ideal behavior can be measured in terms of
compressibility factor Z
Reason: For ideal gas Z is not equal to one.
6. Assertion: When an ideal gas expands, there is no change in temperature.

Reason: In ideal gas no inter molecular force of attraction. When it expands it does no work
against inter molecular attraction.
7. Assertion: Dry air is lighter than moist air.

Reason: Dry air contains O2, N2. But moist air contains a small amount of water vapour, density
of water vapour is less than that of air.
8. Assertion: High temperature and low pressure are responsible for deviation of real gas from
ideal gas behavior.
Reason: At high pressure inter molecular force of attraction increases.
9. Assertion: Pressure exerted by a gas is greater than the pressure exerted by the ideal gas.
Reason: The gas molecules are not able to hit the walls of the container with full impact because
of the inter molecular force of attraction dragging them back.
10. Assertion: Pressure is directly proportional to the density of a fixed mass of a gas.
Reason: P=F/A
11. Assertion: Glycerol is relatively difficult to suck into a pipette compared to benzene.
Reason: Extend of hydrogen bonding in glycerol is high. In benzene only London force of
attraction is present.
12. Assertion: Soda water bottles kept in cooler places.

Reason: In hot condition pressure inside the bottle increases and the bottle may burst out.
13. Assertion: Water is a liquid.H2S is a gas.

Reason: Molar mass of H2S is greater than H2O
14. Assertion: Gases become denser at high pressure.

Reason: At high pressure, small number of molecules can only occupy a smaller space.
15. Assertion: It is not possible to cool a gas to 0K.

Reason: All gases condense to liquid before 0K.
16. Assertion: Van der Waals constant ‘b’for two gases are A=0.0391L/mol and
B=0.0427L/mol.Size of B is smaller than A
Reason: Greater the value of b larger the size.
16
17. Assertion: (P+an2/V2) (V-nb)=nRT. In this equation a and b are called van der Waals
constant and their value depend on the characteristic of a gas.
Reason: ‘a’ is a measure of magnitude of intermolecular attractive forces and ‘b’ depend on size
of molecule.
18. Assertion: The compressibility factor Z=1 for ideal gas at all conditions.
Reason: For ideal gas PV=nRT at all conditions.
19. Assertion: London forces or dispersion forces are weak forces.

Reason: London forces act momentarily at short distances and magnitude depend on the
polarisability of the molecule.
20. Assertion: Pressure of gases collected over water is sum of pressure of dry gas and aqueous
tension.
Reason: Aqueous tension is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
ANSWERS
1. a 2.b 3.c 4.a 5.c 6.a 7.d 8.d 9.d 10.b

11.a 12.a 13.b 14.c 15.a 16.d 17.a 18.a 19.a 20.b
CASE BASED QUESTION
Real gases deviate from ideal behaviour. The deviation is measured in terms of Z. Gases which
can be liquefied easily show larger deviation. For every gas there is a particular temperature
above which they show ideal behaviour over an appreciable range of pressure. This temperature
is called Boyle temperature. The plot of compressibility factor Vs pressure for few gases are
given below.
1. lf Vo is the observed volume of a gas and Vi is the ideal

gas volume then the compressibility factor (Z) for the gas is
(a) Vo/Vi (b) Vi/Vo
2. The gas which is above the Boyle temperature is

(a) Gas A (b) Gas B (c) Gas C
3. The gas which can be liquefied most easily

(a) Gas A (b) Gas B (c) Gas C
4. For 1 mol of Gas C, the van der Waal’s equation reduces to the form
(a) [p + a/V] [V + b] = RT (b) [p + a/V] [V - b] = RT
2
(c) [p + a/V ] [V - b] = RT (d) PV=RT
ANSWER KEY
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. c
17
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1 Name two inter molecular forces that exist between HF molecules in the solid
state .
A. Dipole –dipole interactions and Hydrogen bonding

2 In terms of Charles law explain why -2730 C is the lowest possible temperature?
A. -2730 C is the lowest possible temperature because below this temperature the
volume will become negative which is meaningless.
3 Compressibility factor of a gas Z is given as Z= PV/ nRT ,
(i) What is the value of Z for an ideal gas ?
(ii) For real gas what will be the effect on value of Z above Boyle’s
temperature?
A. (i) Z = 1
(ii)For real gas above Boyle’s temperature Z > 1
4 What do you understand by the terms ideal gas and real gas ? Explain.
A. The gases which obey gas laws under all conditions of temperature and pressure are
called ideal gases but which does not obey gas laws under all condition of temperature
and pressure are called real gases.
5 What is the significance of Van der Waals constants Out of N2 and NH3 which
one will have (i) larger value of a (ii) larger value of b ?
A.(i) As NH3 is more easily liquefiable due to hydrogen bonding ,intermolecular

forces of attraction are stronger than in N2.Hence NH3 will have greater value for ‘a’.
(ii) As NH3 molecule is larger in size than N2 , hence NH3 will have greater value
for ‘b’.
6 What is compressibility factor ? How does it help to account for the nature of the
gas ?
A. The deviation from ideal behaviour can be measured in terms of compressibility

factor Z, which is the ratio of product pV and nRT.
For an ideal gas as PV =n RT , Z= 1

When Z < 1 , the gas is said to show negative deviation. This implies that the gas is
more compressible than expected from ideal behaviour.
When Z > 1 , the gas is said to show positive deviation. This implies that the gas is
less compressible than expected from ideal behaviour.
7 Which type of intermolecular forces exist among the following molecules ?
(a) H2O molecules (b) Cl2 and CCl4 molecules (c) Helium atoms (d) HCl
molecules.
A. (a) Hydrogen bonding (b) London or dispersion forces (c) London or dispersion
forces (d) Dipole- dipole interactions .
8 Name the energy which arises due to motion of atoms or molecules in a body
18
.How this energy affected when temperature is increased ?
A. The energy which arises due to motion of atoms or molecules in a body is the thermal
energy. It is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles and increase with
increase in temperature.
9 Define absolute zero. Can this temperature be attained in actual practice ?
A. The lowest hypothetical temperature at which gases are supposed to occupy zero
volume is called absolute zero. Temperature of absolute zero cannot be physically achieved
because gases will not exist at this temperature since all gases gets liquefied before this
temperature is reached.
10. How is compressibility factor expressed in terms of molar volume of the real gas
and that of the ideal gas ?
A.
If the gas shows ideal behaviour then
Substituting the value of V ideal in Z,
11. State Boyles law .On the basis of Boyles law explain why mountaineers carry
oxygen cylinders with them.
A. Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of
gas varies inversely with its volume.
Mathematically, it can be written as
At constant T and n
Air at sea level is dense, but the density as well as pressure decreases with increase
in altitude. As a result the oxygen in air becomes insufficient for normal breathing. This
causes altitude sickness. Therefore mountain climbers carry oxygen cylinders for
emergency.
12 What do you understand by isobars ,isotherms and isochores? Explain.
A. The curves showing the pressure volume behaviour plotted at constant temperatures
are called isotherms.The curves showing the volume temperature behaviour plotted at
different fixed pressures are called isobars and the curves showing the pressure
temperature behaviour plotted at fixed volumes are called isochores.
13. Explain the following laws :
(i) Gay Lussac’s law (ii) Avagadro’s law
A. (i) Gay Lussac’s law states that at constant volume pressure of a fixed amount of a
19
gas varies directly with temperature.

Pα T
P/T = constant
(ii) Avagadros law states that equal volumes of all gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Vαn
V= K n
14. Why is air at sea level denser than air at high altitudes?
A. At sea level the pressure of air is higher than at altitudes. According to Boyle’s law as
the pressure increases, volume decreases. Then mass per unit volume decreases and
hence the air becomes denser at sea level but the density decreases with increase
in altitude.
15 Define Boyle temperature.
A. The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas law over an appreciable range
of pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
16 State Charles’ law. How is it represented mathematically?
A. Charles law may be stated as, pressure remaining constant the volume of a fixed
mass of a gas is directly proportional to temperature.
17 A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law is called an ideal
gas .Under what conditions a real gas would behave ideally?
A. The real gas behaves as an ideal gas when the pressure is low and temperature is
high.
18. The tyre of an automobile is inflated at lesser pressure in summer than in winter.
Why?
A. The pressure of the air is directly proportional to the temperature. During summer
due to high temperature, the pressure in the tyre increases and the tube may burst if
pressure is not adjusted properly. Therefore, it is advisable to inflate the tyre to lesser
pressure in summer than in winter.
19. What will be the minimum pressure required to compress 500 dm3 of air at 1 bar
to 200 dm3 at 30°C?
A. P1 = 1 bar,P2 = ? V1= 500 dm3 ,V2=200 dm3

According to Boyles law,
P1V1=P2V2
1 bar x 500 dm3 = P2 x 200 dm3
P2 = 2.5 bar.
20. A vessel of 120 mL capacity contains a certain amount of gas at 35 °C and 1.2 bar
20
pressure. The gas is transferred to another vessel of volume 180 mL at 35 °C.

What would be its pressure?
A. V1= 120 mL, P1=1.2 bar,

V2 = 180 mL, P2 = ?
According to Boyles law, P1V1 = P2V2
(1.2 bar) (120 mL) = P2 (180mL)
P2 = 0.8 bar
21. Calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and 1 bar pressure.
22. What will be the pressure of the gaseous mixture when 0.5 L of H2 at 0.8 bar and
2.0 L of dioxygen at 0.7 bar are introduced in a 1L vessel at 27°C?
A. Calculation of partial pressure of H2 in 1L vessel

P1= 0.8 bar, P2= ? V1= 0.5 L , V2 = 1.0 L
P1V1 = P2V2
(0.8 bar) (0.5 L) = P2 (1.0 L)
P2 = 0.40 bar, i.e., PH2 = 0.40 bar
Calculation of partial pressure of 02 in 1 L vessel

P1 V1 = P2V2
(0.7 bar) (2.0 L) = P2 (1L)
P2 = 1.4 bar, i.e.,Po2 = 1.4 bar
Total pressure =PH2 + PO2 = 0.4 bar + 1.4 bar = 1.8 bar
23. Calculate the temperature of 4.0 mol of a gas occupying 5 dm3 at 3.32 bar. (R =
0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1).
A.
.
24. Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of dioxygen and 4 g of dihydrogen
confined in a vessel of 1 dm3 at 27°C. R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1
21
A.
25. At 25°C and 760 mm of Hg pressure a gas occupies 600 mL volume. What will be
its pressure at a height where temperature is 10°C and volume of the gas is 640
mL?
A.
22
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Pressure versus volume graph for a real gas and an ideal gas are shown in the
figure given below.
Answer the following questions on the basis of this graph.
(i) Interpret the behaviour of real gas with respect to ideal gas at low pressure.
(ii) Interpret the behaviour of real gas with respect to ideal gas at high
pressure.
(iii) Mark the pressure and volume by drawing a line at the point where real
gas behaves as an ideal gas.
A. (i) At low pressure ,the two curves almost coincide. This shows that at low
pressure the real gases show very small deviation from ideal behavior.
(ii) At high pressure, the curves are far apart. This shows that real gases show large
deviations at high pressure.
(iii)
At point 'A' both the curves intersect each other. At this point, real gas behaves as an
ideal gas. P1 and V1 are the pressure and volume which corresponds to this point
23
2. What types of curves are obtained when at constant temperature, we plot

(i) P vs 1/V (ii) V vs P (iii) PV vs P of an ideal gas
A.(i)
.
(ii)
(iii)
3. What are the main postulates of kinetic theory of gases ?

24
A. The postulates are ,

1. Gases consist of large number of identical particles (atoms or molecules) that are so
small and so far apart on the average that the actual volume of the molecules isnegligible
in comparison to the empty space between them.
2. There is no force of attraction between the particles of a gas at ordinary temperature
and pressure.
3. Particles of a gas are always in constant and random motion.
4. During their random motion, they collide with each other and with the walls of the
container..
5. Collisions of gas molecules are perfectly elastic. This means that total energy of
molecules before and after the collision remains same.
6. At any particular time, different particles in the gas have different speeds and hence
different kinetic energies.
7. The average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
4. Derive the relationship between partial pressure of gas and total pressure of gas and
mole fraction.
A. Suppose at the temperature T, three gases, enclosed in the volume V, exert partial
pressure P1, P2 and P3 respectively. Then,
Thus P1 = Ptotal .x1

Similarly for other gases we can write P2 = Ptotal .x2 , P3 = Ptotal .x3
Generally Pi = Ptotal .xi
where pi and xi are partial pressure and mole fraction of the gas.
25
5. (i) State and explain Dalton’s law of partial pressures.

(ii) How is this law applied in the determination of pressure of dry gas ?
A. (i) Dalton’s law states that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive
gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of individual gases .
Mathematically,
pTotal = p1+p2+p3+ .....(at constant T, V)
where pTotal is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases and p1, p2 , p3 etc.
are partial pressures of gases.
(ii) Gases are generally collected over water and therefore are moist. Pressure of dry gas
can be calculated by subtracting vapour pressure of water from the total pressure of the
moist gas which contains water vapours also. Pressure exerted by saturated water vapour
is called aqueous tension.
P Dry gas = pTotal – Aqueous tension.
6. (a) Why do gases deviate from ideal behaviour ?

(b) Write Van der Waals equation for real gases stating the significance of each term
involved ?
A. (a) Ideal gas equation is based upon the kinetic theory of gases. At high pressure or
low temperature the following two assumptions of kinetic theory are faulty.
(a) There is no force of attraction between the molecules of a gas.
(b) Volume of the molecules of a gas is negligibly small in comparison to the space
occupied by the gas.
The above two assumptions are valid only if the pressure is low or the temperature is
high so that the distance between the molecules is large. However as the pressure is high
or the temperature is low the gas molecules come close together and distance between
them decreases. Under these conditions ,
i) The volume occupied by the gas is small so that the volume occupied by the
molecules may not be neglected.
ii) The distance between the molecules is small so that the attractive forces between
the may not be negligible . Thus real gases deviate from ideal gas behaviour.
(b) Van der Waals equation for real gases is ,
Where a and b are called van der waals constants and their values depend on the nature
of the gas. The constant a measures the forces of attraction between the molecules of the
gas and constant b measures the effective size of the gas molecules.
7. Deduce the gas equation PV = nRT from different gas laws. Why ideal gas
equation is called equation of state ?
A. A gas that follows Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro law strictly is called an
ideal gas.
26
Ideal gas equation is a relation between four variables and it describes the state of any
gas ,therefore it is called equation of state .
8. (i) Using the equation of state PV = nRT , show that at a given temperature
density of a gas is proportional to its gas pressure P.
(ii) Density of a gas is found to be 5.46 g/dm3 at 27 °C and at 2 bar pressure. What
will be its density at STP?
A.
(i) Rearranging the ideal gas equation PV= nRT , we have
n/V= P/RT
Replacing the number of moles (n)of the gas by m /M where m is the mass of the gas
and M the molar mass .
m/MV= P/RT
Since density d is mass per unit volume , we can write
d=m/V= PM / RT
∴d𝖺p
ii)
9 The variation of pressure with volume of the gas at different temperatures can be
27
graphically represented as shown in the following figure. On the basis of this

graph ,answer the following questions.
(i) How will the volume of a gas change if its pressure is increased at constant
temperature?
(ii) At constant pressure, how will the volume of a gas change if the temperature
is increased from 200 K to 400 K?
A. (i) The volume of a gas will decrease if its pressure is increased at constant
temperature.
(ii) On increasing the temperature, the volume of a gas will increase if the pressure is
kept constant.
28
GIST OF THE LESSON

INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 6
THERMODYNAMICS
29
The three primary sources of energy are solar energy, nuclear energy and chemical energy.
All chemical reactions are associates with energy changes. The energy changes occurring
during the chemical reactions appear as heat energy and electrical energy.
THERMODYNAMICS: (Definition)
It is defined as the branch of science which deals with the quantitative relationship between
heat and other forms of energies.
 SYSTEM: A system is defined as that part of the universe which is under investigation.
 SURROUNDINGS: The part of the universe other than the system is known as
surroundings.
TYPES OF SYSTEM
 OPEN SYSTEM: A system which can exchange mass as well as energy with the
surroundings is called an open system.
 CLOSED SYSTEM: A system which can exchange energy with the surroundings but
not mass is called a closed system.
 ISOLATED SYSTEM: A system which can neither exchange mass nor energy with the
surroundings is called an isolated system.
 MACROSCOPIC SYSTEM: A system containing a large number of chemical species
such as atoms, ions or molecules is called macroscopic system.
 MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES: The properties of the system which arise from the
collective behaviour of large number of species are called macroscopic properties.
The properties are pressure, temperature volume, composition, refractive index,
surface tension, viscosity, density.
VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF THE SYSTEM
 EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES: The properties of the system which depend upon the
quantity or size of matter present in it are called extensive properties. Eg mass,
volume, internal energy, enthalpy, heat capacity.
 INTENSIVE PROPERTIES: The properties of the system which are independent of
the quantity or size of matter present in it are called intensive properties. Eg.
temperature, pressure, refractive index, viscosity, specific heat density.
STATE OF THE SYSTEM: It is the condition of existence of a system when its
macroscopic properties have definite values (macroscopic properties such as pressure,
volume, temperature and composition).
STATE FUNCTION: The thermodynamic properties whose values depend only on the
initial and final state of the system are called the state function.
Exchange of energy between system and surrounding can occur in several ways. The most
important mode transference of energy is heat and work.
HEAT
Heat absorbed by the system is positive q > 0
Heat given out of the system is negative q < 0
30
WORK:
Work done on the system is positive w > 0
Work done by the system is negative < 0
General expression for pressure volume work is w = -pex ∆v
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed although it may be changed from one form to
another.
∆u = q + w
ENTHALPY: Enthalpy is the total energy associated with any system which includes its
internal energy and also energy due to environmental factors such as pressure volume
conditions.
The sum of internal energy and pv energy of any system under given set of conditions, is
called enthalpy, denoted by H.
H = U + pV
EXOTHERMIC REACTION: The chemical reactions which proceed with the evolution of
heat energy are called exothermic reactions.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION: The chemical reactions which proceed with the absorption
of heat energy are called endothermic reactions.
THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATION: A thermochemical equation is defined as a chemical
equation which indicates the amount of heat evolved or absorbed during the chemical
reaction in addition to the quantities of reactants or products.
RELATION BETWEEN ∆H AND ∆U
∆H = ∆U + P∆V at constant pressure.
ENTHALPY CHANGE: Enthalpy of a reaction is defined as the enthalpy change
accompanying the chemical reaction when the molar quantities of reactants and products are
the same as indicated in the chemical equation.
STANDARD ENTHALPY OF REACTION: The enthalpy change of a reaction when all
the participating substances are in their standard state is called standard enthalpy of reaction.
STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FUSION: It is the enthalpy change accompanying the
melting of 1 mole of a solid substance in standard state at its melting point.
STANDARD ENTHALPY OF VAPORISATION: It is the enthalpy change accompanying
the conversion of one mole of a liquid in standard state into its vapours at the boiling point
and standard pressure.
ENTHALPY OF SUBLIMATION: It is the enthalpy change accompanying the sublimation
of one mole of a solid substance into its gaseous state at a constant temperature below its
melting point at the standard pressure
STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FORMATION: The standard molar enthalpy of formation

of a compound is defined as the enthalpy change accompanying the formation of one mole of
a compound from its constituent elements.
31
STANDARD ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION: It is the enthalpy change accompanying
the complete combustion of one mole of a substance in excess of oxygen or air all the
reactants and products being in their standard state at the specified temperature.
HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION: If a reaction takes place in several
steps then its standard reaction enthalpy is the sum of the standard enthalpies of the
intermediate reactions into which the overall reaction may be divided at the same
temperature.
SPONTANEITY: The reactions having the potential to proceed without the assistance of
external agency.
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS: Process which has a natural tendency to occur either of its
own or after proper initiation under the given set of conditions
ENTROPY (S): The disorder or degree or randomness in a system is expressed by a
thermodynamics function called entropy. Denoted by the symbol S.
CHANGE IN ENTROPY: It is the ratio of heat absorbed by the system isothermally and
reversible to the temperature at which it is absorbed.
∆S = q rev/T
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
The entropy of the universe always increases in the course of every spontaneous change.
ENTROPY CRITERION:
∆S total > 0 process is spontaneous
∆S total = 0 equilibrium state
∆S total < 0 process is non spontaneous.
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
At absolute zero the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero.
GIBB’S ENERGY: The amount of energy available from a system at given set of conditions
that can be put into useful work.
G = U + PV – TS
CRITERION OF SPONTANEITY IN TERMS OF GIBB’S ENERGY CHANGE:
∆G = ∆H - T∆S at constant temperature.
The process will be spontaneous
If ∆S total > 0 or ∆G < 0
The process will be non-spontaneous
If ∆S total < 0 or ∆G > 0
The process will be in equilibrium state
If ∆S total = 0 or ∆G = 0
RELATION BETWEEN STANDARD GIBB’S ENERGY AND EQUILIBRIUM

CONSTANT: ∆G ○ = -2.303RT log K eq
32
MIND MAPPING
THERMODYNAMICS
Quantitative relationship
EXTENSIVE INTENSIVE between heat and other
PEOPERTIES PROPERTIES forms of energies
bbb
PROPERTIES OF
SYSTEM
SURROUNDING
SYSTEM
OPEN SYSTEM ISOLATED SYSTEM
MACROSCOPIC
PROPERTIES
CLOSED SYSTEM
Classification on the basis of

movement of matter and energy in
and out of system
MACROSCOPIC SYSTEM
System containing a large number of

chemical species
VARIATION IN ONE OR MORE

MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES
STATE VARIABLE
33

1 Third law of thermodynamics provides a method to evaluate which property?
(a) Absolute Energy
(b) Absolute Enthalpy
(c) Absolute Entropy
(d) Absolute Free Energy
Answer: (c) Absolute Entropy
2 One mole of which of the following has the highest entropy?
(a) Liquid Nitrogen
(b) Hydrogen Gas
(c) Mercury
(d) Diamond
Answer: (b) Hydrogen Gas
3 The species which by definition has ZERO standard molar enthalpy of formation
at 298 K is
(a) Br2(g)
(b) Cl2(g)
(c) H2O(g)
(d) CH4(g)
Answer: (b) Cl2(g)
4 In a reversible process the system absorbs 600 kJ heat and performs 250 kJ work
on the surroundings. What is the increase in the internal energy of the system?
(a) 850 kJ
(b) 600 kJ
(c) 350 kJ
(d) 250 kJ
Answer: (c) 350 kJ
5 Which of the following is true for the reaction? H2O (l) ↔ H2O (g) at 100° C and
1 atm pressure
(a) ∆S = 0
(b) ∆H = T ∆S
(c) ∆H = ∆U
(d) ∆H = 0
Answer: (b) ∆H = T ∆S
6 Calculate the heat required to make 6.4 Kg CaC2 from CaO(s) and C(s) from the
reaction: CaO(s) + 3 C(s) → CaC2(s) + CO (g) given that ∆fHo (CaC2) = -14.2
kcal. ∆fH° (CO) = -26.4 kcal. ∆fH° (CaO)= - 151.6 kcal.
(a) 5624 kcal

(b) 1.11 × 104 kcal
(c) 86.24 × 10³
(d) 1100 kcal
Answer: (b) 1.11 × 104 kcal
7 A system absorb 10 kJ of heat at constant volume and its temperature rises from
2700 C to 3700C. The value of ∆ U is
(a) 100 kJ
(b) 10 kJ
(c) 0 kJ
(d) 1 kJ
34
Answer: (b) 10 kJ
8 In which of the following process, a maximum increase in entropy is observed?
(a) Dissolution of Salt in Water
(b) Condensation of Water
(c) Sublimation of Naphthalene
(d) Melting of Ice
Answer: (c) Sublimation of Naphthalene
9 Which thermodynamic function accounts automatically for enthalpy and entropy
both?
(a) Helmholtz Free Energy (A)
(b) Internal Energy (E)
(c) Work Function
(d) Gibbs Free Energy
Answer: (d) Gibbs Free Energy
10 The enthalpies of combustion of carbon and carbon monoxide are -393.5 and -
283.0 kJ mol-1 respectively. The enthalpy of formation of carbon monoxide is:
(a) -676 kJ
(b) 110.5 kJ
(c) -110.5 kJ
(d) 676.5 kJ
Answer: (c) -110.5 kJ
11 Based on the first law of thermodynamics, which one of the following is correct?
(a) For an isothermal process, q = +w
(b) For an isochoric process, ΔU = -q
(c) For an adiabatic process, ΔU = -w
(d) For a cyclic process, q = -w
Answer: (d) For a cyclic process, q = -w
12 A system absorb 10 kJ of heat at constant volume and its temperature rises from
270°C to 370°C. The value of ∆ U is
(a) 100 kJ
(b) 10 kJ
(c) 0 kJ
(d) 1 kJ
Answer: (b) 10 kJ
13 The enthalpies of formation of all elements in their standard states are
(A) unity
(B) zero
(C) <0
(D) different for each element.
Answer: zero
14 Which of the following salts will have maximum cooling effect when 0.5 mole of
the salt is dissolved in same amount of water.Integral heat of solution at 298 K is
given for each salt?
(a) KNO3 (∆H = 35.4 kJ mol-1)
(b) NaCl (∆H = 5.35 kJ mol-1)
(c) HBr (∆H = -83.3 kJ mol-1)
(d) KOH (∆H = -55.6 kJ mol-1)
Answer: (a) KNO3 (∆H = 35.4 kJ mol-1)
15 Standard enthalpy of vapourisation ΔHvap for water at 100oC is 40.66 kJmol-1.
The internal energy of vapourisation of water at 100°C (in kJmol-1) is (Assume
water vapour to behave like an ideal gas)
(a) 43.76
35
(b) 40.66
(c) 37.56
Answer: (c) 37.56
16 ∆ Hf of graphite is 0.23 kJ/mol and ∆ Hf for diamond is 1.896 kJmol-1,
∆Htransition from graphite to diamond is
(a) 1.66 kj/mol
(b) 2.1 kj/mol
(c) 2.33 kj/mol
(d) 1.5 kj/mol
Answer: (a) 1.66 kJ/mol
17 The bond energies of C-C, C=C; H-H and C-H linkages are 350, 600, 400 and 410
kJ per mole respectively. The heat of hydrogenation of ethylene is
(a) -170 kJ mol-1
(b) -260 kJ mol-1
(c) 400 kJ mol-1
(d) -450 kJ mol-1
Answer: (a) -170 kJ mol-1
18 Which of the following reaction defines ∆fH ? 0
(a) C(Diamond) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

(b) 1/2 H2(g) + 1/2 F2(g) → HF(g)
(c) N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
(d) CO(g) + 12 O2(g) → CO2(g)
Answer: (b) 1/2 H2(g) + 1/2 F2(g) → HF(g)
19 Which one of the following statements is false?
(a) Work is a state function
(b) Temperature is a state function
(c) Change in the state is completely defined when the initial, final states are specified
(d) internal energy is a state function
Answer: (a) Work is a state function
20 For the reaction C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) →3CO2(g) + 4H2O(I) at constant temperature
∆H–∆U is
(a) +RT
(b) –3RT
(c) +3RT
(d) -RT
Answer: (b) – 3RT
21 For which one of the following equations ∆Hreaction equals ∆ fH for the product?
0
(a) N2(g) + O3(g) → N2O3(g)

(b) CH4(g) + 2Cl2(g) → CH2Cl2(l) + 2HCl(g)
(c) Xe(g) + 2F2(g) → XeF4(g)
(d) 2C(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
Answer: (c) Xe(g) + 2F2(g) → XeF4(g)
22 The heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1 K is called
(a) Specific heat
(b) Heat capacity
(c) Water equivalent
(d) Molar heat capacity
Answer: (b) Heat capacity
23 In a reaction involving only solids and liquids, which of the following is true?
(a) ∆H < ∆U (b) ∆H = ∆U (c) ∆H > ∆U (d) ∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT
Answer: (b) ∆H = ∆U
36
24 In which of the following process, the process is always non-feasible?

(a) ∆H > 0, ∆S > 0
(b) ∆H < 0, ∆S > 0
(c) ∆H > 0, ∆S < 0
(d) ∆H < 0, ∆S < 0
Answer: (c) ∆H > 0, ∆S < 0
25 Internal energy does not include
(a) Nuclear energy
(b) Vibrational energy
(c) Rotational energy
(d) Energy of gravitational pull
Answer: (d) Energy of gravitational pull
26 Which of the following reactions is endothermic?
(a) N2 + O2 → 2NO
(b) H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
(c) H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H11O
(d) None of these
Answer: (a) N2 + O2 → 2NO
27 An adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas always has
(a) Decrease in temperature
(b) q = 0
(c) W = 0
(d) ∆H = 0.
Answer: (b) q = 0
28 The heats of combustion of graphite and CO respectively are -393.5 kJ mol-1 and
-283 kJ mol-1. Therefore the heat of formation of CO in kJ mol-1 is.
(a) +172.5
(b) -110.5
(c) -1070
(d) -676.5
(e) +110.5
Answer: (b) -110.5
29 Compounds with high heat of formation are less stable because
(a) It is difficult to synthesise them
(b) Energy rich state leads to instability
(c) High temperature is required to synthesise them
(d) Molecules of such compounds are distorted
Answer: (b) Energy rich state leads to instability
30 C(diamond) → C(graphite) ∆H = -ve. This shows that
(a) Graphite is more stable than diamond
(b) Diamond is more stable than graphite
(c) Both are equally stable
(d) Stability cannot be predicted.
Answer: (a) Graphite is more stable than diamond
31 In a closed insulated container, a liquid is stirred with a paddle to increase the
temperature. Which of the following is true?
(a) ∆U = W ≠ 0, q = 0
(b) ∆U = W = q ≠ 0
(c) ∆U = 0, W = q ≠ 0
(d) W = 0, ∆U = q ≠ 0
Answer: (a) ∆U = W ≠ 0, q = 0
37
32 For an endothermic reaction ∆S is positive, the reaction is

(a) feasible when T∆S > ∆H
(b) feasible when ∆H > T∆S
(c) feasible at all temperature
(d) Not feasible at all
Answer: (a) feasible when T∆S > ∆H
33 In thermodynamics a process is called reversible when
(a) Surroundings and system change into each other
(b) There is no boundary between system and surroundings
(c) The surroundings are always in equilibrium with the system
(d) The system changes into surroundings spontaneously
Answer: (c) The surroundings are always in equilibrium with the system
34 Entropy change involved in the conversion of 1 mol of liquid water at 373 K to
vapour at the same temperature will be (∆Hvap = 2.257 kJg-1)
(a) 0.119 kJ
(b) 0.109 kJ
(c) 0.129 kJ
(d) 0.120 kJ
Answer: (b) 0.109 kJ
35 Which of the following is not a state function
(a) ∆G
(b) ∆U
(c) W
(d) H
Answer: (c) W
36 For the reaction H2O (s) ⇌ H2O(l) at 0°C and normal pressure
(a) ∆H < T∆S
(b) ∆H = ∆G
(c) ∆H = T∆S
(d) ∆H > T∆S
Answer: c ∆H = T∆S
37 Which of the following does not result in an increase in entropy?
(a) Crystallisation of surcose from solution
(b) Rusting of iron
(c) Conversion of ice to water
(d) Vaporisation of camphor
Answer: (a) Crystallisation of surcose from solution
38 The unit of entropy is
(a) joule
(b) joule per mole
(c) joule per Kelvin
(d) joule per gram.
Answer: (c) joule per Kelvin
39 In the reaction normal egg → Hardboiled egg ∆S is
(a) -ve
(b) 0
(c) +ve
(d) +ve and 0.
Answer: (a) -ve
40 PbO2 → Pb O, ∆G < 0 298
SnO2 → Sn O, ∆G298 > 0.

Most probable oxidation state of Pb and Sn will be
38
(a) Pb+4, Sn+4

(b) Pb+4, Sn-2
(c) Pb+2, Sn+2
(d) Pb+2, Sn+4
Answer: (d) Pb+2, Sn+4
41 Thermodynamics is not concerned about .
(A) energy changes involved in a chemical reaction.
(B) the extent to which a chemical reaction proceeds.
(C) the rate at which a reaction proceeds.
(D) the feasibility of a chemical reaction.
Answer: the rate at which a reaction proceeds.
42 A system which can neither exchange matter nor energy with the surroundings
is called
a) Open system
b) Isolated system
c) Closed system
d) Ideal system
Answer: b
43 Which of the following statements is correct?
(A) The presence of reacting species in a covered beaker is an example of an open
system.
(B) There is an exchange of energy as well as a matter between the system and the
surroundings in a closed system.
(C) The presence of reactants in a closed vessel made up of copper is an example of a
closed system.
(D) The presence of reactants in a thermos flask or any other closed insulated vessel is
an example of a closed system.
Answer: The presence of reactants in a closed vessel made up of copper is an
example of a closed system.
44 The entropy change can be calculated by using the expression ∆S = qrev/T When
water freezes in a glass beaker, choose the correct statement amongst the
following
(A) ∆S (system) decreases but ∆S (surroundings) remains the same.
(B) ∆S (system) increases but ∆S (surroundings) decreases.
(C) ∆S (system) decreases but ∆S (surroundings) increases.
(D) ∆S (system) decreases and ∆S (surroundings) also decreases.
Answer: C
45 The state of a gas can be described by quoting the relationship between .
(A) pressure, volume, temperature
(B) temperature, amount, pressure
(C) the amount, volume, temperature
(D) pressure, volume, temperature, amount
Answer: pressure, volume, temperature, amount
46 Which of the following is an intensive property?
(A) temperature
(B) surface tension
(C) viscosity
(D) all of these
Answer: all of these
47 If one mole of ammonia and one mole of hydrogen chloride are mixed in a closed
container to form ammonium chloride gas, then
39
(A) ΔH > Δu
(B) ΔH = Δu
(C) ΔH < Δu
(D) there is no relationship
Answer: ΔH < Δu
48 One mole of which of the following has the highest entropy?
(A) Liquid Nitrogen
(B) Hydrogen Gas
(C) Mercury
(D) Diamond
Answer: Hydrogen Gas
49 The spontaneity means, having the potential to proceed without the assistance of
an external agency. The processes which occur spontaneously are
(A) flow of heat from colder to warmer body.
(B) gas in a container contracting into one corner.
(C) gas expanding to fill the available volume.
(D) burning carbon in oxygen to give carbon dioxide.
Answer: C, D
50 Enthalpy of sublimation of a substance is equal to
(A) enthalpy of fusion + enthalpy of vapourisation
(B) enthalpy of fusion
(C) enthalpy of vapourisation
(D) twice the enthalpy of vapourisation
Answer: A
ASSERTION - REASON TYPE OF QUESTIONS
In the following questions a statement of assertion (A) followed by a Statement of Reason (R).
is given.
Choose the correct option out of the choices given below each question.
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
C. A is true but R is false.
D. A is false but R is true.
1. ASSERTION - Reversible process can be reversed by an infinitesimal change.

REASON - In such processes the system and the surroundings are always in near
equilibrium with each other.
Correct answer (A)
2. ASSERTION - Expansion of a gas in vacuum (Pex = 0) is called free expansion.

REASON - Work is done during free expansion.
Correct answer (C)
3. ASSERTION - q is a path dependent function and H is a state function.

40
REASON - H depends on internal energy (u), Pressure (P) and volume (V)
Correct answer (A)
4. ASSERTION - △H is positive for exothermic reaction and negative for endothermic

reaction.
REASON – In exothermic reaction heat is evolved and in endothermic reaction heat is
absorbed.
(D)
5. ASSERTION - An extensive property is depending on the quantity of matter present in the

system.
REASON - Volume of a substance decided by the quantity of matter present in it.
(A)
6. ASSERTION - The properties independent of the amount of the matter present in it, is
intensive property.
REASON - Temperature is not an intensive property.
(C)
7. ASSERTION - For metals enthalpy of atomisation and enthalpy of sublimation are the
same.
REASON - Heat required to raise the temperature of a sample is given q = c x m x
△T In both processes, the conversion is from solid form to metal atoms in the vapour
state.
Correct answer: (A)
8. ASSERTION - Cp – Cv = R where Cp and Cv are the heat capacities at constant pressure

and volume respectively.
REASON - Here Cv is greater them Cp.
(C)
9. ASSERTION - The standard state of a substance at a specified temperature is its pure form
at 1 bar.
REASON - The standard state of water at 273 K (00 celcius) is solid ice.
Correct answer (A)
10. ASSERTION - Chemical energy stored by molecules can be released as heat and light
during combustion.
REASON - Various forms of energy are inter-related under certain conditions which
may be transferred from one form to another.
(A)
11. ASSERTION - Thermodynamics is not concerned about how and what rate are energy
transformations are carried out.
REASON - Thermodynamics is based on initial and final states of a system undergoing
the change.
(B)
12. ASSERTION - The presence of reactants in a closed vessel made of a non-conducting

material is an example of closed system.
41
REASON - In a closed system there is no exchange of matter.

(D)
13. ASSERTION - The values of state variables depends heat on the state of the system.
REASON - The state of the surroundings can be completely specified.
(C)
14. ASSERTION - Internal energy of a system depends on heal gained or lost only.
REASON - Internal energy influenced by the work done by the system or done on the
system.
(D)
15. ASSERTION - Adiabatic process is a process in which there is no transfer of heat between
the system and the surroundings.
REASON - A given amount of work done on the system, no matter how it was done
produced the same change of state, as measured as the change in temp. of the
system.
(A)
16. ASSERTION - By convention when work is done by the system we will be negative.
REASON - When work done by the system internal energy increases.

(C)
17. ASSERTION - By convension q is -ve when heat is transferred from surroundings to the
system.
REASON - Internal energy of the system increases when heat flows to the system.
(D)
18. ASSERTION - △u = q when no work is done by the system at constant volume.

REASON - W - P△V where △V is the change in volume of system during a process.
(A)
19. ASSERTION - The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of an isolated
system is not constant. (D)
REASON -Law of conservation of energy and first law of thermodynamics are the same.
20. ASSERTION - The magnitude of enthalpy change depends on the strength of the
intermolecular interactions.
REASON - The Hydrogen bending existing in water is weaker than the dipole-dipole
interactions existing in acetone.
(C)
21. ASSERTION - The enthalpy change involved when one mole of calcium carbonate is
formed from calcium oxide and carbon dioxide defined as standard enthalpy of
formation.
REASON - Enthalpy of formation of one mole of a compound from its elements in their
standard state is known as standard enthalpy of formation.
(D)
22. ASSERTION - Enthalpy of combustion of glucose is 2802.0 KJ/mol.

42
REASON - Our body also generates energy from food by the same overall process as
combustion.
(B)
23. ASSERTION - When lattice enthalpy is very high dissolution of the substance may not
take place at all.
REASON - When hydration enthalpy is greater than lattice enthalpy, the substance get
dissolved in water.
(A)
24. ASSERTION - A spontaneous process is an irreversible process and may only be reversed
by some external agency.
REASON - For a reaction to be spontaneous enthalpy change is found to be always

negative.
(C)
25. ASSERTION - Free energy of a chemical reaction predicts the spontaneity of a reaction
and the maximum useful work that can be achieved.
REASON - For a spontaneous reaction △G is always negative.

(A)
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Open-ended Questions with Answers:

1. What is meant by State of a system?
Answer: The state of a thermodynamic system means its macroscopic or bulk
properties which can be described by state variables:
Pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T) and amount (n) etc.
They are also known as state functions.
2. Define :
(a) Isothermal process (b) Adiabatic process (c) Isobaric process
(d) Isochoric process (e) Cyclic process (f) Reverse process
Answer:
(a) When the operation is carried out at constant temperature, the process is said to be
isothermal. For isothermal process, dT = 0 Where dT is the change in temperature.
(b) It is a process in which no transfer of heat between system and surroundings, takes
place.
(c) When the process is carried out at constant pressure, it is said to be isobaric. i.e. dP
=0
(d) A process when carried out at constant volume, it is known as isochoric in nature.
(e) If a system undergoes a series of changes and finally returns to its initial state, it is
said to be cyclic process.
(f) When in a process, a change is brought in such a way that the process could, at any
moment, be reversed by an infinitesimal change. The change r is called reversible.
43
3. What are intensive properties and extensive properties?

Intensive properties do not depend upon the size of the matter or quantity of the
matter present in the system.
For example: temperature, density, pressure etc. are called intensive properties.
An extensive property is a property whose value depends on the quantity or size of
matter present in the system.
For example: Mass, volume, enthalpy etc. are known as extensive properties.
4. Derive the Relation Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas

At constant volume heat capacity = C v
At constant pressure heat capacity = Cp
At constant volume qv= CvΔT = ΔU
At constant pressure qp = Cp ΔT = ΔH
For one mole of an ideal gas
ΔH = ΔU + Δ (PV) = ΔU + Δ (RT)
ΔH = ΔU + RΔT
On substituting the values of ΔH and Δu, the equation is modified as
Cp ΔT = CvΔT + RΔT
or Cp-Cv = R
5. State and explain Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation with an example. The
total amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction is same whether the reaction
takes place in one step or in number of steps.
ΔHr
The intermediate steps are :A ---------------> C ΔH1

C ---------------> D ΔH2
D---------------> B ΔH3
ΔHr = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3

6. Explain: Spontaneity or Spontaneous Process with an example.
Answer:
A process which can take place by itself or has a tendency to take place is called
44
spontaneous process.
Spontaneous process need not be instantaneous. Its actual speed can vary from very
slow to quite fast.
A few examples of spontaneous process are:
(i) Common salt dissolves in water of its own.
(ii) Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide of its own.
7. What is ‘Entropy’ of a system? How is it vary with temperature(T)?
The entropy is a measure of degree of randomness or disorder of a system.
Entropy of a substance is minimum in solid state while it is maximum in gaseous
state.The change in entropy in a spontaneous process is expressed as ΔS
Entropy decreases with rise in temperature. For reversible and isothermal processes
,
ΔS = qrev / T
10. State :
(a) First law of thermodynamics
(b) Second law of thermodynamics
(c) Third law of thermodynamics
Answer:
(a) The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of an isolated system is
constant. Energy can be transformed from one form to another, but can neither be created nor
destroyed.
(b) The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy of the universe
always expands in any spontaneous process. The spontaneous process cannot be brought back
to its initial
state. (
(c) The third law of thermodynamics states an entropy of a perfectly crystalline compound is
zero or constant when its temperature reaches equal or absolute zero:
11.A gas has constant pressure in a system. There is a loss of 45 J of heat in the surroundings
around the system. 450 J of work is done onto the system. Find the system’s internal
energy?
Solution:
ΔU = q+w
ΔU = 45J + 450J
ΔU = 495J
12. Enthalpy of combustion of C to CO2 is 393.5J mol-1 Calculate the heat released upon
formation of 35.2 g of CO2 from carbon and oxygen gas.
Answer:
The combustion equation is:
C(s) + 02 (g) —–> C02(g); ΔcH = – 393.5 KJ mol-1
Heat released in the formation of 44g of C02 = 393.5 kj
Heat released in the formation of 35.2 g of C02= (393.5 KJ) x (35.2g)/(44g)
= 314.8 Kj
13. For the reaction; 2Cl(g) ———-> Cl2(g); what will be the signs of ∆H and ∆S?
45
∆H : negative (- ve) because energy is released in bond formation

∆S : negative (- ve) because entropy decreases when atoms combine to form molecules.
14.
Answer:
15. What is the condition for spontaneity in terms of free energy change?
Answer: If ∆G is negative, process is spontaneous.
If ∆G is positive, the process is non-spontaneous.
If ∆G = 0, the process is in equilibrium.
16. Define the terms :
(a) Standard enthalpy of formation (b) Standard enthalpy of combustion
(c) Bond Enthalpy (d) Lattice Enthalpy
Answer:
(a) The standard enthalpy change for the formation of one mole of a compound from its
elements in their most stable states of aggregation (also known as reference states) is called
Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation.
(b) Standard enthalpy of combustion is defined as the enthalpy change per mole (or per unit
amount) of a substance, when it undergoes combustion.
(c) Energy is required to break one mole of covalent bonds.
(d) The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change which occurs when one
mole of an ionic compound dissociates into its ions in gaseous state.
17. What are criteria for the ‘spontaneity of a reaction?
Answer: ∆G gives a criteria for spontaneity at constant pressure and temperature.
(i) If ∆G is negative (< 0), the process is spontaneous.
(ii) If ∆G is positive (> 0), the process is non spontaneous
18. How are Gibbs energy change and Equilibrium interrelated?
Answer: ∆rG = 0 ,for equilibrium systems.
19. How is ∆rG 0 is related to the equilibrium constant (Keq)of the reaction?
Answer:
∆rG 0 = - RT lne Keq
Or
∆rG 0 = - 2.303 x RT log10Keq

20. The equilibrium constant (Keq) for a reaction is 10. What will be the value of ∆G0?
(Use: R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1and T = 300 K)
46
Answer:
∆rG 0 = - 2.303 x RT log10Keq
= - 2.303 x 8.314 x 300x log101
= - 5744 Joule
21.The standard heat of formation of Fe2O3 (s) is 824.2kJ mol-1 Calculate heat change
for the reaction.
4Fe(s) + 302 (g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Answer:
= [2 X H o Fe O (s) ] – [4 H oFe (s) + 3 H oO (g)]

f 2 3 f f 2
= 2(-824.2kJ) – [ 4 x o + 3 x o ]
22. Calculate the heat of combustion of ethylene (gas) to from CO 2 (gas) and H2O (gas) at
298k and 1 atmospheric pressure. The heats of formation of CO2, H2O and C2H4 are – 393.7,
– 241.8, + 52.3 kJ per mole respectively.
Ans. C2H4 (g) + 302(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O (g)
reactants
= [2 x (CO2) + 2 x ]–
= 2 x [(-393.7)m+2x (-241.8)] – [(523.0) + 0)]
= [-787.4 – 483.6] -523.3
= – 1323.3 kJ.
47
23. Match the following processes with entropy change:
24. Match the following :
25. Match the following:

48
Case Based Question
Read the passage given below and answer the questions that follow –
We can measure the transfer of heat from one system to another which causes a change in temperature. The
magnitude of change in temperature depends upon the heat capacity of the substance. The enthalpy change
of reaction remains the same irrespective of the number of steps is Hess’s law. It helps to calculate the
enthalpy of formation, combustion, and other enthalpy changes. Enthalpy change can also be calculated by
using bond enthalpies. The first law gives the law of conservation of energy but does not give the direction
of the reaction. The second law states, the entropy of the universe is continuously increasing due to
spontaneous processes taking place in it. ΔH and ΔS (entropy change) cannot decide the spontaneity of the
process. We need ΔG (free energy change) which is –ve for spontaneous, +ve for non-spontaneous. ΔG = 0
for the process in equilibrium. ΔG is related to the equilibrium constant. If ΔG = –ve, ‘K’ is +ve and vice
versa. The third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfectly crystalline substance is zero at zero
kelvin.
Que (i). Hess's law is a corollary of the first law of thermodynamics. Comment.
Ans: According to the first law of thermodynamics, heat energy cannot be either created or destroyed. The
same conclusion is drawn from the Hess's law also, i.e., the change in heat energy remains the same during a
process, whether carried directly or indirectly.
Que (ii). Although the dissolution of NaCl(s) in water is endothermic but it dissolves. Explain.
Ans: Sodium chloride is a crystalline solid. Energy is needed to separate it into ions, i.e., NaCl(aq)
→Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq);ΔH=+ve
ΔH is positive. But the ions formed in solution have greater randomness than in the solid state. This means
that ΔS is positive. Since the salt dissolves in water, this means that ΔS>ΔH and ΔG=ΔH−TΔS is negative.
Que (iii) An exothermic reaction may not be always thermodynamically spontaneous. Justify.
Ans: In general, those changes or reactions may be spontaneous in which ΔG is -ve. Now, ΔG=ΔH−TΔS.
The negative ΔH always favours the spontaneous change or reaction. In case entropy factor opposes (i.e., ΔS
is -ve) and its magnitude is more than that of ΔH under the circumstances ΔG will be positive. The change
or reaction may not be spontaneous.
Que (iv).ΔHf° of O3, CaO, NH3, and HI are +142.2, – 643.9, –46, +25.95 kJ mol–1. Arrange these in
increasing order of stability.
Ans (iv). O3 < HI < NH3 < CaO
Que (v). Explain why the entropy of a pure crystalline substance is zero at 0K? State the law on which
it is based. Ans: At 0K, there is a
perfectly ordered arrangement of the constituent particles of a pure crystalline substance and there is no
disorder at all. Hence, its entropy is taken an zero. This statement is based on the third law of
thermodynamics. The law is applied to find the absolute entropy of a substance in any state at any
temperature.
********************
49
CHAPTER 7
EQUILIBRIUM
GIST OF THE LESSON
Equilibrium is the process in which the properties like temperature, pressure,

concentration of the system do not show any change with the passage of time
Physical equilibrium is defined as the equilibrium which develops between different
phases or physical properties and cannot see any change in chemical composition
Chemical equilibrium, is the condition in the course of a reversible chemical reaction in
which no net change in the amounts of reactants and products occurs.
Reversible Reactions: A reversible reaction is a reaction in which the conversion of
reactants to products and the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously.
Irreversible Reactions: An irreversible reaction is a reaction that proceeds in one

direction only; the products do not react together to form the reactants.
A+B →C+D
PHYSICAL EQUILLIBRIA
Type Name Equilibrium Constant value at equilibrium
Melting point at constant
Solid-liquid Fusion H2O(s) ⇌ H2O(l)
pressure
P (H2O) at constant
Liquid -gas Vapourisation H2O(l) ⇌ H2O(g)
temperature
P NH4Cl at constant
Solid-gas Sublimation NH4Cl(s)⇌ NH4Cl(g)
temperature
Solubility at constant
Solid in liquid Dissoution Sugar(s) ⇌ sugar solution
temperature
Ratio of concentration of
Gases in CO2(g) ⇌ CO2(in
Dissoution CO2(aq) and CO2(g) at
liquids solution)
constant temperature
Gases in liquids
This equilibrium is governed by Henry’s law, which states that the mass of a gas dissolved
in a given mass of a solvent at any temperature is proportional to the pressure of the gas
above the solvent.
The soda water bottle is sealed under pressure of gas when its solubility in water is high. As
soon as the bottle is opened, some of the dissolved carbon dioxide gas escapes to reach a new
equilibrium condition required for the lower pressure.
EQUILIBRIA IN CHEMICAL PROCESSES

50
The process by which reactants are converted to products is called forward reaction and
the process by which products recombine to form reactants is called backward reaction. After
sometimes, the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of backward reaction and
the reaction attains equilibrium. Thus equilibrium is a state in which the rates of forward and
backward reactions are equal.
Equilibrium is dynamic in nature. i.e. at equilibrium the reaction does not stop. The
reactant molecules collide to form products and the product molecules collide to form the
reactants and the rates of these reactions are equal.
Reversible Reactions: A reversible reaction is a reaction in which the conversion of

reactants to products and the conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously.
A+B ⇌ C+D
Irreversible Reactions: An irreversible reaction is a reaction that proceeds in one
direction only; the products do not react together to form the reactants.
. A+B →C+D
Chemical equilibrium occurs when a reaction and its reverse reaction proceed at the same
rate.
Consider a hypothetical reaction,
A+B ⇌ C+D
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of the reactants decreases and that of the products
increases. After sometimes, the two reactions occur at the same rates and an equilibrium state
is reached. This can be illustrated by the following graph.
After the equilibrium is attained, the concentration of the reactants and products become
constant. At equilibrium,
The rate of forward reaction (rf) = The rate of backward reaction (rb).
Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium
(i) At equilibrium, the concentration of each of the reactants and the products becomes
constant.
(ii) At equilibrium, the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of backward
reaction and hence the equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
(iii) A chemical equilibrium can be established only if none of the products is allowed to
escape out or separate out as a solid.
e.g. if CO2 gas escapes out in case of decomposition of CaCO3 , the reaction will no longer
remain reversible.
Similarly, the reaction is irreversible if one of the products separates out as solid,
AgNO3 + KCl →AgCl+ KNO3
51
(iv) Chemical equilibrium can be attained from either direction, i.e., from the direction of the
reactants as well as from the direction of the products.
Law of mass action

Law of mass action states that the rate of any chemical reaction is proportional to the
product of the masses of the reacting substances, with each mass raised to a power equal to
the coefficient that occurs in the chemical equation.
Let us consider a general reversible reaction
aA+bB ⇌ cC+dD
rf = Kf[A]a[B]b
rb = Kb[C]c[D]d
Therefore, at equilibrium,
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction
rf = Kf[A]a[B]b
rb = Kb[C]c[D]d
rf = rb
Kf[A]a[B]b = Kb[C]c[D]d
K𝐹 [C]c[D]d
= =K
Kb [A]a[B]b
The product of the molar concentrations of the products, each raised to the power equal
to its stoichiometric coefficient divided by the product of the molar concentrations of the
reactants, each raised to the power equal to its stoichiometric coefficient is constant at
constant temperature and is called Equilibrium constant.
Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant

It states that at constant temperature, the product of concentration of the products to that
of the reactants, in which each concentration terms is raised to a power which is equal to the
stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation, has a constant value
For a general reversible reaction:
A+B ⇌ C +D
According to the equilibrium law,
[C][D]
KC =
[A][B]
Where Kc is called the equilibrium constant.
For a general reaction,
Aa + b B⇌ cC +dD
[C]c[D]d
Kc =
[A]a[B]b
For the reaction H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI;
[HI]2
Kc =
[H]2[I] 2
For the reaction N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 ;
[NH3]2
Kc =
[N2][H 2] 3
52
Equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is the inverse of that for the forward
reaction.
If the equilibrium constant for the reaction H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI; is Kc, then that for the reverse
1
reaction 2HI ⇌ H2 + I2 is Kc’ =
KC
For the reaction H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI;
[HI]2
Kc =
[H]2[I] 2
And for the reaction
2HI ⇌ H2 + I2
[H]2[I]2
Kc’ = 2
[HI]
1
Therefore K c’ =
KC
Equilibrium Constant in Gaseous Systems

For reactions involving gases, however, it is usually more convenient to express the
equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure
The ideal gas equation is written as,
PV = nRT
P = n RT
V
V is concentration expressed in mol/m3 If concentration c, is in mol/L or mol/dm3, and p is in
bar then If concentration C, is in mol/L or mol/dm3 , and P is in bar then
P = CRT
For a reaction involving gases, the concentration terms are replaced by partial pressures
• For example
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
2
Kp = P HI
PH2PI2
Where Kp is called equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure, PHI, PH2 and PI2 are the
partial pressures of HI, H2 and I2 respectively
Relation between Kc and Kp

Consider the general reaction aA+b B ⇌ c C +d D
The equilibrium constant in terms of concentration for this reaction is
c[D] d ............................................................
Kc = [C]a b (1)
[A] [B]
And the equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure is
d
Pc Pd
Kp = C D .......................................... (2)
a Pb
PA B
From the ideal gas equation PV=nRT,
P=n RT = CRT (since n =C , the concentration
V V
Therefore PA=CART, PB=CBRT, PC=CCRT, PD=CDRT
Substitute this value in equation (2), we get
[CcRT]C[CDRT]c
Kp =
[CART]a[CBRT]b
53
Cc C d (RT)c+d
Or Kp = C D
Ca Cb (RT)a+b
A B
Cc Cd
Kp = C D
Ca Cb
(RT)(c+d)-(a+b)
A B
Kp = Kc (RT) Δn
Cc C d
Where Kc = CCa CbD
A B
And Δ n is the change in no. of moles of gaseous species.

i.e. Δ n = no. of moles of gaseous products – no. of moles of gaseous reactants. Special
cases:
i) If Δ n = 0, then K p = K c
ii) If Δ n > 0, then K p > K c and
iii) If Δ n < 0, then K p < K c
Homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria

An equilibrium reaction in which all the reactants and products are in the same phase is called
homogeneous equilibrium.
e.g. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

Equilibrium reaction in which the reactants and products are in different phases is called
heterogeneous equilibrium.
e.g. CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
H2O(s) ⇌ H2O(l)
Characteristics of Equilibrium constant

The important characteristics of equilibrium constant are:
1. Equilibrium constant is applicable only when the concentrations of the reactants and
products have attained their equilibrium state.
2. The value of equilibrium constant is independent of the initial concentrations of reactants
and products.
3. The value of equilibrium constant depends on temperature.
4. The equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is the reciprocal of that of the forward
reaction.
5. If for the reaction A ⇌ B, the value of equilibrium constant is K, then for the reaction
nA ⇌ nB, the value of equilibrium constant is Kn.
Applications of equilibrium constant

The important applications of equilibrium constant are:
1. Prediction of the extent of a reaction
2. Prediction of the direction of the reaction
3. Calculation of equilibrium concentrations
Prediction of the extent of a reaction
Greater the value of equilibrium constant, greater will be the concentration of products. In
general,
54
a) If Kc > 103 (i.e. Kc is very large), the reaction proceeds nearly to completion
b) If Kc < 10-3 (i.e. if Kc is very small), the reaction proceeds rarely.
c) If the value of Kc is in between 103 and 10-3 appreciable concentrations of both reactants
and products are present.
The value of K is very high such as, 107-1015 or more, the reaction proceeds to almost
completion. In such reactions almost the whole of the reacting substance gets converted into
products.
When K > 1
When the value of K is greater than one (reaction in the forward direction is favoured
more than the reaction in the backward direction. In such cases, the equilibrium concentration
of products is higher than that of the reactants.
Predicting the Direction of the Reaction

For this purpose, we calculate the reaction quotient Q. The reaction quotient, Q (Qc with
molar concentrations and QP with partial pressures) is defined in the same way as the
equilibrium constant Kc except that the concentrations in Qc are not necessarily equilibrium
values.
aA+b B ⇌ c C +d D
[C]c[D] d
Qc =
[A]a[B]b
If Qc > K c, the reaction will proceed in the direction of reactants (reverse reaction).
If Qc < K c, the reaction will proceed in the direction of the products (forward reaction).
If Q c = K c, the reaction mixture is already
at equilibrium.
Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

Step 1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
Step 2. Under the balanced equation, make a table that lists for each substance involved in
the reaction:
a) the initial concentration,
(b) the change in concentration on going to equilibrium (take one concentration as x)
(c) the equilibrium concentration.
Step 3. Substitute the equilibrium concentrations into the equilibrium equation for the
reaction and solve for x.
Step 4. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations from the calculated value of x.
Step 5. Check your results by substituting them into the equilibrium equation.
Relationship between K, Q and G

a. ΔG is negative, then the reaction is spontaneous and proceeds in the forward
direction.
b. ΔG is positive, then reaction is considered non-spontaneous. Instead, as reverse
reaction would have a negative ΔG, the products of the forward reaction shall be
converted to the reactants.
c. ΔG is 0, reaction has achieved equilibrium; at this point, there is no longer any free
energy left to drive the reaction.
ΔG = ΔG0 +2.303 RT logQ
0= ΔG0 + 2.303 RT logKc at equilibrium Qc =Kc
ΔG0 = -2.303 RT logKc
55
FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM

The important factors affecting equilibrium are temperature, pressure, concentration
and catalyst.
The effect of these factors on equilibrium state can be explained by using Le Chatlier’s
Principle.
It states that whenever there is a change in concentration, pressure or temperature

of a system at equilibrium, the system will try to readjust in such a way so as to
cancel the effect of that change.
1. Effect of concentration change

If we change the concentration of reactants or products in an equilibrium process, then
according to Le Chatlier’s principle, the system will try to reduce the effect of that change.
For this the rate of either forward or backward reaction change.
For example in the reaction 2SO2(g) In general, an increase in concentration of reactants

increases the rate of forward reaction (i.e. the equilibrium is shifted to the forward
direction) and an increase in concentration of products increase the rate of backward
reaction rate (i.e. the equilibrium is shifted to the backward direction).
2 SO2+ O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g), if we increase the concentration of SO2 or O2, the system
will try to reduce the concentration by shifting the reaction to forward direction.
If we remove SO3 from the reaction mixture, its concentration decreases. Here also to
increase the concentration, the system will shift to the forward direction.
In Haber process for the preparation of ammonia, the amount of ammonia formed can be
increased by increasing the concentration of N2 or H2 or by removing NH3 from the
reaction mixture.
2. Effect of pressure change

Pressure has its role only in gaseous reactions. In general an increase in pressure favours the
reaction in which number of moles decreases and vice versa.
Thus in the reaction
e.g.N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
when the pressure increases, the system will try to reduce the pressure. This can be achieved
by shifting the reaction into the direction in which no. of moles decreases (since pressure is
directly proportional to the number of moles). So in this reaction, the equilibrium will shift to
the forward direction.
If the volume of the reaction mixture is halved, the concentration and the partial pressure
become doubled. So the reaction is shifted to the direction in which the number of moles or
volume decreases.
3. Effect of temperature change

According to Le Chatlier’s principle, increase in temperature favours endothermic process
and decrease in temperature favours exothermic process. In a reversible reaction, if the
forward reaction is endothermic, the backward reaction will be exothermic.
e.g.N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g); ΔH =-92.38kj/mol
Here since ΔH is negative, the forward reaction is exothermic. So to increase the production
of NH3, temperature should decrease. At higher temperature, the rate of backward reaction
increases. i.e.the ammonia formed is decomposed to N2 and H2.
56
4. EFFECT OF CATALYST
A catalyst does not affect the equilibrium composition of a reaction mixture it just lowers the
activation energy of the forward and the backward reaction by same amount.
1. In an equilibrium reaction, a catalyst increases the rate of both forward and backward
reactions simultaneously and helps to attain the equilibrium faster.
2. It lowers the activation energy for the forward and backward reactions by exactly the
same amount. It does not affect the equilibrium composition of the reaction mixture.
3. Thus in Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia, iron (Fe) acts as the catalyst.
In contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, V 2O5 (Vanadium pentoxide)
is used as the catalyst for the conversion of SO2 to SO3
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM IN SOLUTION

There are a number of equilibrium reactions which involve ions
For example:
CH3COOH + H20 ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+
ELECTROLYTES
Those substances which conduct electricity in fused state (molten state) and in aqueous
solutions are called electrolytes”
When electricity is passed in them, a chemical reaction occurs.
Example: acids, bases, salts, metal oxides etc.
Acids : HCI, H2SO4, CH3COOH,
Bases: NaOH, KOH, NH4OH
Salts: NaCl, KCl, CH3COONa
Metal oxides : K2O, Al2O3,
NON-ELECTROLYTES
Those substances which do not conduct electricity in fused state and in aqueous solutions are
called non-electrolytes”
Example: sugar, glucose, urea, acetone, alcohol
STRONG ELECTROLYTES
Substances which dissociate completely into ions in aqueous solution & hence are very good
conductor of electricity are called strong electrolytes”
Examples: HCI, H2SO4, NaOH, KOH, NaCl, KCl, CH3COONa
NaCl + H2O→ Na+ + Cl-
57
Under ordinary conditions, there is no equilibrium between the strong electrolyte and the ions
in the aqueous solutions.
Aqueous solution of NaCl contains sodium and chloride ions only.
WEAK ELECTROLYTES
“Substances which dissociate to a small extent in aqueous solution & hence conduct
electricity to a small extent are called weak electrolytes”
Examples: NH4OH, HCOOH, CH3COOH, RNH2 etc.
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+
Under ordinary conditions, there exists equilibrium between the un-ionised molecules & ions
of the weak electrolyte.
Aqueous solution of CH3COOH contains un-ionised molecules & only some CH3COO- &
H3O+ ions.
“Equilibrium between ions and unionized molecule is called ionic equilibrium”
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IONIZATION & DISSOCIATION

DISSOCIATION: Ionic compound contains only ions. When it is dissolved in water, the ions
get separated. This is called dissociation
eg: NaCl + H2O→ Na+ + Cl-
IONISATION: When an unionized molecule such as CH3COOH, NH4OH is dissolved in

water, it produces ions in solution. This process is called ionisation.
eg: CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+
Ionic compounds dissociate, where as covalent compounds ionise !
DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF ACIDS & BASES

1. Arrhenius concept
2. Bronsted-Lowry concept
3. Lewis concept
ARRHENIUS ACID
“An acid is a hydrogen containing compound which gives free hydrogen ion (H +) in water”
HA + H2O → A- + H+(aq)
eg: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, CH3COOH, HCOOH, H3PO4
HCl + H2O → Cl- + H+(aq)
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ CH3COO- + H+(aq)
The properties of the acid are due to H+ ions they give in the solution
ARRHENIUS BASE
A base is a substance which contains hydroxyl group and gives hydroxyl ions in water”
BOH + H2O → B+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Eg: NaOH, KOH, NH4OH, Al(OH)3
NaOH + H2O → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH + H2O ⇌ B+(aq) + OH-(aq)
LIMITATIONS OF ARRHENIUS CONCEPT

1. Nature of H+ & OH-: According to Arrhenius acids give H+ & bases give OH- ions in
aq. solutions. But these ions exist as hydrated ions.
58
2. Limited scope: Applicable to aqueous solutions only. (what about solutions in

alcohols, ammonia, ethers?)
3. Inability to explain acidic & basic behaviours of certain substances: CO2, SO2,
SO3, NH3, CaO.
CO2 + H2O → CO3-2 + 2H+
NH3 + H2O →NH4+ + OH-
CO2 + Ca O → CaCO3
BRONSTED-LOWRY ACID & BASE

BRONSTED ACID: “An acid is a substance which has the tendency to give a proton (H +)”
(a proton donor)
BRONSTED BASE: “A base is a substance which has the tendency to accept a proton (H +)”
(a proton acceptor)
NH3(aq) + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-(aq)
BB BA
CN-(aq) + H2O ⇌ HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
BB BA
(H2O --- as bronsted acid)
HCO3- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CO3-2
BA BB
SH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + S-2
-
BA BB
(H2O ---as bronsted base)
NOTE: Water may act as acid as well as base and is called Amphoteric or Amphoprotic.
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIR

Consider
HA(aq) + H2O ⇌ A- + H+(aq)
BA BB CB CA
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIR: Acids & bases which differ by a proton (H +) only are
called conjugate acid-base pairs.
EXAMPLES OF CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

Bronsted Bronsted bases Conjugate base Conjugate acid
acids
HCl + H2 O ⇌ Cl- + H3O+
CH3COOH + H2 O ⇌ CH3COO- + H3O+
H2O + NH3 ⇌ OH- + NH4+
HCl + NH3 ⇌ Cl- + NH4+
H2S + H2 O ⇌ SH- + H3O+
STRENGTH OF CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS

If Bronsted Acid is strong, Conjugate Base is weak.
If Bronsted Base is weak, Conjugate Acid is Strong.
ADVANTAGES OF BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT

1. This concept is not limited to molecules only. Ions can also act as acids & bases.
59
2. This concept explains basic characters of substances like Na2CO3, NH3 (which do not
contain OH- )
3. This concept explain acid-base reactions in non-aqueous solvents and even in absence
of solvents. Eg: NH3 + HCl ⇌ NH4Cl
LIMITATIONS OF BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT

1. This concept cannot explain the reactions between acidic oxides such as CO 2, SO2,
SO3 etc & basic oxides such as CaO, MgO etc because there is no proton transfer.
2. Acidic behaviour of BF3, AlCl3, FeCl3 etc cannot be explained.
LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS & BASES

Acid is a substance (an atom, molecule or ion) which can accept a pair of electron and base
is a substance (an atom, molecule or ion) which can donate an electron pair.
Or
Lewis Acid is an electron pair acceptor.
Lewis Base is an electron pair donor.
B: + A → [B →A] or (B.A)
LB LA
e.g
Lewis Bases Lewis Acids
H3N: + BF3 → [H3N: → BF3 ]
H3N: + H+ → [NH4+]
CaO + CO2 → Ca2+CO3-2
TYPES OF LEWIS BASES

Neutral molecules --- :NH3, RNH2, ROH, H2O, ROR
Negatively charged species--- F-,Cl-,CN-,Br-,I-,OH-
TYPES OF LEWIS ACIDS

1. Molecules in which the central atom has incomplete octet: FeCl3, AlCl3, BF3 etc.
(central atom has only 6 electrons)
2. Simple cations: All cations are e- deficient & hence e- acceptors. Cu+, Cu++, Ag+, Zn+2
etc.
3. Molecules having central atom with empty d-orbitals: Central atom can expand its
octet & can accept e- pairs which are accommodated in empty d-orbitals. eg: SiF4,
SnCl4 etc.
4. Molecules in which atoms of different electro negativities are linked by multiple
bonds: CO2.
LIMITATIONS OF LEWIS CONCEPT
Lewis concept fails to explain:
1. Acidic behaviour of well-known acids such as HCl, H2SO4 etc.
2. Relative strengths of acids & bases.
3. Acid-base reactions are usually fast but it is not true for the formation of coordinate
bond which Lewis concept talks about.
60
1. All Bronsted acids are also Arrhenius acids. Because both give proton in
solution.
2. All the Bronsted bases are not Arrhenius bases. Eg: CN -, CO3-2, SH- etc are
Bronsted bases because they are proton acceptor but they cannot give OH- ions
in the solution.
3. All the Bronsted bases are also Lewis bases. Eg: NH3, CN-, CO3-2, CH3COO- etc
are proton acceptors as well as e- pair donors.
4. All the Bronsted acids are not Lewis acids. Eg: HCl, HNO3 etc are proton donors
and are Bronsted acids but they are not Lewis acids as they cannot accept e-
pair.
DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION (α)

The fraction of the total number of molecules dissociated into ions is called degree of
dissociation”
No.ofmoles disssociated
α=
total no.ofmoles taken
It depends upon factors like:

1. Nature of electrolyte
2. Concentration of solution
3. Nature of solvent
4. Temperature etc….
IONIZATION CONSTANT OF WEAK ACIDS &WEAK BASES

Ionisation constant of weak acids
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A–(aq)
Applying law of chemical equilibrium
[H3O+][A−}
K =
[HA][H2O]
As H2O is a solvent and its concentration remain almost constant
[H3O+][A−}
K [H2 O] = Ka =
[HA]
Ka is called dissociation constant or ionisation constant of weak acid
Ionisation constant of weak base
BOH(aq) +H2O ⇌ B+(aq) + OH-

Applying law of chemical equilibrium
[B+][OH−}
Kb =
[BOH]
Kb is called dissociation constant or ionisation constant of weak base
CALCULATION OF DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION CONSTANT (α) FOR WEAK

ACID
61
HA(aq) ⇌ H3O+( (aq) + A–(aq)

Initial concentration c 0 0
Equilibrium concentration c-cα cα cα
[H3O+ ][A−} [𝐜𝑎][𝐜𝑎] [𝐜𝑎2]

Ka = = =
[HA] [c−𝐜𝑎] [1−𝑎]
2
Ka = [𝐜𝑎 ] ................................. (1)
[1−𝑎]
As α is small (1-α) ≈ 1
Ka = 𝐜𝑎2
𝐊𝐚
α=√
𝐂
[H ] = Cα = √𝐊𝐚𝐂
+
CALCULATION OF DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION CONSTANT (α) FOR WEAK

BASE
BOH(aq) ⇌ B+( (aq) + OH–(aq)
Initial concentration c 0 0
Equilibrium concentration c-cα cα cα
[B+][OH−}
Kb =
[BOH]
[𝐜𝑎][𝐜𝑎] [𝐜𝑎2]
= =
[c−𝐜𝑎] [1−𝑎]
2
Kb = [𝐜𝑎 ].................................. (1)
[1−𝑎]
As α is small (1-α) ≈ 1
Kb = 𝐜𝑎2
𝐊𝐛
α=√
𝐂
[OH ] = Cα = √𝐊𝐛𝐂
-
STRENGTH OF ACIDS & BASES

1. When [H+] increases α increases Ka increases and acid strength increases
2. When [OH-] increases α increases Kb increases and basic strength increases
FACTORS AFFECTING ACID STRENGTH

The extent of dissociation of an acid (HA) depends upon the strength & polarity of H-A
bond:
Bond Strength: Weaker the H-A bond, more dissociation, stronger acid
Bond Polarity: Larger the electro negativity difference, greater polarity, more dissociation,
stronger acid.
Comparing period-wise: Consider Bond Polarity
eg: CH4<NH3<H2O<HF
Comparing group-wise: Consider Bond Strength
62
eg: HF<HCl<HBr<HI
eg: H2O<H2S<H2Se<H2Te
IONISATION CONSTANT & IONIC PRODUCT OF WATER

Pure water ionises as:
H2O + H2O ⇌ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
K=[H+][OH-]/[H2O], (K=ionisation constant of water)
∴ K[H2O]= Kw =[H+][OH-]
Kw = Ionic product of water.
Now, since at 25˚C, [H+] = [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7.
∴ Kw = [H+][OH-] = (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x 10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
Note:
1. Kw of water suggests that water is extremely weak electrolyte.
2. On increasing the temperature, more & more water molecules dissociate & therefore
Kw increases with temperature.
pH SCALE
pH is defined as negative logarithm of concentration of H+ ion.”
pH= – log[H+]
Similarly,
“pOH is defined as negative logarithm of concentration of OH – ion.”
pOH= – log[OH –]
Solutions pH pOH [H+]

Acidic <7 >7 >10-7
Basic >7 <7 <10-7
Neutral =7 =7 =10-7
Measurement of pH:
1. It is measured with the help of an instrument called pH meter.
2. Idea about the pH can be had by using a pH strip
LIMITATIONS OF pH SCALE
1. The pH values do not give exact idea of relative strengths of acids.
2. pH may have –ve value as well as more that 14. eg: pH of 10N HCl=-1 & pH of 10 N
NaOH =15.
3. If pH is doubled, concentration of H+ ion is not changed two times.
63
RELATION BETWEEN pH & pOH

We know that,
Kw=[H+][OH-] =1.0 x 10-14
Taking log,
– log Kw=– log ([H+][OH-]) = – log (1.0 x 10-14)
∴ – log K w=– log [H+] – log[OH-] =– log (1.0 x 10-14)
∴ pK w= pH + p OH=14
COMMON ION EFFECT
Definition: Dissociation of a weak electrolyte (weak acid or weak base) is suppressed by the
addition of a strong electrolyte having a common ion is called common ion effect.
Example: CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+
CH3COONa → CH3COO- + Na+
Similarly ,
NH4OH (Weak electrolyte) ⇌ NH4+ +OH-
& NH4Cl (Strong electrolyte)
H2S ⇌ H+ + HS-
BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Definition: A solution which resists the change in pH when a small amount of strong acid or
strong base is added to it is called buffer solution.
Types of buffer:
1. Simple Buffers: Aqueous solutions of salts of weak acid & weak base.
Eg: CH3COONH4, NH4CN etc.
2. Mixed Buffers: These are of two types
(i) Acidic Buffers: Solutions of weak acid & its salt with strong base.
eg: CH3COOH & CH3COONa, HCN & KCN etc.
(ii) Basic Buffers: Solutions of weak base & its salt with strong acid.
eg: NH4OH & NH4Cl, NH4OH & NH4NO3 etc.
SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA OF SPARINGLY SOLUBLE SALTS

Salts are classified into three categories depending upon their solubility:
Category 1 Soluble Solubility > 0.1 M
Category 2 Slightly soluble 0.01<Solubility<0.1 M
Category 3 Sparingly soluble Solubility<<0.01 M
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT (Ksp)

In case of saturated solution of a sparingly soluble salt, there exist an equilibrium between the
undissolved solid salt & the ions in solution.
Eg: BaSO4(s) ⇌ Ba+2(aq) + SO4-2(aq)
Applying the law of chemical equilibrium,
[Ba+2][SO−2
4 ]
K=
[BaSO4]
64
OR K[BaSO4] =Ksp=[Ba+2][SO4-2]
Ksp=[Ba+2][SO4-2]
Ksp is called solubility product constant or simply solubility.
In general: AxBy(s) ⇌ xA+y + yB-x…..Ksp=[A+y]x[B-x]y.
IONIC PRODUCT (Qsp)

Definition: At a given temperature, Qsp is equal to the product of the molar concentration of
ions in a saturated or unsaturated solution, each raised to the power equal to the number of
ions produced by the dissociation of one molecule of the electrolyte.
If the solution is not saturated, no precipitate will form. In this case, the product is called
the ionic product, Qsp.
The term ionic product has a broad meaning since, it is applicable to all types of solutions,
either unsaturated or saturated and varies accordingly.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Ksp & Qsp
Ksp Qsp
Applicable to saturated solution only Applicable to saturated as well as unsaturated solutions
Is a constant value Depends on the concentration of electrolyte
Depends upon temperature Depends upon temperature
SOME FACTS ABOUT Ksp & Qsp

1. If Qsp > Ksp……precipitation occurs
2. If Qsp < Ksp……electrolyte remains in the solution
3. Units of Ksp depend upon the type of electrolyte:
eg: AgCl…..Ksp=[Ag+][Cl-] …..mol2 L-2
PbCl2….Ksp=[Pb+2][Cl-]2….mol3 L-3
APPLICALTIONS OF SOLUBILITY PRODUCT & COMMON ION EFFECT

1. Explanation of salting out or precipitation of soluble salts:
(a) When HCl gas is passed through a saturated solution of sodium chloride, pure sodium
chloride precipitates are formed.
(b) When sodium chloride solution is added to soap solution, soap precipitates are formed.
2. In qualitative analysis:
(a) Use of dil. HCl in precipitation of sulphides of group II
(b) Use of NH4Cl in the pptn. of the hydroxides of group III
(c) Use of NH4OH in the pptn. of metal sulphides of group IV
(d) Use of NH4Cl in precipitating metal carbonates of group V
65

1. Which one is not correct for a reversible reaction?
(a) The reaction is never completed
(b) The reactants are present in the initial stage but after that the reactants and products are
always present in the reaction mixture.
(c) At equilibrium only products are present
(d) When the reaction is carried out in closed space, it attains equilibrium state after suitable
time.
Ans:- c
2. The state of equilibrium refers to
(a)State of rest (b) dynamic state (c) stationary state (d) state of inertness
Ans:- b
3. In a reversible reaction, equilibrium is said to have been established when the
(a)Concentrations of reactants and products are same
(b)Opposing reactions cease
(c)Speeds of opposing reactions becomes equal
(d)Temperature of opposing reactions are equal
Ans:- c
4. Application of Le-Chatelier’s principle indicates that synthesis of ammonia by the
equation N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3, (ΔH= -92.4kJ/mol), is favoured by….
(a) Low pressure (b) high temperature (c) presence of catalyst (d) removal of NH3
Ans:- d
5. According to Le-Chatelier’s principle adding heat to a solid and liquid in equilibrium
will cause the,
(a)Amount of solid to decrease
(b)Amount of liquid to decrease
(c)Temperature to rise
(d)Temperature to fall
Ans:- a
6. The equilibrium constant of the following reactions
SO2(g) + ½O2(g) ⇌ SO3(g) and
2SO2(g) +O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g) are K1 and K2 respectively. The relationship between K1 & K2
is
(a)K1 = K2 (b) K22 = K1 (c) K12 = K2 (d) K2 = √K1
Ans:-c
7. For a reversible reaction if the concentrations of the reactants are doubled at a
definite temperature, then equilibrium constant will,
(a) Also be doubled (b) be halved (c) become one-fourth (d) remains the same
Ans:- d
o
8. HI was heated in a sealed tube at 400 C till the equilibrium reached. HI was found to
be 22% decomposed. The equilibrium constant for the dissociation is,
(a) 1.99 (b) 0.0199 (c) 0.0796 (d) 0.282
Ans:- b
66
9. In a reversible gaseous system, molar concentrations (active masses) of reactants and

products are proportional to
(a) Partial pressure (b) total pressure (c) amount of reactants and products (d) none of the
above
Ans:-a
10. Equilibrium constant depends on
(a) The actual quantities of reactants and products
(b) The presence of catalyst
(c) Temperature
(d) The presence of inert material
Ans:- c
11. In the melting of ice, which one of the following conditions will be more favourable?
(a) High temperature and high pressure
(b) Low temperature and low pressure
(c) Low temperature and high pressure
(d) High temperature and low pressure
Ans:- a
12. Solubility of a gas in liquid increases on…
(a) Addition of a catalyst
(b) Decreasing of pressure
(c) Increasing of pressure
(d) Increasing of temperature
Ans:-c
13. For the reaction H2 + I2 ⇌ 2HI,the equilibrium constant Kp changes with
(a) Total pressure (b) catalyst (c) the amount of H2 and I2 taken (d) temperature
Ans:- d
o
14. The decomposition of N2O4 to NO2 is carried out at 280 C in chloroform. When
equilibrium is reached ,0.2mol of N2O4 and 2x10-3 mol of NO2 are present in a 2L
solution. The equilibrium constant for the reaction
N2O4 ⇌ 2NO2 is,
(a) 1x10-2 (b) 2x10-3 (c) 1x10-5 (d) 2x10-5
Ans :- c
15. In which of the following, change in the volume of the system does not alter the
number of moles
(a) N2+O2 ⇌ 2NO
(b) PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 +Cl2
(c) N2+3H2 ⇌ 2NH3
(d) SO2Cl2 ⇌ SO2 +Cl2
Ans:- a
16. For the reaction CO + ½O2 ⇌ CO2, Kp/Kc is,
(a) RT (b) (RT)-1 (c) (RT)-1/2 (d) (RT)1/2
Ans :- c
67
17. The reaction quotient(Q) for the reaction N2+3H2 ⇌ 2NH3 is given by
Q=(NH3)2/(N2)(H2)3.The reaction will proceed from right to left if,
(a) Q<Kc (b) Q>Kc (c) Q=0 (d) Q=Kc
Ans :- b
18. In which of the following the reaction proceeds towards completion?
(a) K=1 (b) K=10-2 (c) K=10 (d) K=103
Ans :- d
19. The unit of equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction A+B ⇌ C would be
(a) Mol-1L (b) molL-1 (c) molL (d) no unit
Ans :- a
20. In a vessel containing SO3, SO2 and O2 at equilibrium, some helium gas is introduced
so that total pressure increases while temperature and volume remain same.
According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, the dissociation of SO3,
(a) Increases (b) decreases (c) remains unaltered (d) changes unpredictably
Ans :- c
21.15 moles of H2 and 5.2 moles of I2 are mixed and allowed to attain equilibrium at
500oC. At equilibrium, the concentration of HI is found to be 10moles. The
equilibrium constant for the formation of HI is,
(a) 50 (b) 15 (c) 100 (d) 25
Ans :- a
22.pH of an aqueous solution is 5.5. The hydroxyl ion concentration in the solution is..
(a) -5.5M (b) -8.5M (c) 10-8.5M (d) 108.5M
Ans :- c
23. Which of the following is the strongest base?
(a) ClO- (b) ClO3- (c) ClO4 - (d) ClO2-
Ans :- a
-
24. The conjugate base of HCO3 is
(a) H2CO3 (b) CO2 (c) H2O (d) CO32-
Ans :- d
25. 200mL of M/50 HCl is mixed with 100mL of M/100 HCl, the pH of the resulting
solution will be.
(a) 2.22 (b) 1.78 (c) 2 (d) zero
Ans :- b
26. Which of the following species is not amphoteric
(a) SO42- (b) HSO4- (c) HS- (d) HCO3-
Ans :- a
27. The addition of HCl will not supress the ionisation of
(a) Acetic acid (b) sulphuric acid (c) H2S (d) benzoic acid
Ans :- b
28. The solubility of AgCl in a solution of common salt is lower than in water. It is due to
(a) Salt effect (b) lowering of solubility effect (c) common ion effect (d) complex formation
Ans :- c
29. Which of the following equimolar solutions can act as an acidic buffer
(a) NH4Cl and NH4OH
68
(b) HCl and NaCl

(c) HCOOH and HCOONa
(d) HNO3 and NH4NO3
Ans :- c
30. Which of the following has the highest pH?
(a) Distilled water
(b) 1M NH3
(c) 1M NaOH
(d) Water saturated with chlorine
Ans :- c
31. According to Lewis concept, a base is a substance which,
(a) Donates an electron pair
(b) Accepts an electron pair
(c) Produces hydronium ions
(d) Combines with OH- ions
Ans :- a
-
32. The conjugate acid of NH2 is
(a) NH4+ (b) NH3 (c) NH2OH (d) N2H4
Ans :-b
33. Among the following, the weakest Bronsted base is
(a) F- (b) Cl- (c) Br- (d) I-
Ans :- d
34. The solubility of Fe(OH)3 is x mol/L. Its Ksp would be,
(a) 9x3 (b) 3x4 (c) 27x4 (d) 9x4
Ans:- c
35. The pH of 10-8 molar solution of HCl in water is,
(a) 8 (b) -8 (c) between 7 and 8 (d) between 6 and 7
Ans :- d
36. The value of Kw in an acidic aqueous solution at 298K is,
(a) >10-14 (b) <10-14 (c) 1014 (d) 10-14
Ans :- d
37. When a buffer solution of CH3COOH and CH3COONa is diluted with water
(a) CH3COO- ion concentration increases
(b) (H+) ion concentration increases
(c) OH- ion concentration increases
(d) H+ ion concentration does not change
Ans :- d
38. Which of the following will occur if a 0.1M solution of a weak acid is diluted to
0.01M at constant temperature?
+
(a) (H ) will decreases to 0.01M
(b) pH will decrease
(c) percentage ionisation will increase
(d) Ka will increase
Ans :- c
69
39. The pH of a 10-10 M NaOH solution is nearest to

(a) 10 (b) 7 (c) 4 (d) -10
Ans :- b
40. Which buffer solution out of the following will have pH>7?
(a) CH3COOH+CH3COONa
(b) HCOOH+HCOOK
(c) CH3COONH4
(d) NH4OH+NH4Cl
Ans :- d
41. Dissolution of sodium sulphate is an exothermic process. If a saturated solution of
sodium sulphate containing extra undissolved sodium sulphate is heated, then,
(a) more of sodium sulphate will dissolve
(b) some sodium suphate will be precipitated out
(c) concentration of the solution will not change
(d) the solution will become super saturated
Ans :- b
42. Which of the following is correct regarding buffer solution
(a) it contains a weak acid and its conjugate base
(b) it contains a weak base and its conjugate acid
(c) it shows little change in pH on adding small amount of acid or base
(d) none of the above
Ans :- c
43. What will be the pH of 1M Na2SO4 solution?
(a) 1 (b) 7 (c) 14 (d) 7.1
Ans :- b
44.A 0.2 molar solution of formic acid is 3.2% ionised. Its ionisation constant is,
(a) 9.6x10-3 (b) 2.1x10-4 (c) 1.25x10-6 (d) 4.8x10-5
Ans :-b
-
45. The concentration of OH ion in neutral solution is?
(a) 1x10-4 g ion/litre (b) 1x1014 g ion/litre (c) 1x107 g ion/litre (d) 1x10-7 g ion/litre
Ans :- d
46. Which of these is least likely to act as Lewis base?
(a) F- (b) BF3 (c) PF3 (d) CO
Ans :- b
47. Which of the following pairs constitutes a buffer?
(a) HNO2, NaNO2 (b) NaOH, NaCl (c) HNO3, NH4NO3 (d) HCl, NaOH
Ans :- a
48. Given that the dissociation constant for water is Kw=1x10-14 mol2L-2. The pH of a
0.001 molar KOH solution is,
(a) 10 (b) 10-3 (c) 3 (d) 11
-11
Ans :-d
-4
49. Solubility of an MX2 type electrolyte is 0.5x10 mol/litre, then Ksp of electrolyte is...
70
(a) 5x10-2 (b) 25x10-10 (c) 1x10-13 (d) 5x10-13

Ans :- d
50.A reaction attains equilibrium, when the free energy change is
(a) Zero (b) positive and large (c) negative and small (d) negative and large
Ans :- a
ASSERTION - REASON TYPE OF QUESTIONS
In the following questions, a statement of Assertion (A) is given followed by a statement of

reason (R) just below it. Of the statements, mark the correct answer as
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
1. Assertion (A): For a chemical reaction at a particular temperature, the equilibrium

constant is fixed and is a characteristic property.
Reason (R): Equilibrium constant is independent of temperature.
2. Assertion (A): Kp is always greater than Kc.
Reason (R): The reactions in the gaseous phase are usually faster than the reactions in the
liquid phase.
3. Assertion (A): Increasing order of acidity of hydrogen halides is

HF ˂ HCl ˂ HBr ˂ HI
Reason (R): While comparing acids formed by the elements belonging to the same group
of periodic table, H─A bond strength is a more important factor in determining acidity of
an acid than the polar nature of the bond.
4. Assertion (A): In the dissociation of PCl5 at constant pressure and temperature addition of
helium at equilibrium increases the dissociation of PCl5.
Reason (R): Helium removes Cl2 from the field of action.
5. Assertion (A): For the reaction, 2NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g), increase in pressure
favours the formation of NO2
Reason (R): The reaction is exothermic.
6. Assertion (A): Adding inert gas to dissociation equilibrium of N2O4 at constant pressure
and temperature increases the dissociation.
Reason (R): Molar concentrations of the reactants and products decrease.
7. Assertion (A): The ionization of hydrogen sulphide in water is low in presence of
hydrochloric acid.
Reason (R): Hydrogen sulphide is a weak acid.
8. Assertion (A): Aqueous solution of ammonium carbonate is basic.
Reason (R): Acidic/basic nature of a salt solution of a salt solution of a salt of weak acid
and weak base depends on Ka and Kb value of the acid and base forming it.
71
9. Assertion (A): An aqueous solution of ammonium acetate can act as a buffer.

Reason (R): Acetic acid is a weak acid and NH4OH is a weak base.
10. Assertion (A): A solution containing a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate
maintains a constant value of pH on addition of a small amounts of acid or alkali.
Reason (R): A solution containing a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate acts as a
buffer solution around pH 4.75.
11. Assertion (A): Reaction quotient of a reaction at any time decides the direction in which
the reaction will proceed.
Reason (R): The value of reaction quotient cannot be greater than the equilibrium
constant.
12. Assertion (A): When a catalyst is added to a reaction mixture at equilibrium, the amount
of products increase.
Reason (R): The forward reaction becomes faster on adding the catalyst.
13. Assertion (A): Equilibrium constant of a reaction increases if temperature is increased.

Reason (R): The forward reaction becomes faster with increase of temperature.
14. Assertion (A): If standard free energy change of a reaction is zero, this implies that
equilibrium constant of a reaction is unity.
Reason (R): For a reaction in equilibrium, equilibrium constant is always unity.
15. Assertion (A): Equilibrium constant of an endothermic reaction increases with increase
of temperature.
Reason (R): With increase in temperature, an endothermic reaction is favoured more in
the forward direction.
16. Assertion (A): At equilibrium the concentration of all the reactants and products are
equal.
Reason (R): At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to rate of backward
reaction.
17. Assertion (A): Henry’s law is not obeyed by ammonia.
Reason (R): It react with water to form ammonium hydroxide.
18. Assertion (A): The larger the value of equilibrium constant (K), greater is the extent to
which reactants are converted into product.
Reason (R): A larger value of K facilitates the forward reaction to proceed to a greater
extent before equilibrium is attained.
19. Assertion (A): In an exothermic reaction, a greater yield of product can be obtained by
lowering the temperature
Reason (R): In an exothermic reaction, the heat content of the reactants is greater than
that of the product.
20. Assertion (A): When HCl gas is passed through a saturated solution of common salt,
pure NaCl is precipitated.
Reason (R): The solubility product of NaCl gets lowered.
21. Assertion (A): Ions like HCO3˗, HS˗ etc. act as a Bronsted –Lowry acid.
72
Reason (R): Such ions are able to furnish protons in solutions.
22. Assertion (A): SiF4 Acts as a Lewis base.

Reason (R): The central Si atom in SiF4 possesses vacant d-orbitals and can expands it
octet by accommodating more electron in d-orbitals.
23. Assertion (A): The value of ionic product of water (Kw) increases on increasing the
temperature.
Reason (R): The ionization of water increases with an increase in temperature.
24. Assertion (A): The aqueous solution of CuSO4 is acidic in nature.

Reason (R): Copper sulphate is a salt of a weak base and strong acid.
25. Assertion (A): The pH of a buffer solution does not change appreciably on addition of a
small amount of an acid or a base.
Reason (R): A buffer solution consists of either a weak acid and its salt with a strong
base or a weak base and its salt with a strong acid.
26. Assertion (A): NaCl solution can be purified by passage of hydrogen chloride through
brine.
Reason (R): This type purification is based on Le ─Chatelier’s principle.
27. Assertion (A): Kp = Kc for all reactions.

Reason (R): At constant temperature, pressure of a gas is proportional to its
concentration.
28. Assertion (A): Increase of pressure for a reaction which is in equilibrium shifts the
equilibrium towards direction where less number of moles are present.
Reason (R): The change in pressure in an equilibrium reaction changes the position or
direction of equilibrium.
29. Assertion (A): According to Le- Chatelier’s principle addition of heat to an equilibrium
solid ⇌ liquid results in decrease in the amount of solid.
Reason (R): Reaction is endothermic. So, on heating forward reaction is favoured.
30. Assertion (A): When Qc = Kc, the reaction is at equilibrium.
Reason (R): At equilibrium ∆G=0.
ANSWERS
Qn No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Correct c d a c b a b a c a
Answer
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
c d d c a d a a b c
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
a d a b b c d b b b
73
CASE-BASED/PASSAGE-BASED INTEGRATED QUESTIONS
I. Read the given passage and answer the questions that follow:
Equilibrium can be established for both physical and chemical processes and at equilibrium
rate of forward and reverse processes are equal. Equilibrium constant (KC) is expressed as the
concentration of products divided by reactants, each raised to Stoichiometric Coefficient. KC
has fixed value of constant temperature and at this stage concentration, pressure etc. become
constant. KP is equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressure of gases or vapours. The
direction of reaction can be predicted by reaction quotient QC and QP. QC = KC at equilibrium
and QP = KP. Le Chatelier's principle states 'Equilibrium' will shift in the direction so as to
counter balance the effect of change in T, P and conc. The equilibrium between ions and
unionised molecules in weak electrolyte is called ionic equilibrium.
𝟗
(a) At a certain temperature K c = for the reaction
𝟒
(b) In the equilibrium H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g), if at a given temperature, the

concentration of the reactants is increased, what will be the value of equilibrium
constant Kc.
Ans. Kc will remain the same. It changes only with change in temperature.
(c) If the value of an equilibrium constant for a particular reaction is 1.6 × 1012,
what will be present in the system at equilibrium.
Ans. The system will contain mostly products, since value of Kc is high.
(d) The Ksp of AgCl, AgBr, AgI are 1.8 × 10–10, 5.0 × 10–13, 8.3 × 10–17, which will
precipitate last if AgNO3 solution is added to NaCl, NaBr, NaI?
Ans. AgI will precipitate because its Ksp is low, ionic product will exceed Ksp.
CASE STUDY QN NO II
74
II. Observe the table of the ionization constants of some common polyprotic acid at 298 K.
Answer the questions based on this table and related studied concepts.
The Ionization Constants of Some Common Polyprotic Acids (298K)
(a) Why is Ka1 greater than Ka2?

Ans. It is because degree of ionization is more in first step than in second step and it is
difficult to take out proton (H+) from its negatively charged ions.
(b) Arrange Ka1, Ka2 and Ka3 in phosphoric acid.

Ans. Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3
(c) Why is Ka1 >>> Ka2 in sulphuric acid?

Ans. It is because H2SO4 is strong acid and almost completely ionized in 1st step.
(d) What is relationship between Ka, Ka1 and Ka2?

Ans. Ka = Ka1 × Ka2
(f) What is basicity of H3PO4?

Ans. It is tribasic acid.
(g) Out of oxalic acid and citric acid, which is stronger?

Ans. Oxalic acid is stronger than citric acid because (Ka = Ka1 × Ka2) is higher in oxalic acid
than citric acid.
75
CASE STUDY QN NO III
III. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Arrhenius acids give H+ ion in aqueous solution whereas bases give OH – in aqueous solution.
Bronsted acids are proton donor whereas Bronsted bases are proton acceptors. Acids, on
donating proton form conjugate base where as bases form conjugate acid after accepting proton.
Buffer solution is a solution whose pH does not change by adding small amount of H +or OH–.
The decrease in conc. of one of the ions by adding another ion as common ion is called common
ion effect. Lewis acids are electron deficient or +ve ly charged. Lewis bases are electron rich
or negatively charged. Ksp (solubility product) is product of molar concentration of ions raised
to power number of ions per formula of the compound in sparingly soluble salt. Precipitation
occurs only if ionic product exceeds solubility product. Solubility of salt decreases in presence
of common ion. Kw is ionic product of water, 1 × 10– 14 at 298 K. Kw increases with increase
in temperature.
pH is –log [H3O+] where [H3O+] = Cα in mono protic acid 'C' is molar concentration., 'α' is
degree of ionization. A salt is said to be hydrolyzed if pH of solution changes. KH is hydrolytic
constant. pH of salts of strong acid and strong base is equal to 7. pH of other salts can be < 7
or >7. pH of buffer solution can be calculated with the help of Henderson equation.
76
CASE STUDY QN NO 4
According to Arrehenius, acids give H+ ions while bases produce OH˗ ions in their aqueous
solutions. Bronsted-Lowry defined an acid as a proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor.
When a Bronsted – Lowry acid reacts with a base, it produces its conjugate base and a conjugate
acid corresponding to the base with which it reacts. Thus, a conjugate pair of acid - base differs
only by a proton. Lewis further generalized the definition of an acid as an electron pair acceptor
and a base as an electron pair donor. The strength of acids and bases can be measured in terms
of their dissociation constants Ka (or pKa) and Kb (or pKb). Larger value of Ka or lower value
of pKa corresponds to greater strength of acids. Similarly, larger value of Kb or lower value of
pKb corresponds to stronger base.
a. Write the conjugate acid -base pair for the following

i) NH3 ii) HSO4˗
Answer: i) Conjugate acid: NH4+ Conjugate base: NH2˗
ii) Conjugate acid: H2SO4 Conjugate base: SO42˗
b. How is strength of acid related to pKa value?

Answer: Higher the value of pKa, weaker will be the acid.
c. Dissociation constant for two different acids are 1x10-5 and 3.6x10-10. Which one is the
stronger acid?
Answer: Acid with Ka = 1x10-5 is the stronger acid as it has higher dissociation constant.
d. What is acid / base according to Lewis concept?

Answer: According to Lewis concept acids are substances which accept pair of electrons and
bases are substances which donate pair of electrons.
e. Classify the following as Lewis acid and base. NH3, BF3, AlCl3, CH3NH2
Answer: Lewis acid: BF3, AlCl3 Lewis base: NH3, CH3NH2
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1. Justify the statement that water behaves like acid as well as a base on the basis of
the protonic concept.
Answer:
Water ionizes as H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH–
With strong acids, water behaves as a base by accepting a proton from an acid.
HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
While with bases, water behaves as an acid by liberating a proton
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ (aq) + OH (aq).
Q2. An aqueous solution of CuSO4 is acidic while that of Na2SO4 is neutral. Explain.
Answer:
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CuSO4 + 2H2O ⇌ Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 (weak base strong acid)

CuSO4 is the salt of weak base Cu(OH)2 and a strong acid H2SO4.
Thus the solution will have free H+ ions and will, therefore, be acidic.
Na2SO4, being the salt of a strong acid H2SO4 and a strong base.
NaOH does not undergo hydrolysis. The solution is, therefore, neutral.
Q3. The dissociation constants of HCN, CH3COOH, and HF are 7.2 × 10-10, 1.8 × 10-5,
and 6.7 × 10-4 respectively. Arrange them in increasing order of acid strength.
Answer:
More the value of Ka, the stronger the acid
Their Ka1S are 6.7 × 10-4 > 1.8 × 10-5 > 7.2 × 10-10
∴ HCN < CH3COOH < HF.
Q4. The dissociation of PCl5 decreases in presence of Cl2. Why?

Answer:
For PCl5 ⇌ PCl3 + Cl2.
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, an increase in the concentration of Cl2 (one of the
products) at equilibrium will favour the backward reaction, and thus the dissociation of
PCl5 into PCl3 and Cl2 decreases.
Q5. The reaction between ethyl acetate and water attains a state of equilibrium in an
open vessel, but not the decomposition of CaCO3. Explain.
Answer:
CH2 COOC2H5 (l) + H2O (l) ⇌ CH3COOH (l) + C2H5OH (l)
Here both reactants and products are liquids and they will not escape from the vessel even if
it is open. Therefore equilibrium is attained.
CaSO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Here CO2 is a gas. It will escape from the vessel if it is open and so backward reaction cannot
take place. Therefore equilibrium is not attained.
Q6. Why NH4Cl is added in precipitating III group hydroxides before the addition of
NH4OH?
Answer:
To prevent precipitation of IV group hydroxides (especially Mn) along with III group
hydroxides. NH4Cl decreases dissociation of NH4OH and thus limited OH ions are present in
solution to precipitate III group cations only
NH4OH ⇌ NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) to a small extent
NH4Cl (aq) ⇌ NH4 (aq) + Cl (aq) to a large extent
Due to common ion affect the degree of dissociation of NH4OH decreases leaving only a
small no. of OH̅ ions.
Q7. If concentrations are expressed in moles L-1 and pressures in atmospheres. What is
the ratio of Kp to Kc for the
2SO2 + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
78
Answer:
Q8. What qualitative information can be obtained from the magnitude of the
equilibrium constant?
Answer:
1. Large values of equilibrium constant (> 103) show that the forward direction is
favoured i.e. concentration of products is much larger than that of the reactants of
equilibrium.
2. Intermediate values of K (10-3 to 103) show that the concentrations of the reactants and
products are comparable.
3. The low value of K (< 10-3) shows that the backward reaction is favoured, i.e., the
concentration of reactants is much large than that of. products.
Q9. The following reaction has attained equilibrium

CO (g) + 2H2 (g) ⇌ CH3OH (g); ΔH° = – 92.0 kJ mol-1. What will happen if
(i) the volume of the vessel is suddenly reduced to half?
Answer:
Kc = [CH3OH]/[CO][H2]2, When the volume of the vessel is reduced to half, the
concentration of each reactant or product becomes double. Thus
Qc = 2[CH3OH]/2[CO] × {2[H2]}2 = 1/4 Kc
As Qc < Kc, equilibrium will shift in the forward direction.
(ii) The partial pressure of hydrogen is suddenly doubled (ii) an inert gas is added to
the system.
Answer:
As volume remains constant, molar concentration will not change. Hence there is no effect
on the state of equilibrium.
Q10. What is the difference between an ionic product & solubility product?
Answer:
Solubility product is the product of the molar concentrations of the ions in a saturated
solution, but the ionic product is the molar concentrations of the ions for any solution.
Q11.Why common salt is added to precipitate soap from the solution during its
manufacture?
Answer:
Soap is the sodium salt of higher fatty acid [RCOONa].
On adding common salt, Na+ ion concentration increases.
Hence the equilibrium RCOONa (s) ⇌ RCOO̅ + Na+ shifts in the backward direction, i.e.,
soap precipitates out.
Q12. Through a solution containing Cu2+ and Ni2+, H2S gas is passed after adding dil.
HCl, which will precipitate out and why?
Answer:
79
Cu2+ ions will precipitate out because in the acidic medium only ionic product [Cu2+][S2-]
exceeds the solubility product of CuS.
Q13. Will the p H water be the same at 4°C and 25°C? Explain.
Answer:
No. the pH of water is not the same at 4°C and 25°C. This is because with an increase in
temperature dissociation of H20 molecules increases. Hence concentration of [H +] ions
will increase, i.e., pH will decrease. Thus pH of H2 O at 4°C will be more than at 25°C.
Q14. Define dynamic equilibrium.

Ans: Dynamic equilibrium is that stage of the solution when the reactants are present in a
closed vessel at any particular temperature reacts with each other to give rise the products and
in this process the concentrations of the reactants goes on decreasing while of products it
keep on increasing and after sometime a stage occurs where we don’t find any change in the
concentration of reactants or products. This stage is called the dynamic equilibrium
.
Q15. Write the equilibrium constant for the following equation:
aA+bB⇌cC+dD
Ans: The equilibrium constant of this reaction can be written as:
Kc=[C] c[D]d/[A]a[B]b Here aA, bB, cC and dD are said to be the equilibrium concentrations
of the reactants and products.
Q16. Write the chemical equation for the following chemical constant.
Kc=[HI]2/[H2][I2]
Ans: The chemical equation is given by the following reaction:
H2(g)+I2(g)⇌2HI(g)
Q17. Define strong and weak electrolyte.

Ans: Electrolyte which dissociates completely into ions in an aqueous solution is called
Strong electrolyte while which is not able to dissociate completely is called weak electrolyte.
Q18.Define Buffer solution.

Ans . The solutions which resist change in pH on dilution or with the addition of small
amounts of acid or alkali are called Buffer solutions.
Q19.What is the unit of equilibrium for the reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g).
Ans .
(mol/L) -2
Q20. Why the addition of inert gas does not change the equilibrium?
80
Ans . It is because the addition of an inert gas at constant volume does not change the partial
pressures or the molar concentrations of the substance involved in the reaction.
Q21.Why common salt is added to precipitate soap from the solution during its
manufacture?
Answer:
Soap is the sodium salt of higher fatty acid [RCOONa].
soap precipitates out.
Q22.Calculate the pH of the solution of 0.002 M HBr

Ans: pH value of 0.002 M HBr is given by the following reaction:
HBr + H2O → H3O+ + Br−
Now at 0.002 M, the concentration of H3O+ can be written as: 2×10−3
The formula of pH will be
pH = −log[H3O+] = −log(2×10−3) = -[log2 + (-3xlog10)] = 3log10 – log 2 = 2.7
Q23.The concentration of hydrogen ions in a sample of soft drink is 3.8 x 10-3 M. What
is the pH value?
Answer: pH = – log [H+] = – log (3.8 x 10-3) = – log 3.8 + 3 = 3 – 0.5798 = 2.4202 = 2.42
Q27.Mention two different ways of drawing the following equilibrium towards the right
Answer:
1. By adding more of CH3COOH or CH3CH2OH.

2. By removing the ester or water formed.
Q24. Write the Bronsted acid and Bronsted base of the following species.
(i) HCO3- (ii) H2PO4- (iii) NH3
Ans
(i) CO32-, H2CO3
(ii) HPO4–, H3PO4
(iii) NH̅ 2, NH4+
Q.25. What type of salts are Na2HPO3 and NaHS?

Answer:
Na2HPO3 is obtained by the reaction between NaOH and H3PO3 a dibasic acid.
Both displaceable hydrogens are displaced by Na. No acidic hydrogen is left. Hence
Na2HPO3 is a normal salt. NaHS is obtained by the replacement of one acidic hydrogen of
H2S by Na (on reaction with NaOH)’. Hence NaHS is an acidic salt.
81
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1.(i) Define solubility product.

(ii) Ksp for HgSO4 is 6.4×10−5. What is the solubility of the salt?
Ans(1) Solubility product of a salt is defined as that at any given temperature is equal to the
product of the concentration of its ions which is raised to the power equal to the number of
ions produced by dissociation of one mole of the substance.
(ii) We know that solubility of salt is given by the formula
S=(Ksp)1/2, Put the value of Ksp in the equation
S= (6.4×10−5)1/2
= (64×10−6)1/2
=8×10−3
Q2.(i) State Le chatelier’s principle.

(ii) explain the effect of temperature, pressure, How can we predict the extent
concentration on the equilibrium state, consider the combination of N2 and H2 to form
NH3 N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g); ΔH = – 93.6 kJ
Ans (.i) It states that a change in any of the factors that determine the equilibrium conditions
of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner so as to reduce or to counteract
the effect of the change
(ii) The reaction is reversible, exothermic, and accompanied by a decrease in volume.
Effect of temperature: According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, an increase in temperature shifts
the equilibrium in the direction in which heat is absorbed, and a decrease in temperature
shifts the equilibrium in the direction in which heat is evolved. Since the formation of
ammonia is accompanied by the evolution of heat, it is favoured by a decrease in
temperature.
Effect of pressure: According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, an increase of pressure on a
system in equilibrium, favours the direction which is accompanied by a decrease in volume
and vice-versa. While going from, left to right in the above reaction, there is a decrease in the
number of moles or say volume, the formation of ammonia is favoured by an increase in
pressure.
Effect of concentration: According to Le-Chatelier’s principle, an increase of
concentration of any of the substances in the system shifts the equilibrium in the direction in
which the concentration of that substance is reduced. Thus, the addition of N2 or H2 favours
the formation of ammonia.
Q3. A mixture of 1.57 mol of N2, 1.92 mol of H2 and 8.13 mol of NH3is introduced into a
20 L reaction vessel at 500 K. At this temperature, the equilibrium constant K c for the
reaction
Is this reaction at equilibrium? If not, what is the direction of net reaction?
Answer:
.Since Qc greater than Kc the equilibrium will move in the backward direction.
Q5. A sample of pure PCl5 was introduced into an evacuated vessel at 473 K. After
equilibrium was reached, the concentration of PCl5 was found to be 0.5 x 10-1 mol L-1.
82
4. A sample of pure PCl5 was introduced into an evacuated vessel at 473 K. After
equilibrium was reached, the concentration of PCl5 was found to be 0.5 x 10-1 mol L-1. If
Kc is 8.3 x 10-3 what are the concentrations of PCl3 and Cl2 at equilibrium?
Answer: Let the initial molar concentration of PCl5 per litre = x mol
Molar concentration of PCl5 at equilibrium = 0.05 mol
.’. Moles of PCl5 decomposed = (x – 0.05) mol
Moles of PCl3 formed = (x – 0.05) mol
Moles of Cl2 formed = (x – 0.05) mol
The molar conc./litre of reactants and products before the reaction and at the equilibrium
point are:
Q5. At 1127 K and 1 atmosphere pressure, a gaseous mixture of CO and CO2 in

equilibrium with solid carbon has 90.55% CO by mass.
Calculate Kc for the reaction at the above temperature.

Ans:
83
Q6. Calculate (a) ∆G– and (b) the equilibrium constant for the formation of N0 2 from
NO and 02 at 298 K
Q7. (i) Define solubility product.

(ii) Ksp for Hg SO4 is 6.4 x 10-5. What is the solubility of the salt? Ksp for Hg SO4 is
6.4 x 10-5. What is the solubility of the salt?
Ans.
(i) The solubility product of a salt at a given temperature is equal to the product of
the concentration of its ions in the saturated solution, with each concentration term
raised to the power equal to the number of ions produced on dissociation of one
mole of the substance.
(ii) .S = (ksp)1/2
= (6.4 x 10-5)1/2
= (64 x 10-6)1/2
=
Q8.(i) What is acidic buffer?

(ii)Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.1 mole of acetic acid and 0.15 mole
of sodium acetate. Ionisation constant for acetic acid is 1.75 × 10-5.
Ans (i) Acidic buffer is the buffer whose pH is less than 7. It is a mixture containing weak
acid and its salt with a strong base, e.g., CH 3 COOH +CH 3COONa
(ii).pH = pka + log
pH = - log 1.75 x 10-5 + log
or, pH = - log 1.75 x 10-5 + log 1.5
Q9. (i) Define Le Chatelier’s principle.

(ii) Following reactions occur in a Blast furnace.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ———–>2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
use Le chatelier’s principle to predict the direction of reaction when equilibrium
mixture is disturbed by
(a) adding Fe203 (b) removing CO2 .
(c) removing CO.
84
Answer: (a) When a system under equilibrium is subjected to a change in temperature,

pressure or concentration, then the equilibrium shifts in such a direction so as to undo the
effect of the change.
(ii) (a) On adding Fe203(s), the equilibrium will remain unaffected.
(b) By removing CO2 (g), the equilibrium will be shifted in the forward direction.
(c) By removing CO(g), the equilibrium will be shifted in the backward direction.
Q10. i) Point out the differences between ionic product and solubility product.
(ii) The solubility of AgCl in water at 298 K is 1.06 x 10 -5 mole per litre. Calculate its
solubility product at this temperature.
Ans: (i)
Q11.(i) What do you mean by sparingly soluble salts?

(ii)The values of Ksp of two sparingly soluble salts Ni(OH)2 and AgCN are
2.0 x 10-15 and 6 x 10-17 respectively. Which salt is more soluble? Explain.
Ans(i) Salts whose solubility is less than .01 M are known as sparingly soluble salts.
Answer:
Q12. Assuming complete dissociation, calculate the pH of the following solutions:

(a) 0.003 M HCl (b) 0.005 M NaOH (c) 0.002 M HBr (d) 0.002 M KOH
Answer:
85
Q13. Calculate the pH of the following solutions:

(a) 2g of TlOH dissolved in water to give 2 litre of the solution
(b) 0.3 g of Ca(OH) dissolved in water to give 500 mL of the solution
2
(c) 0.3 g of NaOH dissolved in water to give 200 mL of the solution

(d) l mL of 13.6 M HCl is diluted with water to give 1 litre of the solution.
Answer:
Q14. (I) How does common ion affect the solubility of electrolyte?
(ii) Why common salt is added to precipitate soap from the solution during its
manufacture?
Answer: (i) Solubility of electrolyte decreases due to common ion effect.
(ii)Soap is the sodium salt of higher fatty acid [RCOONa].
soap precipitates out
Q15. The ester, ethyl acetate is formed by the reaction of ethanol and acetic acid and the
equilibrium is represented as:
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l)——-> CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
(i) Write the concentration ratio (concentration quotient) Q for this reaction. Note that
water is not in excess and is not a solvent in this reaction.
(ii) At 293 K, if one starts with 1.000 mol of acetic acid and 0.180 mol of ethanol, there is
0.171 mol of ethyl acetate in the final equilibrium mixture. Calculate the equilibrium
86
constant.
(iii) Starting with 0.50 mol of ethanol and 1.0 mol of acetic acid and maintaining it at
293 K, 0.214 mol of ethyl acetate is found after some time. Has equilibrium been
reached?
Answer:
=(0.214 mol) X(0.214 mol)/(0.786 mol)x(0.286 mol)

=0.204
Since Qc is less than Kc this means that the equilibrium has not been reached. The reactants
are still taking part in the reaction to form the products.
Q16. Hydrogen gas is obtained from the natural gas by partial oxidation with steam as
per the following endothermic reaction:
Write the expression for Kp for the above reaction

How will the value of Kp and composition of equilibrium mixture be affected by:
(i) increasing the pressure, (ii) increasing the temperature, (iii) using a catalyst?
Answer: The expression for Kp for the reaction is:
(i) By increasing the pressure, the number of moles per unit volume will increase. In
order to decrease the same, the equilibrium gets shifted to the left or in the
backward direction. As a result, more of reactants will be formed and the value of
Kp will decrease.
(ii) If the temperature is increased, according to Le Chatelier’s principle, the
forward reaction will be favoured as it is endothermic. Therefore, the equilibrium
gets shifted to the right and the value of Kp will increase.
87
(iii) The addition of catalyst will not change the equilibrium since it influences
both the forward and the backward reactions to the same extent. But it will be
attained more quickly.
Q17. What is the effect of:

(i) addition of H2 (ii) addition of CH3OH
(iii) removal of CO (iv) removal of CH3OH
Answer: (i) Equilibrium will be shifted in the forward direction.

(ii) Equilibrium will be shifted in the backward direction.
(iii) Equilibrium will be shifted in the backward direction.
(iv) Equilibrium will be shifted in the forward direction.
Q18. At 473 K, the equilibrium constant K c for the decomposition of phosphorus

pentachloride (PCl5) is 8.3 x 10-3 . if decomposition proceeds as:
(a) Write an expression for Kc for the reaction

(b) What is the value of Kc for the reverse reaction at the same temperature.
(c) What would be the effect on Kc if
(i) More of PCl5is added (ii) Temperature is increased.
Answer:
(c) (i) By adding more of PCl5, value of Kc will remain constant because there is no change in
temperature.
(ii) By increasing the temperature, the forward reaction will.be favoured since it is
endothermic in nature. Therefore, the value of equilibrium constant will increase.
Q19.(i) The value of Kc for the reaction 3O2(g) —>2O3(g) is 2.0 x 10-50 at 25°C. If
equilibrium concentration of O2 in air at 25°C is 1.6x10-2what is the concentration of O3
(ii) Predict which of the following will have appreciable concentration of reactants and
products:
Answer(i)
88
(ii) Following conclusions can be drawn from the values of Kc .

(a) Since the value of Kc is very small, this means that the molar concentration of
the products is very small as compared to that of the reactants.
(b) Since the value of Kc is quite large, this means that the molar concentration of
the products is very large as compared to that of the reactants.
(c) Since the value of Kc is 1.8, this means that both the products and reactants
have appreciable concentration.
Q20. A liquid is in equilibrium with its vapours in a sealed container at a fixed

temperature. The volume of the container is suddenly increased, (i) What is the
initial effect of the change on the vapour pressure? (ii) How do the rates of
evaporation and condensation change initially? (iii) What happens when
equilibrium is restored finally and what will be the final vapour pressure?
Answer: (i) On increasing the volume of the container, the vapour pressure will initially
decrease because the same amount of vapours are now distributed over a larger space.
(ii) On increasing the volume of the container, the rate of evaporation will increase
initially because now more space is available. Since the amount of the vapours per unit
volume decrease on increasing the volume, therefore, the rate of condensation will
decrease initially.
(iii) Finally, equilibrium will be restored when the rates of the forward and backward
processes become equal. However, the vapour pressure will remain unchanged because it
depends upon the temperature and not upon the volume of the container.
Q21 a) How can we predict the extent of a reaction from the equilibrium constant
value.?
b) . The value of Kc for the reaction 2A ⇌ B + C is 2 × 102 .
In which direction the reaction will proceed?
Ans a).(i) If Kc > 103, products predominate over reactants, i.e., if Kc is very large, the
reaction proceeds nearly to completion.
(ii) If Kc < 10–3, reactants predominate over products, i.e., if Kc is very small, the reaction
proceeds rarely.
(iii) If Kc is in the range of 10–3 to 103, appreciable concentrations of both reactants
and products are present.
b) The reaction is in equilibrium position & an appreciable amount of reactants &
products are present in the equilibrium position.
Q22. (a)How can we predict the extent of reaction if reaction quotient (QC) is given?
(b) The value of Kc for the reaction 2A ⇌ B + C is 2 × 10–3. At a given time, the
composition of reaction mixture is [A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10–4 M. In which direction the
reaction will proceed?
Ans. (a)If Qc < Kc, net reaction goes from left to right (towards product side)
If Qc > Kc, net reaction goes from right to left (towards reactant side).
If Qc = Kc, no net reaction occurs
(b) For the reaction the reaction quotient Qc is given by, Qc = [B][C]/ [A]2
as [A] = [B] = [C] = 3 × 10– 4M
Qc = (3 ×10–4)(3 × 10–4) / (3 ×10–4)2 = 1
as Qc > Kc so the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction.
Q23.(i)Explain different concepts of acids & bases with the help of suitable examples
(ii)Identify the acid & base when ammonia react with water.
89
Ans.(i)(a) Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases

According to Arrhenius theory, acids are substances that dissociates in water to give
hydrogen ions H+(aq) and bases are substances that produce hydroxyl ion OH–(aq)
Eg: acid HCl
Base ; NaOH
(b) The Brönsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
acid is a substance that is capable of donating a hydrogen ion H+ and bases are substances
capable of accepting a hydrogen ion, H+.
(c) Lewis Acids and Bases
acid is a species which accepts electron pair and base which donates an electron pair.
Eg: Acid :BF3
Base : NH3
(iii) In this reaction ammonia act as base water as acid
Q24.(a)What are buffer solutions? Differentiate between acid buffer & basic buffer.
(b) How can we prepare a Buffer solution of known pH ?
Ans: (a) The solutions which resist change in pH on dilution or with the
addition of small amounts of acid or alkali are called Buffer Solutions
Acidic buffers are solutions that have a pH below 7 and contain a weak acid and one of its
salt with strong base.
Alkaline buffers, on the other hand, have a pH above 7 and contain a weak base and one of its
salts
(b) Buffer solutions of known pH can be prepared from the knowledge of pKa of the acid or
pKb of base and by controlling the ratio of the salt and acid or salt and base.
Q25.
Answer:
90
CHAPTER 10
s - BLOCK ELEMENTS
GIST OF THE LESSON
Group 1 (Alkali metals) & Group 2 (Alkaline earth metals) elements are collectively called
as s – block elements.
ALKALI METALS
Atomic and Physical properties
 Their hydroxides are strong alkaline in nature.
 General electronic config. [Noble gas] ns1
 The atomic and ionic radii increase while going from Li to Cs.
 Ionisation enthalpy decreases down a group.
 Density increases down a group.
 Flame colouration
Li : Crimson red , Na : Yellow , K : Violet , Rb : Red violet , Cs : Blue
 Low melting and boiling points.
 Form ionic compounds.
 Hydration enthalpy decreases with increase in ionic size.
Chemical properties
Alkali metals are highly reactive due to
1.) Lower ionisation energy 2.) Low heat of atomization
 All tarnish in air
Li forms oxide (Li2 O), Na forms peroxide (Na2O2) and others form superoxides (MO2)
 Lithium shows exceptional behaviour forming nitride, Li3N.
 All form MX type halides with halogens.
 All react with water to form hydroxides and H2.
 All form hydrides with H2.
 They are good reducing agents.
 Li2CO3 decomposes on heating to form Li2O and CO2. Other carbonates are stable towards
heat.
 Alkali metals dissolve in liquid NH3 it gives highly conducting deep blue solutions. The
blue colour is due to the presence of solvated electrons.
 They form salts of oxoacids, like carbonates, sulphates, and nitrates.
 Li shows anomalous behaviour due to 1.) its small size, 2.) high polarising power and 3.)
absence of d-orbitals.
 Li shows diagonal relationship with Mg.
1.) Both combine with nitrogen to form nitrides.
91
2.) Both reacts slowly with water.

3.) Both LiCl and MgCl2 are deliquescent.
ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Atomic and Physical properties
 Their oxides & hydroxides are alkaline in nature & their metal oxides are found in earth’s
crust.
 General electronic config. [Noble gas] ns2.
 Atomic and ionic radii are smaller than that of group 1 elements and increases while going
from Be to Ra.
 Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group.
 Density decreases from Be to Ca and increases from Ca to Ra.
 Flame colouration
Ca : Brick red , Sr : Crimson red , Ba : Apple green , Ra : Crimson red
 Higher melting and boiling points than alkali metals due to smaller size.
 Form ionic compound except Be.
 Hydration enthalpies are found to be higher than alkali metals and more hydrated.
 Basic nature of hydroxides increases along a group.
Chemical properties
 All form monoxides, MO with O2 and react with water to form hydroxides except Be.
Powdered Be burns in air to form oxides and nitride.
 All form nitrides, M3N2
 All form MX2 type halides with halogens.
 They are good reducing agents but weaker than alkali metals and their reducing power
increases down the group
 When dissolve in liquid NH3 it gives deep blue- black solutions due to the presence of
ammoniated electrons.
 They form salts of oxoacids, like carbonates, sulphates and nitrates.
 Be(OH)2 is amphoteric in nature. All other hydroxides are basic.
 Be shows anomalous behaviour due to 1.) small size, 2.) high ionisation energy and
3.) absence of d-orbitals.
 Be shows diagonal relationship with Al.
1.) The hydroxides of both are amphoteric.
2.) Both BeCl2 and AICl3 are soluble in organic solvents.
92
No. Factors Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals
1 Atomic radii Li< Na< K< Rb< Cs Be< Mg< Ca< Sr< Ba
2 Ionisation enthalpy Li >Na >K >Rb >Cs Be >Mg >Ca >Sr >Ba
3 Hydration enthalpy Li >Na >K >Rb >Cs Be >Mg >Ca >Sr >Ba
Basic nature of Li2O< Na2O< K2O< BeO< MgO< CaO< SrO<
4
oxide Rb2O< Cs2O BaO
Be(OH)2< Mg(OH)2<
Basic nature of LiOH< NaOH< KOH<
5 Ca(OH)2< Sr(OH)2<
hydroxides RbOH< CsOH Ba(OH)2
Be(OH)2< Mg(OH)2<
Solubility of LiOH< NaOH< KOH<
6 Ca(OH)2< Sr(OH)2<
hydroxide RbOH< CsOH Ba(OH)2
Li2CO3< Na2CO3<
Thermal stability of BeCO3< MgCO3<
7 K2CO3< Rb2CO3<
carbonates CaCO3< SrCO3< BaCO3
Cs2CO3

1. The radioactive element among alkali metals is
a) Rubidium
b) Caesium
c) Francium
d) None of these
2. Lithium shows diagonal relationship with
a) Sodium
b) Magnesium
c) Aluminium
d) Potassium
3. The half life of francium is
a) 21 hour
b) 21 minutes
c) 21 seconds
d) 21 years
4. Ionization enthalpy of alkaline earth metals
a) Decreases down the group
b) Increases down the group
c) Remains constant
d) None of these
93
5. Lithium salts are mostly hydrated because

a) High hydration enthalpy
b) Low hydration enthalpy
c) High ionization enthalpy
d) Low ionization enthalpy
6. Which among the following possess lowest melting point
a) Sodium
b) Potassium
c) Caesium
d) Lithium
7. The oxidation state of K in KO2 is
a) +4
b) +3
c) +2
d) +1
8. Which among the alkaline earth metal chloride is covalent
a) NaCl
b) LiCl
c) CsCl
d) KCl
9. The wire of flash bulb is made up of:
(a) Mg
(b) Ag
(c) Cu
(d) Ba
10. The hydration energy of Mg2+ is larger than that of
(a) A13+
(b) Na+
(c) Be2+
(d) Mg3+
11. Which of the following metals is not manufactured by electrolysis?
(a) Na
(b) Mg
(c) Al
(d) Fe
12. Usually CaCl2 is preferred over NaCl for cleaning snow on roads particularly in very
cold countries this is because
(a) NaCl makes the road slippery but CaCl2 doesnot
(b) CaCl2 is hygroscopic but NaCl is not
94
(c) CaCl2 is less soluble in H2O than NaCl

(d) eutectic mixtue of CaCl/H2O freezes at -55°C while that of NaCl/H2O freezes at -18°C
13. The alkali metals are low melting. Which of the following alkali metal is expected to
melt if the room temperature rises to 30°C?
a) Na
b) K
c) Rb
d) Cs
14. Alkali metals react with water vigorously to form hydroxides and dihydrogen. Which
of the following alkali metals reacts with water least vigorously?
a) Li
b) Na
c) K
d) Cs
15. The order of decreasing ionisation enthalpy in alkali metals is
a) Na > Li > K > Rb
b) Rb < Na < K < Li
c) Li > Na > K > Rb
d) K < Li < Na < Rb
16. Which of the following elements does not form hydride by direct heating with
dihydrogen?
a) Be
b) Mg
c) Sr
d) Ba
17. A substance which gives brick red flame and breaks down on heating to give oxygen
and a brown gas is
a) Magnesium nitrate
b) Calcium nitrate
c) Barium nitrate
d) Strontium nitrate
18. Berilium shows diagonal relationship with
a) Magnesium
b) Lithium
c) Aluminium
d) Gallium
19. Identify the correct formula of halides of alkaline earth metals from the following.
a) BaCl2.3H2O
b) BaCl2 .4H2O
c) CaCl2 .6H2O
95
d) SrCl2.4H2O
20. Salts of which element of alkaline earth metal is used for cancer therapy
a) Calcium
b) Barium
c) Strontium
d) Radium
21. Which of the following are the correct reasons for anomalous behaviour of lithium?
a) Exceptionally small size of its atom
b) Its low polarising power
c) It has high degree of hydration
d) Exceptionally low ionization enthalpy
22. The metal--------- is always kept in kerosene
a) Magnesium
b) Calcium
c) Lithium
d) Sodium
23. Which among the following family of elements does potassium belongs
a) Halogens
b) Noble metals
c) Alkaline earth metals
d) Alkali metals
24. With increase in atomic weight melting point of alkali metals
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) First increases then decreases
25. With increase in atomic weight boiling point of alkali metals
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) First increases then decrease
26. The paramagnetic species is
(a) KO2
(b) SiO2
(c) TiO2
(d) BaO2
27. Among the alkaline earth metals, the element forming the predominantly covalent
compound is
(a) Barium
(b) Strontium
96
(c) Calcium
(d) Beryllium.
28. The correct order of increasing ionic character is
(a) BeCl2 < MgCl2 < CaCl2 < BaCl2
(b) BeCl2 < MgCl2 < BaCl2 < CaCl2
(c) BeCl2 < BaCl2 < MgCl2 < CaCl2
(d) BaCl2 < CaCl2 < MgCl2 < BeCl2
29. Epsom salt is
(a) MgSO4.7H2O
(b) CaSO4H2O
(c) MgSO4.22O
(d) BaSO42H2O
30. Calcium salts impart ......................... colour to the flame.
a) Blue
b) Crimson red
c) Brick red
d) Apple green
31. Strontium salts impart ......................... colour to the flame.
a) Blue
b) Crimson red
c) Brick red
d) Apple green
32. Barium salts impart ......................... colour to the flame.
a) Blue
b) Crimson red
c) Brick red
d) Apple green
33. Caesium salts impart ......................... colour to the flame.
a) Blue
b) Crimson red
c) Brick red
d) Apple green
34. The element which shows least metallic character is

a) Boron
b) Gallium
c) Indium
d) Aluminium
35. Karnalite is the mineral of

a) sodium
b) potassium
97
c) Magnesium
d) none of these
36. The group 1 elements are named as alkali metals because
a). Their oxides are basic
b) Their oxide and hydroxides are water soluble
c) Both a & b
d) They are found in the earth
37. Li is different from its family members due to

a) Small size
b) High charge density
c) Less electropositivity
d) All of the above
38. Which one of the following is not an alkali metal?

a) Francium
b) Caesium
c) Rubidium
d) Radium
39. Sodium ion is

a) smaller than sodium atom
b) larger than sodium atom
c) same size as that of sodium atom
d) None of these
40. The valence shell general electronic configuration of alkali metals is
a) ns1
b)ns2
c) ns2 np1
d) ns2 np6
41. The valence shell general electronic configuration of alkaline earth metals is
a) ns1
b)ns2
c) ns2 np1
d) ns2 np6
42. The tendency to lose their valance electron easily by alkali metals makes them
a) strong reducing agent
b) weak reducing agent
c) strong oxidising agent
d) weak oxidising agent
43. photo electric effect is maximum in
a) potassium
b) Rubidium
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c) Caesium
d) Lithium
44. Alkali metals give colour in bunsen flame due to –
a) Low electronegativity
b) One e— in outer most orbit
c) Smaller atomic radii
d) Low ionisation energy
45. The strongest reducing agent is –
(a) Be
(b) Mg
c) Sr
d) Ba
46. Lithium chloride is in nature.
a) soft
b) covalent
c) ionic
d) complex
47. Which of the following element has the smallest size in its group?
a) sodium
b) rubidium
c) potassium
d) lithium
48. Melting point of alkali metals are generally
a) low
b) High
c) zero
d) Cannot be predicted
49. Alkali metals are strongly
a) electronegative
b) electro positive
c) both a and b
d) Neither a nor b
50. Which of the following is a component of milk of Magnesia
a) Magnesium chloride
b) Magnesium oxide
c) Magnesium hydroxide
d) Magnesium sulphate
99
ANSWER KEY
1 C 11 D 21 A 31 B 41 B
2 B 12 D 22 D 32 D 42 A
3 B 13 D 23 D 33 A 43 C
4 A 14 A 24 B 34 A 44 D
5 A 15 C 25 A 35 C 45 D
6 C 16 A 26 A 36 C 46 B
7 D 17 B 27 D 37 D 47 D
8 B 18 C 28 A 38 D 48 A
9 A 19 C 29 A 39 A 49 B
10 B 20 D 30 C 40 A 50 C
ASSERTION- REASON TYPE OF QUESTION
A- Assertion is correct, Reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.

B-Assertion is correct, Reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
C-Assertion is correct, Reason is incorrect
D- Assertion is incorrect, Reason is correct.
Q.1. :Assertion the oxidation state of Na and K is always + 1

Reason: Their high second ionisation enthalpy and stability of their ions Na+&K+].
Q 2. Assertion :BeCl2 is soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol.
Reason:BeCl2 has a chain structure in the solid state
Q3. Assertion : When sodium is dissolved in liquid ammonia, a solution of deep blue colour is
obtained.
Reason: Ammonia is acidic in nature
Q4. Assertion: BeS04 and.MgSO4 are not soluble in water
Reason: Solubility decreases down the group because hydration enthalpy decreases more
rapidly than lattice enthalpy.
Q5. Assertion: Beryllium and magnesium do not impart colour to the flame in the flame test
Reason: Due to their small size, bind their electrons more strongly bound to nucleus
Q6. Assertion: Group 1 elements are called alkali metals
Reason: Their hydroxides are alkaline
Q7 Assertion:. Compounds of alkaline earth metals are more ionic than compounds of alkali
metals
Reason Due to increased nuclear charge and small size of alkaline earth metals
100
Q8 Assertion:.Lithium shows anomalous behaviour

Reason Li has small size and high charge/radius ratio.
Q9. Assertion: A solution of Na2CO3 alkaline in nature
Reason: sodium hydroxide is one of the products when Na2CO3 is hydrolyzed.
Q10 Assertion: Chemical reduction cannot be used to prepare alkali metals
Reason : Alkali metals are oxidizing in nature
Q11 Assertion: group 1 elements have the highest ionization enthalpy in a period
Reason : Alkali metals have largest size in their respective periods, solitary electron present
in the valence shell can be removed by supplying a small amount of energy.
Q12 Assertion: Beryllium oxide has a high melting point

Reason : Beryllium oxide has high thermal conductivity.
Q13 Assertion: Alkali metals are highly reactive
Reason : Alkali metals have large size and low ionization enthalpy
Q14. Assertion: K more reactive than Na
Reason K has only one valence electron
Q15. Assertion:KO2 is diamagnetic
Reason : KO2 has unpaired electrons in π*2p orbital
Q16. Assertion:.Potassium is softer than sodium
Reason Metallic bonding in sodium is weaker than potassium
Q.17 Assertion: Alkali metals impart colour to the flame
Reason: Their ionization energies are low
Q18. Assertion: Li resembles Mg
Reason : First element of a group of S and p group block of elements resemble to second
element of successive group
Q19 Assertion: Sodium forms peroxide while potassium forms superoxide
Reason Potassium is more reactive than sodium
Q20 Assertion:.Be(OH)2 is soluble in both NaOH and HCl
Reason Be(OH) 2is amphoteric in nature
Q21 Assertion:.Be forms [BeF4]2- but Al forms [Al F6]3-
Reason Be has no d orbitals while Al has d orbitals
Q22.L Assertion: LiCl is predominantly covalent in nature
Reason Electro negativity difference between Li and Cl is too small
Q23 Assertion: Alkali metal hydrides on electrolysis gives H2 gas at Cathode
Reason In metal hydrides hydrogen exists as H- ion
101
Q24 Assertion: Alkali metal hydroxides liberate a lot of heat on dissolving in water
Reason : Alkali metal hydroxides dissolve in water with intense hydration.
Q25. Assertion: LiCl is soluble in pyridine
Reason : LiCl is predominantly ionic in nature
Q26 Assertion: LiHCO3 does not exist as solid
Reason: Hydration enthalpy of LiHCO3 is higher than the lattice enthalpy
Q27 Assertion:. Lithium forms Li2O with oxygen .
Reason : Li2O does not react with oxygen to form super oxide
Q28. Assertion: Li+ shows more tendency to get hydrates
Reason Smaller the size of the ion, more is its tendency to get hydrated
Q29. Assertion: Atomic and ionic radii of alkaline earth metals are comparatively smaller than
alkali metals
Reason: Number of electrons increases along a period
Q30 Assertion:. Alkaline earth metals have strong metallic bonds as compared to the alkali
metals in the same period.
Reason : Metallic character increases from left to right in a period
ANSWERS
1. A - Na+, and K+ have stable noble gas configuration].
2. B - BeCl2 is covalent and hence most soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol.
3.C - Ammonia is basic in nature and the colour is due to the formation of
ammoniated electrons.
4. D-BeSO4 and.MgSO4 are soluble in water
5. A
6. A
7. D-Compounds of alkaline earth metal are less ionic than compounds of alkali metals
8. A
9. A
10. C - Alkali metals are Reducing in nature
11. D - group 1 elements have the lowest ionization enthalpy
12. B - Beryllium oxide has a high melting point due to its polymeric nature.
13. A
14.B -valence electron of K is relatively at a greater distance than Na & it requires lesser energy
to remove it.
15.C-KO2 is paramagnetic
16.C . Metallic bonding in Potassium is weaker than sodium
17 .A
18.B -Li resembles to Mg because Li+ has approximately the same size as Mg2+
19.B - potassium forms superoxide because K+ is larger than Na+
20. A
102
21. A
22. C- Li+ being small polarizes large Ci- ion
23. D-Alkali metal hydrides on electrolysis gives H2 gas at anode
24. A
25. C -LiCl is soluble in pyridine due to the high solvation enthalpy
26.A.
27 B- Due to the small size of Li ,it cannot stabilize the large peroxide or super oxide
28.A
29. B - along a period nuclear charge increases
30. C- They have strong metallic bonds as compared to the alkali metals in the same period. This
is due to the smaller kernel size of alkaline earth metal and two valence electrons present in the
outermost shell.
CASE BASED QUESTIONS
QUESTION NO. I.
The group 1 and group 2 elements of the periodic table are referred to as the s-block elements.
Further, group 1 elements are called alkali metals, and the group 2 elements are called alkaline
earth metals. They are named so due to the alkaline nature of the oxides and hydroxides. Two s-
electrons characterize the Alkaline earth metals, and the alkali metals are characterized by one s-
electron in the valence shell of their atoms. Both these metals form a mono positive ion and
dipositive ions and are extremely reactive. The ions have a lot of water in them. The degree of
hydration is proportional to the size of the ion. As a result, from Li+ to Cs+, the degree of hydration
falls. As a result, electrical conductivity diminishes as hydration increases.
Very Short Answer Questions (1 Mark)
1. Why are Group I elements known as the most electropositive element?

Ans: These elements have the most electropositive metals due to the loosely held s-electron in the
outermost valence shell. They rapidly give up an electron, resulting in monovalent ions.
2. Why are lithium salts mostly hydrated?

Ans: Among all alkali metals, lithium is recognised to have the lowest size. The capacity of the
lithium-ion to polarise water molecules more easily than other alkali metals is due to this property.
Hence, Li+
ions possess the highest degree of hydration, lithium salts, such as lithium chloride LiCl .
2H2Oare predominantly hydrated.
3. Why are melting and boiling points of alkali metals low?

Ans: As the atomic size of alkali metals is bigger and they have only one valence electron, their
melting and boiling temperatures are low, indicating weak metallic bonding.
103
Q4. Give reason for the low solubility of LiF & CsI in water.
Ans: The low solubility of LiF in water is due to its high lattice enthalpy whereas the low
solubility of CsI is due to smaller hydration enthalpy of its two ions. Other halides of lithium are
soluble in ethanol, acetone and ethylacetate; LiCl is soluble in pyridine also.
Q5. Give reason for the colour imparted to the flame by alkali metals
Ans:The alkali metals and their salts impart characteristic colour to an oxidizing flame. This is
because the heat from the flame excites the outermost orbital electron to a higher energy level.
When the excited electron comes back to the ground state, there is emission of radiation in the
visible region.
QUESTION NO. ll.

Although lithium has many of the properties of the group I elements, it also differs from them in
a number of ways. The incredibly small size of the lithium atom and its ion causes this unusual
behaviour. The high charge density of the lithium ion is due to its small size. As a result, out of
all the alkali metal ions, lithium ion has the most polarising power. As a result, it has a
significant distorting impact on a negative ion. As a result, the lithium ion has a strong proclivity
for solvation and the creation of covalent bonds. It's also worth noting that the polarising power
of the lithium ion is similar to that of the magnesium ion, making the two elements resemble
very much in their properties. It has been observed that the some elements of second period show
similarities with the elements of the third period situated diagonally to each other, though
belonging to different groups. This is called a diagonal relationship.
The cause of the diagonal relationship s duie to the similarities in properties such as
electronegativity, ionisation energy, size etc. between the diagonal elements. For example on
moving from left to right across a period, the electronegativity increases, which on moving down
a group, electronegativity decreases. Therefore on moving diagonally, two opposing tendencies
almost cancel out and the electronegativity values remain almost the same as we move
diagonally. A diagonal relationship is said to exist between certain pairs of diagonally adjacent
elements in the second and third periods of the periodic table. These pairs exhibit similar
properties; for example, boron and silicon are both semiconductors, forming halides that are
hydrolysed in water and have acidic oxides.
Q1. What is meant by the diagonal relationship in the periodic table? What is it due to?
Answer: some elements of second period show similarities with the elements of the third period
situated diagonally to each other, though belonging to different groups. This is called a diagonal
relationship.
104
It is due to the similarities in properties such as electronegativity, ionization energy, size etc.
between the diagonal elements
Q2. Give the reasons for the anomalous properties of lithium.
Ans: The anomalous properties of lithium are as follows:
1. The lithium-ion (Li+) is of exceptionally small size.
2. The charge by radius ratio, also called the polarizing power of lithium high.
Q3.. Why is lithium kept under kerosene oil?
Ans: Lithium is kept under kerosene oil because of its strong reactivity to oxygen and water.
Q4. Write the similarities between Lithium and Magnesium.
 Both are quite hard.
 The hydroxides of both the elements are weak bases and decompose on heating.
 Both of these elements have covalent characters.
 Chlorides of these elements are soluble in ethanol.
 Their reaction to water is very slow.
Q5: Write the dissimilarities of Li from group members
 Lithium is harder than other metals of the respective group.

 It has higher Melting and boiling point than other metals.
 It is least reactive.
 It is strongest reducing agent.
 Unlike other metals LiCl is deliquescent and exist as LiCl.2H2O
QUESTION NO. III.

The alkaline earth metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium) are
the second most reactive metals in the periodic table (Table 3.7), and, like the Group 1 metals,
have increasing reactivity in the higher periods. Beryllium is the only alkaline earth metal that
does not react with water or steam, even when the metal is heated to red heat (approximately
700–800 °C, 1290–1470 °F). in addition, beryllium forms an outer oxide layer (BeO) protects the
metal and lowers the reactivity of the metal.
Magnesium exhibits an insignificant reaction with water, but burns reacts with steam to produce
white magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas:
Mg(s) + 2H2O (l)→ Mg(OH)2(s) +H2 (g)
Typically, the reaction between a metal and cold water will produce the corresponding metal
hydroxide. However, if a metal reacts with steam, like magnesium, the metal oxide is produced
as a result of the metal hydroxide decomposition when heated. Thus:
M(OH)2 → MO + H2O
The hydroxide derivatives of calcium, strontium, and barium are only slightly water-soluble but
produce sufficient hydroxide ions to make the environment basic and the general equation is:
105
Ms + 2H2O(l) → M(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Q1. Why II group elements are called alkaline earth metals?

Ans:These are called so because their oxides and hydroxides are alkaline in nature and
these metal oxides are found in the earth’s crust
Q2. Why Be and Mg do not impart colour to the flame ?

Ans:The electrons in beryllium and magnesium are too strongly bound to get excited by
flame. Hence, these elements do not impart any colour to the flame
Q3. Name the gas liberated when alkali metals react with dil acid?Explain
Ans:The alkaline earth metals readily react with acids liberating dihydrogen gas .
M + 2HCl →MCl2 + H2
Q5. . Why are Be & Mg inert to O2& H2O?

Ans:Beryllium and magnesium are kinetically inert to oxygen and water
because of the formation of an oxide film on their surface.
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q1: Name the alkali metal which form superoxide when heated in excess of air.
Ans 1:Potassium.
Q2:LiCl is more soluble in organic solvent, why?
Ans 2:It is due to covalent in nature.
Q 3:Explain why Sodium is less reactive than Potassium?
Ans 3:Due to less metallic character of sodium.
Q 4:Why are Potassium and Cesium rather lithium can be used in photoelectric cell?
Ans 4:Due to lesser ionisation enthalphy.
Q 5:Lithium is the only alkali metal to form nitride.
A 5:Due to diagonal relationship with Mg.
Q 6:Name the radioactive element of group 1 and 2.
Ans Fr and Ra.
Q7:Explain why alkali and alkaline earth metals cannot be obtained by chemical
reduction?
Ans 7:They are better reducing agent than C and CO.
106
Q 8.Which element is found in chlorophyll?

Ans: Magnesium.
Q 9.Why is the oxidation state of Na and K always + 1?
And:It is due to their high second ionisation enthalpy and stability of their ions [Na +, K+].
Q10.Name the metal which floats on the water without any apparent reaction with water.
Ans: Lithium floats on the water without any apparent reaction to it.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q1.What are s-block elements? How many groups in the periodic table belong to s-block ?
Ans. The s-block elements are those elements in which the differentiating electron enters the
outermost s-orbital Since s-orbital can accommodate only two electrons, there are only two
groups in s-block. They are group 1 and 2
Q2. What are alkali metals? Why are alkali metals so called?
Ans: Elements of group 1 of the long form of the periodic table, namely Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and Fr
are called alkali metals They are so called because they readily dissolve in water to form soluble
hydroxides which are strongly alkaline.
Q3. Which are the alkaline earth elements? Name the radioactive element in alkaline earth
Metals.
Ans: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra are called alkaline earth elements (elements of group 2 of long
form of the periodic table). Radium is highly radioactive.
Q4. Why are alkaline earth elements so called?
Ans: The alkaline oxides of Ca, Sr and Ba were formerly called alkaline earths. So the metals
were called alkaline earth metals. Now the elements of group 2 of the long form of the periodic
table are collectively. called alkaline earth elements.
Q5 Indicate the natural abundance of alkali metals What is the general electronic
configuration of s-block elements?
Ans. Sodium and potassium are abundant. Lithium, rubidium and caesium have much lower
abundance Francium is highly radioactive. The general electronic configuration of s-block
elements is ns1
Q6. Why are alkali metals not found in free state in nature ?
Ans. Since these metals have only one electron in the valency shall they readily lose electron to
give monovalent M+ ions. Thus they are not found in free state in nature.
Q7. Which element has the largest size in a period? Compare the size of metal atom and
the monovalent metal ion, M +
107
Ans. The first element in a period ie the alkali metal has the largest sizes in a particular period of
the periodic table. With the increase in the atomic number ,the atom becomes larger. The M' ions
are smaller than the parent atom.
Q8. How does lonization enthalpy vary along group 1? Why?
Ans. Ionization enthalpy decreases down the group from lithium to caesium. This is because the
effect of increasing size outweighs the increasing nuclear charge and hence the outermost
electron is well screened from the nucleus.
Q9. How do alkali metals react with dihydrogen ?
Ans: Alkali metals, when heated combine with hydrogen to form the respective
hydrides with the general formula MH Reactivity of alkali metals with H₂ increases on
descending the group.
Q10.What is the nature of alkali metal hydrides? How do the alkali metal hydrides react
with water?
Ans: The hydrides are ionic M+H-. They are also called salt-like hydrides or saline
Hydrides. The hydrides are readily decomposed by water with liberation of H₂.
2NaH+2H₂O ---->2NaOH + 2H2
Q11. Why is Mg+ ion unstable?

(ii) Why does beryllium form BeCl2 although it has no unpaired electrons?
Ans (i) Because Mg+ ion has the tendency to lose another electron to form Mg2+ ion which has
stable noble gas configuration of the nearest inert gas (Neon).
(ii) Beryllium (At.No.4) has electronic configuration 1s2 2sl ,2pxl in the excited state. One s–
orbital (2s) and one p–orbital (2p) can intermix to form two sp hybrid orbitals which can be used
to form BeCl2.
Q12 Magnesium metal burns in air to give a white ash. When this ash is treated with water,
the odour of ammonia can be detected? Explain.
Ans Magnesium burns in air to form MgO and Mg 3N2.
2Mg + O2  2MgO
3Mg + N2 --- > Mg3N2
Magnesium nitride on hydrolysis with H2O gives NH3.
Mg3N2 + 6H2O  3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
Q13.Calcium burns in nitrogen to produce a white powder which dissolves in sufficient
water to produce a gas (A) and an alkaline solution. The solution on exposure to air
produces a thin solid layer of (B) on the surface. Identify the components A and B.
108
Ans. Calcium burns in N2 to produce Ca3N2.
Calcium nitride (Ca3N2) on hydrolysis with water gives ammonia gas (A)
Ca3N2 + 6H2O 3Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3
(A)
The alkaline solution of Ca(OH)2 thus formed reacts with CO 2 present in the air to form calcium
carbonate, CaCO3 (B)
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O
(B)
Thus A = NH3 ; B = CaCO3.
Q14.Arrange the following in the order of property indicated :
(i) CaCl2, MgCl2, BeCl2, SrCl2 : Ionic character
(ii) Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Be(OH)2, Mg(OH)2 : Basic character
(iii) BeSO4, SrSO4, CaSO4, BaSO4 : Increasing solubility in water
Ans (i) Increasing order of ionic character BeCl2 < MgCl2 <CaCl2 < SrCl2
(ii) Increasing order of basic character Be(OH)2 <Mg(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2
(iii) Increasing order of solubility in water BaSO4 < SrSO4< CaSO4 < BeSO4.
Q15. Give reasons
(i) BeCl2 fumes in air.
(ii) BeCl2 differs from other halides of alkaline earth metals
Ans(i) BeCl2 gives HCl gas in moist air due to which fumes are observed.
BeCl2 + 2H2O -Be(OH)2 + 2HCl
(ii) Be have small size and high ionization enthalpy, thus its halides are mostly covalent. But as
we go down the group the size increases and ionization enthalpy decreases thus other members
of the groups form ionic halides. The halides of beryllium do not form hydrates while others do
form.
Q16.What is meant by ‘diagonal relationship’ in the periodic table? What is it due to?
Ans The similarity in properties of the first element of each group with the elements to the lower
right of the next period i.e.diagonally opposite element, is known as ‘diagonal relationship. This
is due to
(i) similarity in the size of the ions
e.g. r Li+ = 76 pm, r Mg2+ = 72 pm
(ii) similarity in polarizing power
(iii) similarity in electropositive character
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Q17.Why is it that hydrated chlorides of Ca, Sr and Ba can be dehydrated by heating but
those of Be and Mg suffer hydrolysis?
Ans The hydrated chlorides of Ca, Sr and Ba can be dehydrated by heating but those of Be and
Mg suffer hydrolysis, eg. CaCl 2.6H2O-(heat) CaCl2 + 6H2O whereas MgCl2. 6H2O or
BeCl2. 4H2O on heating suffer hydrolysis due to the small size of Mg2+ (or Be2+
Q18. Alkali metals are paramagnetic but their salts are diamagnetic. Explain .
Ans.Alkali metals contain unpaired electrons and hence are paramagnetic. But in the salts of
alkali metals there are alkali metal cations which don’t have unpaired electrons. Hence these are
diamagnetic.
Q19. ‘The chemistry of beryllium is not essentially ionic.’ Justify the statement by making a
reference to the nature of oxide, chloride and fluoride of beryllium.
Ans Due to exceptionally small size and high ionization enthalpy,the compounds of beryllium
are largely covalent. For example: BeO is amphoteric while oxide of other elements of group-2
are basic in nature. BeO dissolves in alkali to form beryllate
BeO + 2OH– + H2O -[Be(OH)4]2–
BeCl2 is largely covalent and is soluble in organic solvents.
BeF2 is also highly covalent and due to high lattice enthalpy ,the solubility is very less .
Q20.Beryllium exhibits some similarities with aluminium. List out three such properties
Ans . (i) Both Be and Al react with conc. sodium hydroxide to
form beryllate ion [Be(OH)4]2– or aluminate ion[Al(OH)6]2–.
(ii) Both BeO and Al2O3 are amphoteric in nature.
(iii) BeCl2 and AlCl3 both are covalent
Q21.Discuss thermal stability and the solubility of the oxosalts of alkaline earth metals
Ans. Common oxosalts of alkaline earth metals are carbonates and sulphates. Thermal stability
of carbonates, sulphates increases down the group because carbonates and sulphates are big
anions which are more stabilized by bigger cations.
Q22. Account for the following :
(i) Be(OH)2 is amphoteric while Mg(OH)2 is basic.
(ii) Be(OH)2 is insoluble but Ba(OH)2 is fairly soluble in water.
Ans. (i) This is because I.E. of Mg < I.E. of Be. So bond M –OH can break more easily in
Mg(OH)2 than in Be(OH)2.
(ii) This is because with the increase in size (from Be to Ba), the lattice enthalpy decreases
significantly but hydration enthalpy remains almost constant.
Q23. Why are BeO and BeF2 covalent compounds though both O and F are highly
electronegative elements?
110
Ans. The size of Be2+ is very small and so it has a high charge density and can thus easily
polarise the O2– and F– ions in BeO and BeF2. The oppositely charged ions mutually neutralize
their charge to a large extent and therefore BeO and BeF2 are covalent in nature.
Q24.Why solubility of alkaline earth metal compounds are comparatively less than the
corresponding alkali metal compounds in water?
Ans. Due to small size of bivalent ions of alkaline earth metals, the lattice enthalpy of alkaline
earth metal compound is very high as compared to those of the metals of first group.
Q25.Explain why halides of beryllium fume in moist air but other alkaline earth metal
halides do not.
Ans. BeCl2 being a salt of a weak base, Be(OH)2 and a strong acid, HCl undergoes hydrolysis by
water to form HCl which fumes in air. BaCl2, on the other hand, being a salt of a strong base,
Ba(OH)2 and strong acid, HCl does not undergo hydrolysis by water to form HCl and hence does
not fume in air.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

Q26.Lithium forms normal oxide, sodium forms peroxide and rest all alkali metals form
superoxides. Explain
Ans. Lithium as well as the oxide ion, O2– have small ionic radii and high charge densities.
Hence these small ions pack together forming a very stable lattice of Li2O. Similarly, formation
of sodium peroxide, Na2O2 and superoxides of the larger alkali metals (e.g. potassium
superoxide, KO2) can be explained on the basis of the stable lattice formed by the packing of
bigger cations and bigger anions. In short, the increasing stability of peroxides and superoxides
of alkali metals from Li to Cs is due to the stabilisation of larger anions by larger cations through
lattice energy.
Q27. Lithium resembles magnesium in some of its properties. Mention five such properties
and give reasons for this resemblance
Ans. Lithium resembles magnesium mainly due to same charge/radius ratio or polarizing power.
The main points of similarity are:
(a) Both LiOH and Mg(OH)2 are weak bases.
(b) Both form ionic nitrides when heated in atmosphere
of nitrogen, Li3N and Mg3N2.
(c) The hydroxides and carbonates of both of them decompose on heating.
2LiOH ---> Li2O + H2O
Mg(OH)2 ---> MgO + H2O
Li2CO3 --------- > Li2O + CO2
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MgCO3 ---------- >MgO + CO2

(d) Both Li and Mg do not form solid bicarbonates.
(e) Li and Mg do not form peroxides and super oxides.
(f) Both Li and Mg nitrates decompose on heating
producing NO2.
4LiNO3 ------------ > 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2
2Mg(NO3)2 ----------- >2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
(g) The hydroxides, carbonates and fluorides of lithium and magnesium are sparingly soluble in
water.
(h) LiCl and MgCl2 are highly soluble in ethanol.
Q28.What happens when

(i) Magnesium is heated with water.
(ii) Magnesium is treated with nitrogen.
(iii) Magnesium is heated in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.
(iv) Magnesium is treated with dilute sulphuric acid
(v) Magnesium is burnt in air.
Ans.(i) Hydrogen gas is liberated.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) --- > Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Magnesium nitride is formed.
3Mg(s) + N2(g)---- > Mg3N2(s)
(iii) Magnesium oxide is formed.
2Mg(s) + CO2(g)---- > 2MgO(s) + C(s)
(iv) Dihydrogen gas is liberated.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) ----- > MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(v) A mixture of magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride
is formed.
Q29. Contrast the action of heat on the following

(i) Na2CO3 and CaCO3
(ii) MgCl2.6H2O and CaCl2.6H2O
(iii) Ca(NO3)2 and NaNO3.
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Q30.Complete the following equations for the reaction between

(i) Ca + H2O
(ii) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
(iii) BeO + NaOH
(iv) BeCl2 + LiAlH4
(v) Ca3N2+H2O
ANS
Q31.Give reasons
(i) Alkali metals are good reducing agents.
(ii) Alkali metals can be obtained only by electrolysis of
their fused salts.
(iii) Hydrogen is obtained on electrolysis of aqueous solution of salts of alkali metals
Ans. (i) Due to their large size, their ionization enthalpies are very small and hence can loose
electrons very easily. Thus alkali metals are strong reducing agents.
(ii) Alkali metals are strong reducing agents and are also highly electropositive in nature, thus
they cannot be displaced from aqueous solutions of their salts by other metals. Also they are
more reducing than hydrogen thus they cannot be obtained from the electrolysis of their aqueous
salts solution. Thus they are obtained only by electrolysis of their fused salts.
(iii) As alkali metals are more reducing than hydrogen thus they cannot be obtained from the
electrolysis of their aqueous salts solution. Thus during electrolysis of aqueous solution of alkali
metals hydrogen is liberated at cathode as it has high reduction potential than alkali
metals.
Q32. Give reasons

(i) Alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia to give blue solutions.
(ii) The blue colour of metal–ammonia solution disappears on standing.
Ans(i) These solutions contain ammoniated cations and ammoniated electrons as per the
following reaction:
M + (x + y) NH3 ------- > M+ (NH3)x + e–(NH3)y
When ordinary light falls on these ammoniated electrons, they get excited to higher levels by
absorbing energy corresponding to red region. As a result, transmitted light is blue which imparts
blue colour to the solution.
(ii) The blue colour disappears after sometimes as the reaction goes for completion to form metal
amides with liberation of hydrogen
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Q33.Give reasons
(i) Unlike alkali metal compounds, compounds of Li are much less soluble in water.
(ii) Although Li has highest I.E. in group –1 but it is the best reducing agent.
(iii) Li differs from other members of its group.
Ans(i) Because of covalent character in the compounds of lithium they are less soluble in water.
(ii) Due to small size of lithium it readily gets hydrated and this high hydration enthalpy
compensates high Ionization enthalpy which makes lithium the most reducing element.
(iii) The anomalous behaviour of lithium is due to following reasons:
(a) very small size of lithium and its ion.
(b) High polarizing power of Li+ resulting in increased covalent character of its compounds
which is responsible for their solubility in organic solvent.
(c) Comparatively high ionization enthalpy and low electropositive character as compared to
other members.
Q34.Give reasons
(i) LiOH, LiNO3, Li2CO3 decompose readily on heating, whereas the other alkali metal
hydroxides & carbonates not decompose readily on heating.
(ii) Alkali & some alkaline earth metals impart colour to bunsen flame.
Ans(i) Lithium being the first element in it's group, has very small size due to which it has high
polarizing power resulting in the generation of covalent character in its
compounds. Thus its salt easily decompose on heating.
(ii) The alkali metals have very low ionisation enthalpies.
The energy from the flame of bunsen burner is sufficient to excite the electrons of alkali metals
to higher energy levels. The excited state is quite unstable and therefore when these excited
electrons come back to their original energy levels, they emit extra energy, which fall in the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum and thus appear coloured.
Q35.(i) Sodium fire in the laboratory should not be extinguished by pouring water. Why?
(ii) Why does table salt get wet in rainy season?
(iii) Why is it that on being heated in excess supply of air, K, Rb and Cs form super oxides
in preference to oxides?
Ans(i) Sodium reacts violently with water producing hydrogen gas which also catches fire. As a
result the fire spreads.
(ii) Pure NaCl is not hygroscopic but table salt is impure NaCl containing MgCl2 , CaCl2 etc
which are all hygroscopic, as a result table salt get wet.
(i) Because of large size of K+, Rb+ and Cs+ ions, the positive field is very weak and allows even
peroxide ion, O22– to combine with another oxygen atom to form
superoxide ion, O2–.
Q36.(i) In which condition a cation is highly polarizing? In group 1 which cation has the
highest polarizing power?
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(ii) Why does the solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonates and sulphates decrease down
the group?
Ans(i) A cation is highly polarizing if its charge /size ratio is very high. Li+ ion has the highest
polarizing power among the group1 ions.
(ii) The size of CO32- and SO42- ions are much bigger than those of cations. Therefore, the lattice
energies of carbonates and sulphates remain almost constant as we move down the group. Since
the hydration enthalpies decrease as the size of the cations increases on moving down the group,
the solubility of carbonates and sulphates of alkaline earth metals decreases on moving down the
group.
Q37.In what respects does lithium differ from the rest of the alkali metals?
Ans:(i) Lithium is the hardest among alkali metals.
ii) The melting and boiling points of lithium are the highest among those of the members of the
family.
iii) Lithium is the least reactive among alkali metals,
iv) It is the only alkali metal which can directly combine with nitrogen to form a nitride:
6Li+N2--------- > 2Li3N
v) Lithium directly combines with carbon to form an ionic carbide.
vi) It readily forms the monoxide. The peroxide is formed with difficulty and highest oxides are
unstable.
vii) LiOH, LiNO3and Li2CO3 are decomposed by heat.
viii) It does not form a stable solid bicarbonate.
Q38. Compare the second ionization enthalpies of alkali metals with those of alkaline earth
metals. Explain.
Ans. The second ionization enthalpies of alkali metals are much higher than those of alkaline
earth metals. Alkali metals contain only one electron in the valency shell. Hence it attains noble
gas configuration after removal of the only valence electron. Thus removal of the second
electron is very difficult as the stable, noble gas configuration is affected.
Q39.What are the common physical features of alkali metals?

Ans. Common physical properties
(a) Large atomic radii. The atomic radii of alkali metals are largest in their respective periods. It
increases as we travel down the group from Li to Cs.
(b) The ionization enthalpies of the alkali metals are lowest as compared to the elements in the
other groups.
(c) They all show +1 oxidation state.
(d) The elements of this group are typical metals and are soft.
(e) All of them form ionic bond in their compound though the ionic character increases down the
group.
(f) All alkali metals impart a characteristic colour to the flame.
Q40.What are the common chemical features of alkali metals?

Ans. Common chemical properties.
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(a) All alkali metals are highly reactive and have the reducing property.
(b) Alkali metal react with water to release hydrogen.
(c) All the alkali metals on exposure to atmosphere (air and moisture) get converted into oxides,
hydroxides and finally to carbonates.
(d) Alkali metals react vigorously with halogens to form metal halides of the type MX.
(e) The metals and their oxides on reaction with water give a strong alkali.
(f) All alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia giving highly conducting deep blue solutions.
Q41.What are the common physical features of alkaline earth metals?

Ans. Common physical properties
(a) The atomic radii of alkaline earth metals are fairly large though smaller than the
corresponding alkali metals and they increase down the group.
(b) The alkaline earth metals have fairly low ionization enthalpies though greater than those of
the corresponding elements of group–I and they decrease down the group.
(c) They all exhibit the oxidation state of +2 in their solid state as well as in solution.
(d) They are less electropositive than alkali metals but are fairly electropositive and metallic.
(e) Like alkali metals, alkaline earth metals predominantly form ionic bonds in their compounds
but are less ionic than alkali metals.
(f) The alkaline earth metals are less reducing than alkalimetals. Their reducing character
increases down the group.
Q42.What are the common chemical features of alkali metals?

Ans. Common chemical properties.
(a) They are less reactive than alkali metals. Be does not react with water while Mg can only
react with steam.But as we go down the group, their reactivity with the water increases. They
react with water to give hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
(b) Their reactivity towards air is less than alkali metals.Be and Mg are kinetically inert to
oxygen but down the group their reactivity increases. They form oxides and nitrides when
reacted in air.
(c) All alkaline earth metals combine with halogens at elevated temperature forming their halides
of the type MX2.
Q43.Give reasons
(a) The mobilities of the alkali metal ions in aqueous
solution are
Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+
(b) E0 for M2+ (aq) + 2e ----- >M (s)
(where M = Ca, Sr or Ba) is nearly constant.
Ans. (a) Smaller the size of the ion, more highly it is hydrated and hence greater is the mass of
the hydrated ion and hence smaller is its ionic mobility. Since the extent of hydration decreases
in the order:
Li+ > Na+ > K+ > Rb+ > Cs+
therefore, ionic mobility increases in the same order :
Li+ < Na+ < K+< Rb+ < Cs+
(b) E0of any M2+/M electrode depends upon three factors:
(i) enthalpy of vaporization,
116
(ii) ionization enthalpy

(iii) enthalpy of hydration.
Since the combined effect of these factors is approximately the same for Ca, Sr and Ba,
therefore,
their electrode potentials are nearly constant.
Q44. LiCl is soluble not only in water but also in acetone whereas LiF almost insoluble in
water. Explain
Ans. Difference in lattice energy and hydration energy of LiCl is higher i.e. –31 kJ /mol [– 876 –
(– 845)] than that of LiF i.e. – 14 kJ /mol[–1019 – (– 1005)] and hence LiF is sparingly soluble
in water while LiCl in soluble. Therefore, LiF is almost insoluble in water because of much
higher lattice energy (– 1005 kJ /mol) than that of LiCl (–845 kJ/ mol). Furthermore, Li+ ion can
polarize bigger Cl– ion more easily than the smaller F– ion. As a result, according to Fajan rules,
LiCl has more covalent character than LiF and hence is soluble in organic solvents like acetone.
Q45.Consider the reaction

(i)Ca(s)+ 2H 2O(l)---> Ca(OH)2 (aq)+ H2 (g)
When the above reaction is carried out the water goes cloudy. Why?
(ii) Why is BeCO3 stored in carbon dioxide atmosphere?
(iii) Why caesium can be used in photoelectric cell while lithium
can not be ?
Ans.(i) The cloudiness is a precipitate of the partially soluble calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
(ii) BeCO3 is least stable alkaline earth metal carbonate. It is stored in carbon dioxide atmosphere
so as to slow down its decomposition.
(iii). Caesium has the lowest while lithium has the highest ionisation enthalpy. Hence caesium
can lose electron very easily while lithium can not.
Q46(i). Halides of Be dissolve in organic solvents while those of Ba do not. Why is it so ?

(ii). Super oxides of alkali metals are coloured and paramagnetic in nature. Explain.
(iii). How does alkali metals react with halogens?
Ans.(i)Halides of Be are covalent because of high IE (ionisation enthalpy) of Be while those of
Ba are ionic due to low IE of Ba.
(ii). Due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the ion.
(iii) The alkali metals readily react vigorously with halogens to form ionic
halides, M+X–. However, lithium halides are somewhat covalent. It is because of
the high polarisation capability of lithium ion (The distortion of electron cloud of
the anion by the cation is called polarisation). The Li+ ion is very small in size and
has high tendency to distort electron cloud around the negative halide ion. Since
anion with large size can be easily distorted, among halides, lithium iodide is the
most covalent in nature
Q47. How does the

(a) atomic and Ionic Radii
(b) Ionization Enthalpy
of alkaline earth metals vary in comparison to alkali metals?
Ans. The atomic and ionic radii of the alkaline earth metals are smaller than
117
those of the corresponding alkali metals in the same periods. This is due to the
increased nuclear charge in these elements. Within the group, the atomic and ionic
radii increase with increase in atomic number.
The alkaline earth metals have low ionization enthalpies due to fairly
large size of the atoms. Since the atomic size increases down the group, their ionization enthalpy
decreases The first ionisation enthalpies of the alkaline earth metals are higher than those of the
corresponding Group 1 metals. This is due to their small size as compared to the corresponding
alkali metals. However the second ionisation enthalpies of the alkaline earth metals are smaller
than those of the corresponding alkali metals.
Q48.(i)How does the of Hydration Enthalpy of alkaline earth metals vary? Compare it with
alkali metals. (ii)Why are Be & Mg inert to O2& H2O?
Ans (i)The hydration enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions decrease with increase
in ionic size down the group. Be2+> Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Sr2+ > Ba2+ The hydration
enthalpies of alkaline earth metal ions are larger than those of alkali metal ions.
Thus, compounds of alkaline earth metals are more extensively hydrated than those
of alkali metals, e.g., MgCl2 and CaCl2 exist as MgCl2.6H2O and CaCl2· 6H2O
while NaCl and KCl do not form such hydrates.
(ii) Beryllium and magnesium are kinetically iert to oxygen and water because of the formation of
an oxide film on their surface. However, powdered beryllium burns brilliantly on ignition in air to
give BeO and Be3N2.
Magnesium is more electropositive and burns with dazzling brilliance in air to give MgO and
Mg3N2. Calcium, strontium and barium are readily attacked by air to form the oxide and nitride.
They also react with water with increasing vigour even in cold to form hydroxides.
Q49. Account for the reducing nature of Be even though it has less negative value of
reduction potential.
Ans. Like alkali metals, the alkaline earth metals are strong reducing agents. This is indicated by
large negative values of their reduction potentials However their reducing power is less than those
of their corresponding alkali metals. Beryllium has less negative value compared to other alkaline
earth metals. However, its reducing nature is due to large hydration energy associated with the
small size of Be2+ ion and relatively large value of the atomization enthalpy of the metal.
118
CHAPTER-11
THE p-BLOCK ELEMENTS
GIST OF THE LESSON:
Elements in which the last electron enters in anyone of the three p - orbital of their outer most
shells are called p block elements.
General electronic configuration of outer shell is ns2 np1-6. . The inner core of electronic
configuration may differ which greatly influences their physical and to some extent chemical
properties.
The main groups of p block elements

 Group 13 (B,Al,Ga, In and Tl)
 Group 14 ( C,Si,Ge,Sn and Pb)
 Group 15 (N.P,As,Sb and Bi)
 Group 16 ( O,S,Se, Te and Po)
 Group 17 ( F,Cl, Br,I and At)
 Group 18 (He, Ne,Ar,Kr, Xe and Rn)
 Members at the top and on the right of the p- block are non-metals( C,N,P,O,F,S,Cl,Br,I)
 Those on the left and at the bottom are metals [Al, Ga,In,Tl,Sn, Pb,Sb, Bi, Po,
At (Radio active)]
 Between the two, from the top left to bottom right, lie well defined group of metalloid elements
(B, Si, Ge, As, Te)
 Inert pair effect- Reluctance of paired s electrons of the valence energy level to take part in
bond formation with increase in atomic number in every group of p block elements. High
energy is needed for unpairing the s electrons for bond formation. As a result of this, the lower
oxidation state/valency becomes more stable as we move down in every group in the pbock.
Anomalous properties exhibited by First member of the group in p-block:

The first member of a group differ from the heavier members in the following ways.
1) Size (small size)
2) Absence of vacant d-orbitals.
3) Its ability to form pΠ-pΠ multiple bond to itself.(Eg: C triple bond C,C=C,O=O,N triple bond
N) and to other elements in the second row (Eg: C triple bond O,C triple bond N,…)
Heavier elements form dΠ-pΠ multiple bonds
GROUP 13: The Boron family

 Outer electronic configuration: ns2np1
Group members: Boron (B) , Aluminium (Al), Gallium(Ga), Indium (In) , Thallium (Tl). All
except boron, are metals.
 Boron shows diagonal relationship with Silicon, both are semiconductors metalloids and
forms covalent compounds.
 Boron compounds are electron deficient, they are lack of an octet of electrons about the B
atom.
 Aluminium compounds: Aluminium oxide is amphoteric.
119
 Aluminium halides, eg: AlCl3 is dimer, an important catalyst in organic chemistry have an
incomplete octet, acts as Lewis acid by accepting lone pairs from Lewis bases, forming adduct.
 Aluminium hydride, eg. LiAlH4 a reducing agent.
 Atomic properties- Electronic configurations
Element Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration

Boron B 5 [He]2s2 2p1
Aluminium Al 13 [Ne]3s2 3p1
Gallium Ga 31 [Ar]3d10 4s2 4p1
Indium In 49 [Kr]4d10 5s2 5p1
Thalium Tl 81 [Xe]4f145d106s2 6p1
Atomic and ionic radii
 The atomic and ionic radii of group 13 elements are less compared to corresponding elements
of group 2. From left to right in the period, the magnitude of nuclear charge increases but the
electrons are added to the same shell. These electrons do not screen each other, therefore, the
electrons experience greater nuclear charge. However the observed atomic radius of
Aluminium is slightly more than that of Gallium as Gallium is having filled 3d sub-level which
has poor screening effect on the increased nuclear charge.
 In other words, effective nuclear charge increases and thus, size decreases.
Therefore, the elements of this group have smaller size than the corresponding elements of
second group.
 On moving down the group both atomic and ionic radii are expected to increase due to the
addition of new shells, However, the observed atomic radius of Al (143pm) is slightly more
than that of Ga (135pm).
Ionization enthalpies
 The first ionization enthalpies of group 1 elements are less than the corresponding members
of the alkaline earths.
 The sharp decrease in I.E. from B to Al is due to increase in size. In case of Ga, there are the
d- electrons in its inner electronic configuration due to which its ionization energy is greater
than Al (exception).
 The very high value of 3rd I.E, of thallium indicates that +3 Oxidation state is not stable, rather
+1 is more stable for thallium.
Electropositive (or metallic) character
The elements of group 13 are less electropositive as compared to elements of group 2. On moving
down the group the electropositive (metallic) character increases because ionization energy
decreases. For e.g. Boron is a non- metal while the other elements are typical metals.
Oxidation states:
The common oxidation states of group 13 elements are +3 and +1. The stability of the +1 oxidation
state increases in the sequence Al<Ga< In < Tl, due to inert pair effect.
Element B Al Ga In Tl
Oxidation state +3 +3 +3,+1 +3,+1 +3,+1
120
Chemical reactivity of group 13 elements
All elements in their compounds exhibit the oxidation state of +3 and +1.
Dimeric structure of Aluminium chloride:
Boron halides do not form dimers because the size of boron is so small that it is unable to
coordinate four large-sized halide ions.
Anomalous properties of Boron
1. Boron is a non metal and bad conductor of electricity whereas aluminium is a metal and good
conductor. B is hard but Al is a soft metal.
2. Boron exists in two forms-crystalline and amorphous. But Al does not exist in different forms.
3. The melting and boiling point of Boron are much higher than that of Al.
4. Boron forms only covalent compounds whereas Al forms even some ionic compounds.
5. The hydroxides and oxides of boron are acidic in nature whereas those of aluminium are
amphoteric.
6. The trihalides of boron exist as monomers. On the other hand, aluminium halides exist as dimers.
7. The hydrides of boron are quite stable while those of aluminium are unstable.
Uses of Boron and Aluminium:

 Aluminium is used extensively in industry and everyday life. It forms many useful alloys with
Cu, Mn, Mg, Si and Zn. Hence, aluminium and its alloys find use in packaging, utensil making
construction, aerospace and other transportation industries. It is used as a conductor for
transmission of electricity. Aluminium is also used in the aluminothermite process for
production of chromium and manganese from their ores.
GROUP 14 ELEMENTS: The Carbon family
Group 14 includes carbon(C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), Tin (Sn) and lead (Pb).
General electronic configuration of carbon family is ns2 np2.
Covalent radius: Covalent radius expected to increase from C to Si, from Si to Pb small increase
is found.
Ionization Enthalpy:
The first ionization enthalpies of group 14 elements are higher than those of the corresponding
group 13 elements.
Electronegativity:
Group 14 elements are smaller in size as compared to group 13 elements that’s why this group
elements are slightly more electronegative than group 13.
121
Chemical properties:
Carbon and Silicon mostly show +4 oxidation state. Germanium forms stable compounds in +4
oxidation state and only few compounds in +2 state.
Tin forms compounds in both oxidation states. Lead compounds in +2 state are stable due to
inert pair effect and in +4 state are strong oxidizing agents.
Exception: PbF4 and SnF4 are ionic in nature.

Except CCl4 other tetrachlorides are easily hydrolysed by water Since carbon does not have
d- orbitals and hence cannot expand its coordination number beyond 4.
CCl4 + H2O No reaction
SiCl4 + H2O Si(OH)4 + 4HCl
Allotropes of Carbon
The three types of allotropes are

1. Diamond 2. Graphite 3. Fullerene
Diamond- In diamond each carbon atom undergoes sp3 hybridization. Each carbon is tetrahedraly
linked to four other carbon atoms. Since there are no free electrons available around Carbon atom,
it act as an insulator.
Graphite:In graphite, carbon is sp2 hybridised. Graphite has a two dimensional sheet like structure
consisiting of a number of hexagonal rings fused together.
Graphite conducts electricity due to the presence of one free electron around each carbon atom. It
is very soft and slippery.
Fullerene: Fullerene was discovered by three scientists namely R.E. Smalley, R.F. Curl and H.W.
Kroto. Fullerene consists of hexagonal and pentagonal rings of carbon atoms joined together to
form a soccer ball- like structure. In fullerenes all the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised.
DIAMOND GRAPHITE FULLERENE

122
MIND MAP
123
124
1. The compounds formed by highly reactive non-metals with highly reactive metals
are generally ------------------ because of large differences in their electro negativities.
(A) Ionic (B) covalent (C) neutral (D) non-polar
2. The change of non-metallic to metallic character can be best illustrated by the

nature of oxides they form. The non-metal oxides are------ or--------- whereas metal
oxides are----- in nature.
(A) Basic or neutral & acidic (B) Acidic or neutral & basic
(C)Acidic or neutral & amphoteric (D) Basic or neutral & amphoteric
3. The second period elements of p-groups starting from boron are restricted to a
maximum covalence of --------- (using 2s and three 2p orbital’s).
(A) Two (B) Three (C) Four (D) Five
4. In contrast, the third period elements of p-groups with the electronic configuration
3s2 3pn have the vacant 3d orbital’s lying between the 3p and the 4s levels of energy.
Using these -------- the third period elements can expand their covalence above four.
(A) S-orbital’s (B) p-orbital’s (C)f-orbital’s (D)d-orbital’s
5. As the d orbital’s are of higher energy than the p orbital’s, they contribute --------- to
the overall stability of molecules than does pπ - pπ bonding of the second row
elements.
(A) Less (B)More (C)Equally (D)moderate
6. The observed discontinuity in the ionization enthalpy values between Al and Ga,
and between In and Tl are due to inability of ----------- , which have low screening
effect, to compensate the increase in nuclear charge.
(A) s and p electrons. (B) d- and f-electrons
(C) p- and d-electrons (D) p- and f-electrons
7. It is worthwhile to note that ------- with unusually low melting point (303K), could
exist in liquid state during summer.
(A) Boron (B) Indium (C) Gallium (D)Thalium
8. In trivalent state, the number of electrons around the central atom in a molecule of
the compounds of these elements (e.g., boron in BF3) will be only six and act as -------
-
(A) Lewis bases (B) Bronsted bases (C) Bronsted acids (D) Lewis acids
9. The tendency to behave as Lewis acid ------- with the increase in the size down the
group.
(A) Decreases (B) increases (C) unaffected (D) none of these
125
10. However, concentrated --------- renders aluminium passive by forming a protective

oxide layer on the surface.
(A) Sulphuric acid (B) Nitric acid (C) Hydrochloric acid (D) Phosphoric acid
11. Ultrapure form of--------- are used to make transistors and semiconductor devices.
(A) Carbon and Silicon (B) Germanium and Tin
(C) Germanium and Silicon (D) Germanium and Lead
12 ------- fibres are used in making bullet-proof vest and light composite material for
aircraft.
(A) Aluminium (B) Gallium (C) Indium (D) Boron
13. Due to non-availability of ----- , boron is unable to expand its octet. Therefore, the
maximum covalence of boron cannot exceed 4.
(A) d orbital’s (B) f orbital’s (C) p orbital’s (D) s orbital’s
14. On a weight-to-weight basis, the electrical conductivity of aluminium is twice that

of-----
(A)Silver (B)Copper (C) gold (D) platinum
15. The boron-10 (10B) isotope has high ability to absorb --------- and, therefore, metal
borides are used in nuclear industry as protective shields and control rods.
(A)Protons (B) electrons (C) neutrons (D) positrons
16. The presence of additional 10 d-electrons offer only poor screening effect for the
outer electrons from the increased nuclear charge in gallium. Consequently, the
atomic radius of gallium is than that of aluminium.
(A)More (B) similar (C) equal (D) less
17. The occurrence of oxidation states two unit less than the group oxidation states are
sometime attributed to the -----------
(A) Inert pair effect (B)Resonance effect (C) Zeeman effect (D) Inductive effect
18. In boron, carbon and nitrogen families the group oxidation state is the most stable
state for the lighter elements in the group. However, the oxidation state two units
less than the group oxidation state become progressively more stable for the ---------
elements in each group.
(A)Lighter (B) Heavier (C) Middle (D) All of these
19. The mixture of CO and H2 is known as-------- or synthesis gas.

(A)Producer gas (B) Noble gas (C) Water gas (D) Ideal gas
20. Being highly porous, activated -------- is used in adsorbing poisonous gases; also used
in water filters to remove organic contaminators and in air-conditioning system to
control odour.
126
(A)Coal (B) Coke (C)Carbon black (D) Charcoal
21. Being good conductor, ------ is used for electrodes in batteries and industrial
electrolysis. Crucibles made from -------are inert to dilute acids and alkalies.
(A)Graphite (B) Diamond (C) Graphene (D) Fullerenes
22 fibres embedded in plastic material form high strength, lightweight

composites. The composites are used in products such as tennis rackets, fishing rods,
aircrafts and canoes.
(A) Diamond (B) Graphite (C) Graphene (D) Fullerenes
23 is obtained by burning hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air.

(A) Charcoal (B) coke (C) Carbon black (D) Fullerene
24. Other forms of elemental carbon like carbon black, coke, and charcoal are all
impure forms of -------- or fullerenes.
(A) Diamond (B) Grapheme (C) Bucky balls (D) Graphite
25. It is very important to know that -------- is thermodynamically most stable allotrope
of carbon.
(A) Graphite (B) Diamond (C) Grapheme (D) Fullerene
26. Spherical fullerenes are also called ------- in short.

(A) Soccer ball (B) Bucky balls (C)Grapheme (D) None of these
27 are the only pure form of carbon because they have smooth structure without
having ‘dangling’ bonds.
(A) Graphite (B) Diamond (C)Fullerenes (D) Graphene
28 are made by the heating of graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert
gases such as helium or argon.
(A) Graphenes (B)Charcoal (C) Coke (D) Fullerenes
29 cleaves easily between the layers and, therefore, it is very soft and slippery.
For this reason it is used as a dry lubricant in machines running at high
temperature, where oil cannot be used as a lubricant.
(A) Graphite (B) Diamond (C) Grapheme (D) Fullerene
30. It is very difficult to break extended covalent bonding and, therefore, ----------- is a
hardest substance on the earth. It is used as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools,
in making dyes and in the manufacture of tungsten filaments for electric light bulbs.
(A) Graphite (B) Diamond (C) Graphene (D) Fullerene
31. In diamond each carbon atom undergoes --------- hybridisation and linked to four
other carbon atoms by using hybridised orbital’s in tetrahedral fashion.
127
(A) sp (B) sp2 (C) sp3 (D) sp3 d
32. Graphite has layered structure. Layers are held by--------- and distance between two
layers is 340 pm. Each layer is composed of planar hexagonal rings of carbon atoms.
C—C bond length within the layer is 141.5 pm.
(A) Covalent bond (B) Ionic bond (C) Hydrogen bond (D) van der Waals
forces
33. Each carbon atom in hexagonal ring undergoes --------- hybridisation and makes
three sigma bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms. Fourth electron forms a π
bond.
(A) sp2 (B) sp (C) sp3 (D)sp3d
34. Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through covalent bonds to
form chains and rings. This property is called -----------
(A) Inert pair effect (B) Catenation (C)Tetra valency (D)Isomerism
35. Standard electrode potential values, E0 for Al3+/Al is –1.66 V and that of Tl3+/Tl is
+1.26 V. Standard electrode potential values for two half cell reactions suggest that -
-----has high tendency to make positive ions in aqueous solution.
(A) Thalium (B) Aluminium
(C) Both Aluminium and thalium (D)None of these
36. Aluminium and gallium oxides are -------and those of indium and thallium are ------
in their properties.
(A) Basic & amphoteric (B) Acidic & amphoteric
(C) Acidic & basic (D) amphoteric & basic
37. Down the group the size increases and electronegativity decreases, and, thereby,
tendency to show catenation ---------
(A) Decreases (B) Increases (C) Remains the same (D)None of these
38. Like first member of other groups, carbon also differs from rest of the members of
its group. It is due to its smaller size, higher electronegativity, higher ionisation
enthalpy and unavailability of -----------
(A) Vacant s orbital’s (B) Vacant d orbital’s
(C) Vacant p orbital’s (D) Vacant f orbital’s
39. Except---- , other tetrachlorides are easily hydrolysed by water because the central
atom can accommodate the lone pair of electrons from oxygen atom of water
molecule in d orbital.
(A) SiCl4 (B) SnCl4 (C) CCl4 (D) PbCl4
40. Most of the MX4 are covalent in nature. The central metal atom in these halides
undergoes ---------- hybridisation and the molecule is tetrahedral in shape.
128
(A) sp3 d (B) sp2 (C) sp (D)sp3
41. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous aluminium chloride.
Anhydrous aluminium chloride is partially hydrolysed with atmospheric moisture
to liberate ------ gas which appears white in colour.
(A) HCl (B) CO2 (C) H2 (D) O2
42. The monomeric trihalides, being electron deficient, are strong -------- --. Boron
trifluoride easily reacts with NH3 to complete octet around boron.
(A) Lewis bases (B) Lewis acids (C) Bronsted acid (D) Bronsted
base
43. There is a considerable increase in covalent radius from C to Si; thereafter from Si
to Pb a small increase in radius is observed. This is due to the presence of
completely filled--------- in heavier members.
(A) s and p orbital’s (B) s and f orbital’s
(C) d and f orbital’s (D) p and f orbital’s
44. Oxides in higher oxidation states of elements are generally --------than those in lower
oxidation states.
(A) Less acidic (B) Less basic (C) More basic (D) More acidic
45. The compounds in +1 oxidation state, as expected from energy considerations, are --
------than those in +3 oxidation state.
(A) More Ionic (B) More covalent (C) Less ionic (D) Less covalent
46. But aluminium dissolves in mineral acids and aqueous alkalies and thus shows ------
character.
(A) Acidic (B) Amphoteric (C) Basic (D) Neutral
47. Due to property of catenation and pπ– pπ bond formation, carbon is able to show ---
--forms.
(A) Isotopic (B) Isomorphic (C) Allotropic (D)Isomeric
48. Each carbon atom in Buckminsterfullerene forms three sigma bonds with other
three carbon atoms. The remaining electron at each carbon is delocalised in
molecular orbital’s, which in turn give -------- character to molecule.
(A) Cyclic (B) Rigid (C) Unstable (D)Aromatic
49. Bauxite and cryolite, are the important minerals of ---------

(A) Aluminium (B) Boron (C)silicon (D)Tin
50. In fact, in Ga, In and Tl, both +1 and +3 oxidation states are observed. The relative
stability of +1 oxidation state progressively -------- for heavier elements:
Al<Ga<In<Tl.
129
(A) Decreases (B)Increases (C) Unaffected (D) none of these
51 ---------- is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant element in the
earth’s crust (8.3% by mass) after oxygen (45.5%) and Si (27.7%).
(A) Aluminium (B) Iron (C) Lead (D) Thalium
52. Compounds formed between non-metals themselves are largely covalent in

character because of small differences in there ------- --.
(A) Electropositivities (B) Electro negativities
(C) Ionisation enthalpies (D) Electron gain enthalpies
53. Due to small size of boron, the sum of its first three i ------- is very high. This
prevents it to form +3 ions and forces it to form only covalent compounds.
(A)Bond enthalpies (B) Lattice enthalpies
(C) Ionization enthalpies (D) Electron gain enthalpies
54. Fullerenes are cage like molecules. C60 molecule has a shape like soccer ball. It
contains twenty six- membered rings and twelve five-membered rings. A six
membered ring is fused with six or five membered rings but a five membered ring
can only fuse with six membered rings. All the carbon atoms are equal and they
undergo ------------ hybridisation.
(A) Sp3 (B)sp (C) sp3 d (D) sp2
55. Diamond is ------- , yet it has high melting point. Diamond has a three-dimensional
network involving strong C—C bonds, which are very difficult to break and, in turn
has high melting point.
(A) Covalent (B) Ionic (C) Molecular (D) Metallic
56. Catenation tendency is maximum for carbon since C—C bonds are very strong,
Thermal stability of bonds -------with increase in size of atom.
(A) Increases (B) Decreases (C) Unaffected (D) None of
these
57. [SiF6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not. Six large chloride ions cannot be
accommodated around Si4+ due to limitation of its size. (ii) Interaction between ------
of chloride ion and Si4+ is not very strong.
(A) Delocalised electrons (B) Pi electrons
(C) lone pair of electrons (D) Bond pair of electrons
58. Most of the MX4 are covalent in nature. Exceptions are ------ , which are ionic in
nature.
(A) SnCl4 and PbCl4 (B) SnBr4 and PbBr4
(C) SnI4 and PbI4 (D) SnF4 and PbF4
130
59. Carbon, silicon and germanium are not affected by water. Tin decomposes ------- to
form dioxide and dihydrogen gas. Lead is unaffected by water, probably because of
a protective oxide film formation.
(A) steam (B) water (C) water vapour (D) Moist air
60. The halides undergo hydrolysis and have tendency to form complexes by accepting
electron pairs from donor species. For example, the species like, SiF6 2–, [GeCl6] 2–,
[Sn (OH)6] 2– exist where the hybridisation of the central atom is -------
(A) sp3d (B) sp3d2 (C) sp3d3 (D)dsp2
ANSWERS
1. A 21. A 41. A
2. B 22. B 42. B
3. C 23. C 43. C
4. D 24. D 44. D
5. A 25. A 45. A
6. B 26. B 46. B
7. C 27. C 47. C
8. D 28. D 48. D
9. A 29. A 49. A
10. B 30. B 50. B
11. C 31. C 51. A
12. D 32. D 52. B
13. A 33. A 53. C
14. B 34. B 54. D
15. C 35. B 55. A
16. D 36. D 56. B
17. A 37. A 57. C
18. B 38. B 58. D
19. C 39. A 59. A
20. D 40. D 60. B
ASSERTION -REASON QUESTIONS
Directions : Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these
questions also has four alternative choices, only one of which is the correct answer. You have to
select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below.
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for assertion
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.
1. Assertion : Second period consists of 8 elements.

Reason : Number of elements in each period is four times the number of atomic
orbitals available in the energy level that is being filled.
131
2. Assertion: Graphite is used as a lubricant

Reason : Graphite has sp2 hybridized carbon with a layer structure
3. Assertion : Boron used in nuclear reactions

Reason : Boron can absorb neutrons
4. Assertion : Smaller the size of an atom , greater is the electronegativity.

Reason : Electronegativity refers to the tendency of atom to share electrons with
other atom.
5. Assertion : According to Mendeleev, periodic properties of elements is a function of

their atomic number.
Reason : Atomic number is equal to the number of protons.
6. Assertion : Atomic number of the element ununbium is 112.

Reason : Name for digits 1 and 2 is un- and bi-respectively in Latin words.
7. Assertion : Hydrogen can be placed in group 1.

Reason : Hydrogen can gain an electron to achieve a noble gas arrangement.
8. Assertion: Silicon has no allotropic form.

Reason : It is due to big size and cannot form pπ−pπ bond
9. Assertion : Second ionization enthalpy will be higher the first ionization enthalpy.
Reason : Ionization enthalpy is a quantitative measure of the tendency of an element
to lose electron.
10. Assertion :Diamond is used as an abrasive.

Reason : Diamond is an extremely hard substance
11. Assertion : Helium is placed in group 18 along with p-block elements.

Reason : It shows properties similar to p-block elements.
12. Assertion : Electron gain enthalpy can be exothermic or endothermic.

Reason : Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease with which an atom
adds an electron to form anion.
13. Assertion :Ge, Sn, Pb show divalency.

Reason : It is due to inert pair effect .
14. Assertion : Silicones are water repelling in nature.

Reason : Silicones are organosilicon polymers, which have (-R2SiO-) as repeating
unit.
15. Assertion : If aluminium atoms replace a few silicon atoms in three-dimensional

network of silicon dioxide, the overall structure acquires a negative charge
Reason : Aluminium is trivalent while silicon is tetravalent.
16. Assertion : Boron have an unusual high melting point

Reason : it is due to its extremely strong crystalline lattice
132
17. Assertion : In p-block elements a lot of variation in properties of elements in a group

is observed.
Reason :Difference in inner core of electronic configuration greatly influences the
physical and chemical properties of element.
18. Assertion: Most of the compounds of p-block elements are covalent.

Reason: p-block elements, in general, have high electron affinities.
19. Assertion: Al forms [AlF6]3−but B does not form [BF6] 3−

Reason: B does not react with fluorine.
20. Assertion : The heavier p-block elements do not form strong π bonds.
Reason : The heavier elements of p-block form dπ−dπ bonds.
21. Assertion : Boron halides form addition compound with NH3

Boron halides is electron deficient whereas NH3 is electron-rich.
22. Assertion : Gallium has higher ionization enthalpy

Reason : it is due to poor shielding effect of d orbitals in Gallium
23. Assertion : Boron have an unusual high melting point

Reason : it is due to its extremely strong crystalline lattice
24. Assertion : Alkali metals have least value of ionization energy within a period.
Reason : They precede alkaline earth metals in periodic table.
25. Assertion : Conc. HNO3 can be transported in aluminium container.

Reason : Al reacts with cone. HNO3 to form a very thin film of aluminium oxide on its
surface which protects it from further reaction.
26. Assertion : Boron form unstable electron deficient compounds

Reason : Boron has three electrons in its valence shell that boron show three electrons with
other elements and form an electron-deficient compound.
27. Assertion : Carbon is different from other members of the group.

Reason : Carbon has smaller size, higher electronegativity, higher ionisation enthalpy, and
absence of d-orbitals.
28. Assertion : Covalency of carbon does not expand beyond four.

Reason : Due to the absence of d-orbitals in carbon
29. Assertion : Atomic size increases along a period.

Reason : Effective nuclear charge increases as the atomic number increases resulting
in the increased attraction of electrons to the nucleus.
30. Assertion: Graphite conduct electricity.

Reason: Graphite is used as lubricant.
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
133
c a a d a b c a b a
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
b a a a b a a c c a
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
b a a c a d a a b b
CASE BASED QUESTION 1
Boron is a chemical element with the symbol B and atomic number 5. In its crystalline form it is
a brittle, dark, lustrous metalloid; in its amorphous form it is a brown powder. As the lightest
element of the boron group it has three valence electrons for forming covalent bonds, resulting in
many compounds such as boric acid, the mineral borax, and the ultra-hard crystal boron carbide.
Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular
networks. In its compounds boron shows an oxidation state of +3. The first three ionization
energies of boron, however, are much too high to allow formation of compounds containing the
B3+ ion; thus, in all its compounds boron is covalently bonded. The affinity of boron-10 for
neutrons also forms the basis of a technique known as boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) for
treating patients suffering from brain tumours.
1. Which species does not exist?

(a) [BF6]–3
(b) [AlF6]–3
(c) [GaF6]–3
(d) [InF6]–3
2. Which of the following is false statement ?

(a) BH3 is not a stable compound
(b) Boron hydride are formed when dil. HCl reacts with Mg3B2
(c) All the B – H bond distance in B2H6 are equal
(d) The boron hydride are readily hydrolysed
3. BF3 is used as a catalyst in several industrial processes due to its:

(a) Strong reducing nature
(b) Weak reducing action
(c) Strong Lewis acid nature
(d) Weak Lewis acid charact
4. BCl3 does not exist as dimer but BH3 exist as dimer (B2H6) because :
(a) Chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen
(b) Large size chlorine atom do not fit in between the small born atom whereas small
sized hydrogen atom get fitted in between boron atom.
(c) There is pp-Pp back bonding in BCl3 but BH3 does not contain such multiple
bonding
(d) None of the above
5. Fluorine is more electronegative than either boron or phosphorus. What conclusion

can be drown from the fact that BF3 has no dipole moment but PF3 Does.
(a) BF3 is not spherically symmetrical, PF3 does.
(b) BF3 molecule must be linear
(c) The atomic radius of P is larger than the atomic radius of B
134
(d) The BF3 molecule must be planar triangular
1 2 3 4 5
a c c b d
When an element exists in more than one crystalline form, those forms are called
allotropes; the three common allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerene.
The crystal structure of diamond is an infinite three-dimensional array of carbon atoms,
each of which forms a structure in which each of the bonds makes equal angles with its
neighbours. If the ends of the bonds are connected, the structure is that of a tetrahedron,
a three-sided pyramid of four faces (including the base). Every carbon atom is bonded
at the four corners of the tetrahedron to four other carbon atoms. The crystal structure
of graphite amounts to a parallel stacking of layers of carbon atoms. Within each layer
the carbon atoms lie in fused hexagonal rings that extend infinitely in two dimensions.
The stacking pattern of the layers is ABABA…; that is, each layer separates two
identically oriented layers. Fullerenes are positively curved molecules of varying sizes
composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.
1. Which of the following allotropes of carbon are hard in nature?

a) Charcoal
b) Diamond
c) Graphite
d) Fullerenes
2. Which of the following is known as the Black lead?

a) Charcoal
b) Diamond
c) Graphite
d) Fullerenes
3. In the structure of diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms by _
a) 1 Ionic bond
b) 4 covalent bonds
c) 5 hydrogen bonds
d) 6 coordinate bonds
4. Due to the slippery nature of any two layers of graphite, it is used as a/an
a) Coolant
b) Lubricant
c) Insulator
d) electrolyte
5. In a molecule of C60, membered carbon rings are present.

a) 4 and 5
b) 5 and 6
c) 6 and 7
ANSWERS
135
1 2 3 4 5
b c b b b

The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. All
of these elements display several other trends and we can use the periodic law and table
formation to predict their chemical, physical, and atomic properties. Understanding these trends
is done by analyzing the elements electron configuration; all elements prefer an octet formation
and will gain or lose electrons to form that stable configuration. There is variation in electronic
configuration, ionisation enthalpy, electronegativity, metallic character along groups and periods
1. The correct order of electronegativity is

a) Cl > F > O > Br
b) F > O > Cl > Br
c) F > Cl > Br > O
d) O > F > Cl > Br
2. Which one will have the highest 2nd ionisation energy?
a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
b) 1s2 2s2 2p4
c) 1s2 2s2 2p6
d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3. Which of the following is non-metallic ?
a) B
b) Be
c) Mg
d) Al
4. Which of the following properties generally decreases along a period?
a) Ionization Energy
b) Metallic Character
c) Electron Affinity
d) Valency.
5. Increasing order of electronegativity is
a) Bi < P < S < Cl
b) P < Bi < S < Cl
c) S < Bi < P < Cl
d) Cl < S < Bi < P
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5
b a a c a
136
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
SHORT ANSWER TYPE:-
1. What is inert pair effect?

A. The occurrence of oxidation states two units less than group oxidation states is called inert
pair effect.
2. Why boron compounds are electron deficient compounds or Lewis acids?

A. Boron is in 13th group of periodic table. After bond formation it is surrounded by 6 electrons
only ie 2 electron less than octet. Hence boron compounds are electron deficient compounds or
Lewis acids.
3. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous aluminium chloride.Give reason?
A. Anhydrous aluminium chloride is partially hydrolysed with atmospheric moisture to liberate
HCl gas. Moist HCl appears white in colour.
4. Boron is unable to form BF63-. Explain ?

A. Due to non availability of d orbitals, boron is unable to expand the octet. Therefore the
maximum covalence of boron can not exceed 4.
5. Why is boric acid considered as weak acid?

A. It is not able to release H+ ions. It receives OH- ions from water molecule to complete the
octet.
6. How can you explain higher stability of BCl3 as compared to TlCl3?

A. As we move down the group +3 oxidation state become less stable due to inert pair effect.
7. What happens when boric acid is heated?

A. On heating boric acid above 370K forms meta boric acid, HBO 2, which on further heating
forms boric oxide, B2O3.
-
8. Describe the shapes of BF3 and BH4 . Assign hybridisation of B in each case.
A.BF3 is triagonal planar and BH4- is tetrahedral. Hybridisation is sp2 and sp3 respectively.
9. SiF62- is known where as SiCl62- not. Give reason.

A.1.6 large chloride ions can not be accommodated around Si4+due to small size.
2.Interaction between lone pair of chloride ion and Si4+ is not very strong.
10. Diamond is covalent, yet it has high melting point. Why?

A. Diamond has a 3 dimensional network involving strong C_C bonds, which is very difficult to
break,in turn has high melting point.
11. What is the hybridisation state of carbon in (1) carbonate (2) Diamond (3) Graphite.
A. (1) sp2 (2) sp3 (3) sp2.
12. Why CO is poisonous?

A.CO forms complex with haemoglobin which is more stable than oxygen complex with
haemoglobin, hence effects oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin, hence fatal.
13. If B-Cl bond has a dipole moment, explain why BCl3 has zero dipole moment?
137
A. In BCl3 the over all sum of B-Cl bond dipoles cancel out each other to give zero dipole
moment.
14. Define(a)Allotropy(b)Catenation?
A.(a) Allotropy:-The existence of an element in 2 or more crystalline forms is called allotropy.
(b)Catenation:-The self linking property of carbon through covalent bonds to form chain and
rings is called catenation.
15. Give the composition of water gas and producer gas?

A. Water gas consist of CO and hydrogen while producer gas consists of CO and nitrogen.
16. What is dry ice? How is it prepared?

A. Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice. It is prepared by allowing the liquified CO2 to expand
rapidly.
17. What are the uses of dry ice?

A. It is used as a refrigerant for ice-cream and frozen food.
18. What is zeolite? Write one use?

A. Zeolites are aluminosilicates. Zeolites are widely used as catalyst in petrochemical industries
for cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation.eg.ZSM-5 is used to convert alcohols directly
into gasoline(petrol).
19. How will you prepare CO2 commercially?

A.CO2 is prepared commercially by passing steam over hot coke.
C+H2O → CO2+H2
20. What is the action of NaOH and HF on SiO2?

A. SiO2 +2NaOH → Na2SiO3+H2O
SiO2+4HF → SiF4+2H2O
21. Explain why a decrease in ionisation enthalpy from carbon to silicon?

A.As we move down the group size increases and outer electron is held less strongly to the
nucleus and hence require less energy to remove it. Hence ionisation enthalpy decrease from
carbon to silicon.
22. Why Al is amphoteric in nature?

A. Al can react both with acid and alkali .Hence it is amphoteric. It reacts with HCl to form
AlCl3 and H2. It reacts with NaOH to form tetrahydroxoaluminate(III).
23. What is action of heat on borax?

A. On heating, borax first loses water molecule and swells up. On further heating it turns into a
transparent liquid, which on solidifies into glass like material known as borax bead.
24. What is borazine?

A. Reaction of ammonia with diborane gives B2H6.2NH3 which on further heating gives borazine
B3N3H6 called inorganic benzene.
25. Is boric acid a protic acid?

A. No. Boric acid is not a protic acid as it can not release H+ in water. But it is a Lewis acid
since it is electron deficient in nature.
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LONG ANSWER TYPE:-
1. Explain the structure of diborane?

A. Draw Fig.11.2(a) page no.313 part 2 chemistry 11
The 4 terminal hydrogen atoms and 2 boron atoms lie in one plane. Above and below this plane,
there are 2 bridging hydrogen atoms. The 4 terminal B-H bonds are regular 2centre-2electron
bonds while the 2 bridge B-H-B bonds are 3 centre- 2electron bonds.
Draw Fig.11.2(b) page no.314.
2. What happens when (1)Borax is heated strongly

(2) Boric acid is added to water
(3) Aluminium is treated with dil. NaOH
(4) BF3 is reacted with ammonia
(5) Al treated with HCl?
A. (1) On heating, borax first loses water molecule and swells up. On further heating it turns into
a transparent liquid, which on solidifies into glass like material known as borax bead.
(2) Boric acid reacts with water to form B(OH)4-.
(3) Al when treated with NaOH to form Na(Al(OH) 4)
(4)When BF3 reacts with NH3 it forms BF3.NH3
(5)When Al reacts with HCl it forms AlCl3 and H2
3. Explain the reactions:-

(1)Si is heated with CH3Cl at high temperature in presence of Cu
(2)Silicon dioxide is treated with HF
(3) CO is heated with ZnO
(4) Aluminium is treated with NaOH solution
(5)Silicon dioxide is treated with NaOH?
A. (1) Si is heated with CH3Cl at high temperature in presence of Cu to form (CH 3)2Si(OH)2 and
hence undergoes polymerisation to form silicones.
(2) SiO2 reacts with HF to form SiF4 and H2O.
(3) CO is treated with ZnO to form Zn and CO2.
(4) Al is treated with NaOH solution to form Tetra hydroxoaluminate(III).
(5) SiO2 is treated with NaOH to form Na2SiO3 and H2O.
4. Give reasons:-
(1) Conc, HNO3 can be transported in Al container
(2) A mixture of dilute NaOH and Al pieces is used to open drain
(3) Graphite is used as a lubricant
(4) Diamond is used as an abrasive
(5) Al alloys are used to make aircraft body.
A. (1) Al is not affected by conc. HNO3.
(2)Al complexes with Na and OH and release H2 gas.
(3)Graphite is very smooth.
(4)Diamond is very hard.
(5)Al alloys are light and hard.
5. Explain the difference in properties of Diamond and graphite on the basis of their
structure?
A. In Diamond carbon undergoes sp3 hybridisation and linked to 4 other C atoms in tetrahedral
fashion. The structure extends in space and produces a rigid three dimensional network of carbon
atoms. It is very difficult to break extended covalent bonding and hence Diamond is the hardest
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substance It is used as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools, in making dyes and in the
manufacture of tungsten filaments for electric light bulbs.
In graphite carbon undergoes sp2 hybridisation and linked to 3 C atoms in triagonal planar
fashion. Graphite has layered structure and each layer is held together by van der Waals forces.
The electrons are delocalised over the whole sheet. Electrons are mobile and conduct electricity.
Graphite cleaves easily between the layers and is very soft and slippery, hence used as lubricant.
6. Why does not silicon form an analogue of graphite?

A. In graphite C is sp2 hybridised and each carbon is linked to 3 other C atoms forming
hexagonal rings ie graphite has a 2 dimensional sheet like structure.
Silicon does not form this type of structure due to following reasons:
(1) Silicon has a much lesser tendency for catenation than C as Si-Si bonds are much weaker than
C-C bonds.
(2) Silicon because of larger size undergoes sp3 hybridisation.
7. Why carbon forms covalent compounds while lead forms ionic compounds?
A. Carbon can not lose or gain 4 electrons because energy involved is very high. Hence it can
share elecrons to form covalent compounds. Down the group ionisation enthalpy decrease, Pb
being the last element has low ionisation enthalpy. It can lose electrons to form ionic
compounds.
8. Mention important uses of borax?

A.1. As a flux soldering and welding in industry.
2.In the manufacture of borosilicate glass.
3.In making enamels and glazes.
4.In stiffening of candle wicks.
5.In softening of water
6.In qualitative analysis for borax bead test in the laboratory.
9.Mention important uses of boric acid?

A.1.In the manufacture of enamels.
2. In the manufacture of glazes for pottery.
3. In making heat resistant and shock resistant Pyrex glass.
4.As mild antiseptic for washing eyes.
5.For preparing borax.
10.Mention important properties of CO?

A.1.It is a colourless, odourless gas slightly soluble in water.
2.It is highly poisonous gas.
3. It burns with blue flame to form CO2.
4. It is are reducing agent, reduces ZnO to Zn.
5. It combines with transition metals to form carbonyls eg: Ni(CO)4.
11. What are halides of carbon? How is it prepared? Give some examples?
A. Carbon combines with halogens to form both simple and mixed tetrahalides. In case of simple
halides all the expected tetrahalides are known to exist. Eg:CF4, CCl4, CBr4, CI4. The stability of
the simple tetrahalides decreases with increasing atomic mass of halogen.
CF4>CCl4>CBr4>CI4
Among the mixed halides the better known compounds are CFCl3, CF2Cl2, CCl3Br.
12. How does boron differ from aluminium?

A.1.B is a non metal while Al is a metal.
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2.B is a semiconductor while Al is a good conductor of electricity.

3.B forms a number of hydrides but Al forms a polymeric hydride.
4.B2O3 is acidic while Al2O3 is amphoteric.
5.B(OH)3 is acidic while Al(OH)3 is amphoteric.
13. Write the similarities between B and Si?

A.1. Both are non metals.
2.Both are semi conductors.
3.Both form a number of covalent hydrides.
4.Halides of both are hydrolysed by water.
5.Oxides of both are acidic in nature, B2O3 and SiO2.
14. carbon exhibits catenation while silicon does not. Why?

A. Carbon shows catenation because of its smaller size, high bond enthalpy of C-C bond, the
possibility of sp, sp2, sp3 hybridisations and formation of multiple bonds C=C C=O etc.
On the other hand silicon shows only limited catenation because of its larger atomic size,low
bond enthalpy of Si-Si bonds and absence of multiple bonds.
15. Select the member of group 14 that:

1. Forms most acidic oxide?
2. Forms most basic oxide?
3.Forms amphoteric oxide?
4.Commonly found in +2 oxidation state?
5.Used as semi conductor?
A.1.C 2.Pb 3.Si 4.Pb 5.Si and Ge.
16.SiF62- is known while SiCl62- is not known?
A.1. Six small F atoms can be accommodated surrounding Si.
2. Interaction between lone pairs of F atoms and Si are strong.
3.Six large Cl atoms can not be accommodated around Si atom due to the limitation of their size.
4.Interaction between lone pairs of Cl atom and Si atoms are very weak.
17. What are the types of oxides are formed by group 14 elements?
A. All members when heated in oxygen forms oxides, mono oxides and dioxides MO and
MO2.SiO only exist at high temperature. SiO2 exist at room temperature.CO and CO2 exist in air.
Oxides in the higher oxidation states of elements are generally more acidic than those of lower
oxidation state.
The dioxides CO2, SiO2, GeO2 are acidic.
SnO, PbO, SnO2 and PbO2 are amphoteric.
CO is neutral.
18. What are the different oxidation state exhibited by group14 elements?
A. The common oxidation state is +4 and +2. Lower oxidation state is less stable going down the
group due to inert pair effect. The sum of 4 ionisation enthalpies of is very high so +4 oxidation
state is less stable.+4 oxidation state compounds are covalent while +2 oxidation state
compounds are ionic in nature.
19. Borozine is more reactive than benzene?

A. Both borazine and benzene are isoelectronic.in benzene C=C are non polar while N=B bonds
in borazine are polar in nature due to the presence of co ordination bond between N and B atoms.
As a result addition is quite frequent in borazine while it is less in benzene because of
delocalisation of electronic charge.
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20.C-C bond length is shorter in graphite than the C-C bond length of Diamond. Explain?
A. Graphite has sp2 hybridised carbon and C-C bond involves sp2-sp2 hybridised carbon.
In Diamond carbon has sp3 hybridised carbon and C-C bond involves sp3-sp3 hybridised carbon.
Further more the more the S character in a hybridised atom, smaller is the size of the hybridised
orbital, resulting in more overlapping which leads to less bond length.
21. Discuss the pattern of variation in the oxidation state of Al and Tl?
A. Al shows +3 oxidation state only while Tl shows both +3 and +1 oxidation states. Tl in +1
oxidation state is more stable than +3 oxidation state. It is evident from the electrode potential
value, Tl+3/Tl+1 ==1.25VIt is because of the decrease in bond energy with size down the group.
Thus the energy required to break the pair of ns2 electrons is not compensated by the energy
released during the formation of 2 additional bonds. Thus +1 oxidation state is more stable in Tl.
22. Why boron trihalides form tetrahedral complexes?

A. Boron trihalide is an electron deficient compound having 6 electrons in outermost shell.
Therefore it has a tendency to form BX3L type of complex accepting an electron pair in the
unhybridized vacant p orbital from a ligand molecule. Because of this shape of BX3 changes
from triagonal planar to BX3L tetrahedral complex.
23. Boron forms no compounds in a unipositive state but thallium in a unipositive state is
quite stable. Why?
A. Boron has electronic configuration 1s2,2s2,2p1 and therefore forms compounds in a trivalent
state. However Tl prefers to form compounds in +1 oxidation state rather than in +3 oxidation
state as suggested by its group number. According to this effect, the 6s 2 electrons in the case of
heavy metals preferably do not take part in bonding (inert pair effect).
24. Write the products for the following:-

1.BF3+LiH
2.B2H6+O2
3. NaBH4+I2
4. Al+NaOH+H2O
5. B2H6+NH3
A. 1.B2H6+LiF
2.B2O3+H2O
3.B2H6+NaI+H2
4.Na(Al(OH)4)+H2
5.B3N3H6
25.A certain salt X, gives the following results:-

1.Its aquous solution is alkaline to litmus.
2.It swells up to a glassy material Y on strong heating.
3.On strong heating it forms Z.
Identify X,Y,Z.
A.1. X= Na2B2O7.10H2O
Y=Na2B4O7
Z=NaBO2
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CHAPTER 13
HYDROCARBONS
GIST OF THE LESSON
Hydrocarbons are the compounds of hydrogen and carbon only.
CLASSIFICATION:
HYDROCARBONS
Aliphatic(open chain) Cyclic
Alicyclic Aromatic
Saturated Unsaturated
(Alkanes)
Alkenes Benzenoid Non benzenoid

Alkynes
ALKANES
 General formula CnH2n+2

 Carbon is in Sp3 hybridised state
 All bonds are non polar and non-linear
 Shows chain isomerism
 Substituted alkane shows position isomerism
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PREPARATION OF ALKANES
 From unsaturated hydrocarbon( Alkenes and Alkynes) by reduction with Hydrogen

in presence of Ni /Pt /Pd
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 CH3-CH2-CH3
Propene Propane
CH3-C≡CH+ 2H2 Ni/Pt/Pd CH3-CH2-CH3
Propyne Propane
 From Alkyl halides
a) By reduction with Zn and dil HCl

Zn, H+
CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl + H2 CH3-CH2-CH3 + HCl
1- Chloropropane Propane
b) By Wurtz reaction : Alkyl halides on reaction with sodium metal in dry ether medium
give higher alkanes.
CH3-Br + 2Na + Br-CH3 Dry ether CH3-CH3+ 2NaBr
Bromomethane Ethane
 From Carboxylic acids :
a) Decarboxylation with Sodalime : When sodium salt of a carboxylic acid is fused with
a mixture of NaOH and CaO (sodalime) , an alkane with one carbon atom less than the
carboxylic acid is formed. (step down reaction)
CH3-COO-Na+ + NaOH (CaO) → CH4 + Na2CO3
Sodium ethanoate Metahane
b) Kolbe’s Electrolytic method: When an aqueous solution containing

sodium/potassium salt of a carboxylic acid on electrolysis using platinum electrodes , given
an alkane (containing even number of carbon atoms) at the anode and hydrogen gas at
cathode.
2CH3-COO-Na++ 2H2O Electrolysis CH3-CH3 + CO2+ H2+ NaOH

Sodium ethanoate Ethane
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
 They are non polar molecules and possess weak van der Waal’s forces.
 Alkanes with C1 to C4 are gases, C5 to C17 are liquids and C18 onwards are solids.
 Colourless and odourless
 Insoluble in polar solvents like water, but soluble in non polar solvents like ether.
 Boiling point of straight chain alkane increases regularly with increase in number of
carbon atoms.
 Among the isomers of alkanes, the boiling point increases with increase in branching.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
 Alkanes on treating with halogen in presence sunlight/heat, will undergo substitution to

give haloalkanes.
CH4 + Cl2 h𝜈 CH3-Cl + HCl
CH3-Cl + Cl2 h𝜈 CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 h𝜈 CHCl3 + HCl
h𝜈
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
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The order of reactivity of halogens is F2> Cl2>Br2 > I2
Rate of replacement of hydrogens of alkanes is : 3o>2o>1o
Direct fluorination is not done, because the reaction is too violet to be controlled.
Iodination is very slow and so reversible. Therefore iodination is carried out with iodine
in presence of oxidising agents like Con. HNO3 or HIO3.
Halogenation is supposed to proceed via free radical chain mechanism involving three
steps namely initiation, propagation and termination.
 COMBUSTION
Alkanes undergo complete combustion on heating in presence of air, which results in the
evolution of large amount of heat. So alkanes are used as fuels.
 AROMATIZATION
n-Alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on heating to 773K at 10-20 atmospheric
pressure in the presence of oxides of vanadium, molybdenum or chromium supported
over alumina get dehydrogenated and cyclised to benzene and its homologues. This
reaction is known as aromatization or reforming.
 PYROLYSIS
Higher alkanes on heating to higher temperature decompose into lower alkanes, alkenes
etc. Such a decomposition reaction into smaller fragments by the application of heat is
called pyrolysis or cracking.
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 CONFORMATIONS
The spatial arrangements of atoms which can be converted into one another by rotation
around a C-C single bond are called conformations or conformers or rotamers.
The free rotation around the C-C bond is hindered by a small energy barrier of 1-20 kJ/mol
due to weak repulsive interaction between the adjacent bonds. Such a type of repulsive
interaction is called torsional strain.
CONFORMATIONS OF ETHANE
There are infinite number of conformations, out of that two extreme conformations are Staggered
and Eclipsed. Any other intermediate conformation is called a skew conformation.
Newman’ projection
Staggered conformation is more stable than the eclipsed conformation as it has the least
torsional strain.
The energy difference between the two extreme forms is of the order of 12.5 kJ mol–1
ALKENES
 Alkenes containing at least one double bond has the general formula CnH2n
 The double bonded carbon atoms undergo sp2 hybridisation.
 The C = C bond length is 134 pm.
 Due to loosely bound 𝜋 electrons of C =C, alkenes are easily attacked by electrophiles.
ISOMERISM IN ALKENES
 Structural isomerism : They show position isomerism and chain isomerism.
Eg: Position isomers of Butene are
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3 (But-1-ene) and CH3-CH=CH-CH3 (But-2-ene)
Chain isomers of Butene are
CH2=CH-CH2-CH3 (But-1-ene) and CH2=C(CH3)-CH2-CH3(2-Methylprop-1-ene)
 Geometrical isomerism(cis –trans isomerism)
The restricted rotation of atoms or groups around the doubly bonded carbon atoms gives
rise to different geometries of such compounds which are known as geometrical isomers.
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 In cis form, the two identical atoms/groups lie on the same side of the double bond. But
in trans form they lie on opposite sides
 cis-Butene is more polar than trans-Butene, because the dipole moments of C-CH3 bonds
get added up as they are on the same side of the double bond.
 The melting point of trans form is higher than cis form because they are better close
packed in solid form.
PREPARATION OF ALKENES
 From Alkynes : Alkynes on partial reduction with H2 gas in presence of partially
deactivated palladised charcoal (Lindlar’s catalyst) give alkenes(cis form)
RC≡CRI + H2 Pd/C
148
But on reduction with Na in liquid ammonia gives trans alkene
 From alkyl halides by dehydrohalogenation (β-elimination) : Alkyl halides on

treatment with alcoholic KOH will undergo β elimination of HX and form an alkene .
Alkene
 From vicinal dihalides by dehalogenation: Vicinal dihalides on heating with Zn dust
undergo elimination of halogen and form alkenes.
Br-CH2-CH2-Br + Zn → CH2=CH2+ ZnBr2
1,2 –Dibromoethane Ethene
 From alcohols by acid dehydration: Alcohols on heating with con.H2SO4 undergo β
elimination of H2O and form alkenes.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

 The first three members are gases, the next fourteen are liquids and the higher ones are
solids.
 Insoluble in water but fairly soluble in nonpolar solvents like benzene.
 Shows regular increase in boiling point with increase in size.
 Straight chain alkenes have higher boiling point than isomeric branched alkenes.
149
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKENES
 Addition of hydrogen: This reaction takes place with hydrogen in presence of Pt/Pd/Ni
Ni/Pt/Pd
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2 CH3-CH2-CH3
Propene Propane
 Addition of halogen: Vicinal dihalides are formed.
CCl4
CH2=CH2 + Br2 CH2(Br)-CH2(Br)
Ethene 1,2-Dibromoethane
The reddish brown colour of Br2 in CCl4 is discharged when added to an unsaturated
compound. So this reaction is used to test the unsaturation.
 Addition of Hydrogen halide: Addition of HX to an unsymmetrical alkene takes place
through Markovnikov’s rule. According to this rule, the negative part of the addendum
(adding molecule) gets attached to that carbon atom which possesses lesser number of
hydrogen atoms.
2- Bromopropane is the major product formed according to Markovnikov’s rule.

 The addition of HBr to an unsymmetrical alkene in presence of organic peroxide gives
antimarkovnikov’s product as the main product. This is known as peroxide effect or
Kharash effect.
 During Markovnikov’s addition the mechanism, the reaction takes place through formation
of carbocations, but in antimarkovnokov’s addition the reaction takes place through
formation of free radicals.
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 Addition of H2SO4: Addition of cold concentrated H2SO4 takes place according to

Markovnikov’s rule and forms Alkyl hydrogen sulphate.
 Addition of water : Addition of water takes place with alkene takes place in presence of
few drops of con. H2SO4 to form alcohol in accordance to Markovnikov’s rule.
H+
CH3-CH=CH2 + H2O CH3-CH(OH)-CH3
Propene Propan-1-ol
 Oxidation: Alkenes on reaction with cold, dilute, aqueous solution of potassium
permanganate (Baeyer’s reagent) produce vicinal glycols. The purple colour of KMnO4 is
discharged. So this reaction is used as test for unsaturation.
CH2=CH2 + H2O + O dil KMnO4 /273K CH (OH)-CH (OH)

2 2
Ethane Ethane -1,2 –diol (Glycol)

Acidic KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 oxidises alkenes to ketones and/or acids depending upon the
nature of the alkene and the experimental conditions.
 Ozonolysis : Ozonolysis of alkenes involves the addition of ozone molecule to alkene to

form ozonide, and then cleavage of the ozonide by Zn-H2O to smaller molecules. This
reaction is useful in detecting the position of the double bond in alkenes or other
unsaturated compounds.
151
 Polymerisation: A large number of alkenes combine at high temperature and pressure

and in the presence of catalysts to form giant molecules known as Polymers.
ALKYNES
 Alkynes containing at least one C≡C has the general formula CnH2n-2
 The carbon atoms of C≡C undergo sp hybridisation.
 C≡C is easily attacked by electrophiles.
 Isomerism in alkynes: Alkynes possess position isomerism and chain isomerism.
CH≡C-CH2-CH2-CH3 (Pent-1-yne) and CH3-C≡C-CH2-CH3 (Pent-2-yne) are position
isomers .
CH≡C-CH2-CH2-CH3 (Pent-1-yne) and CH≡C-CH(CH3)-CH3 (3-Methyl-but-1-yne)
are chain isomers.
 Structure of triple bond:
The triple bonded carbon atoms in alkynes are under sp hybridisation. In C≡C, one is a
sigma bond and other two are pi bonds. The bond angle around C≡C is 180o and linear.
The C≡C bond length is 120 pm and bond enthalpy is 823 kj /mol.
Due to the presence of easily polarizable pi electrons, alkynes are readily attacked by
electrophiles.
 PREPARATION OF ALKYNES
 Calcium carbide on hydrolysis gives Ethyne.
CaC2 + 2H2O → CH≡CH + Ca(OH)2
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 From Vicinal dihalides: Vicinal dihalides on treatment with alcoholic KOH followed by
treatment with NaNH2 gives alkynes.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKYNES

 First three members are gases, the next eight are liquids and the higher ones are solids.
 They are weakly polar
 They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like CCl4 .
 Their melting and boiling points increase with increase in molar mass.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKYNES :
 Acid character of alkynes: The hydrogen atoms attached to triply bonded carbon atomin
1-Alkynes are acidic in nature. This is due to greater ‘S’ character (50%) of ‘SP’ hybrid
orbitals which makes the C-H bond more polar and ionisable. Reaction of 1-alkynes with
Na metal or NaNH2 illustrate the acid character.
CH≡CH + Na → CH≡C- Na+ + ½ H2
Ethyne Monosodiumethynide
CH≡C- Na+ + Na → Na+ C-≡ C- Na+ + ½ H2
Monosodiumethynide isodiumethynide
 These reactions are not shown by alkenes and alkanes, hence used for distinction between
alkynes, alkenes and alkanes.
 Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes follow the following trend in their acidic behaviour
 ADDITION REACTIONS :
 Addition of dihydrogen :
 Addition of halogens :
153
Br2
CH≡CH + Br2 → CH(Br) =CH(Br) Br- CH(Br)-CH(Br2)
Ethyne 1,2 –Dibromoethene 1,1,2,2- Tetrabromoethane
 Addition of hydrogen halide:
Two molecules of hydrogen halides (HCl, HBr, HI) add to alkynes to form gem dihalides
(in which two halogens are attached to the same carbon atom).
 Addition of water:
One molecule of water adds to alkynes on warming with mercuric sulphate and dilute
sulphuric acid at 333 K to form carbonyl compounds.
 Polymerisation: Under suitable conditions linear polymerisation of ethyne gives

polyethyne which is used as electrode in batteries.
 Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne takes place when it is passed through a red hot iron tube
at 873K and forms Benzene
Red hot iron tube/873 K

3CH≡CH C6H6 (Benzene)
Ethyne
 AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS(ARENES):
 Aromatic compounds containing benzene ring are known as benzenoids and those not
containing a benzene ring are known as non – benzenoids.
 Structure of Benzene:
 It has the molecular formula C6H6
 It has a planar structure.
154
 Each carbon undergoes sp2 hybridisation

 Two sp2 hybrid orbitals of each carbon atom overlaps with the sp 2 hybrid orbital of the
adjacent carbon atoms and the third sp2 hybrid orbital overlaps with the S orbital of
hydrogen atom, thus forming 3 sigma bonds.
 The six carbon atoms form a hexagonal planar structure by six C-C sigma bonds.
 The six unhybridised p orbitals (one on each carbon atom) overlap continuously to form a
delocalised pi molecular orbital encompassing all the six carbon atoms. This delocalised
pi electrons give unusual stability to the benzene ring despite having high degree of
unsaturation.
 The C—C bond lengths are of the same order (139 pm) which is intermediate between C—
C single bond (154 pm) and C—C double bond (133 pm). This is due to the resonating
double bonds.
 AROMATICITY :
 The following characteristics are required for a compound to be aromatic.
a) Must be cyclic
b) Conjugating double and single bonds
c) Planar
d) Complete delocalisation of 𝜋 electrons in the ring.
e) Presence of (4n + 2) π electrons in the ring where n is an integer (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
This is often referred to as Hückel Rule.
Eg : Benzene ( n=1 , 6 𝜋 electrons)
Cyclopentadienyl anion ( n=1 , 6 𝜋 electrons)
 Preparation of Benzene :
 Cyclic polymerisation of Ethyne :
3CH≡CH Red hot iron tube/873 K C6H6(Benzene)
155
 Decarboxylation of aromatic acids :
 Reduction of phenol :
 Chemical properties of Aromatic hydrocarbons:

 Electrophilic substitution
 Nitration : Nitration of benzene is carried out in presence of nitrating mixture which is a
mixture of con, HNO3 and Con. H2SO4
Con HNO3 + Con. H2SO4/333K
(Nitrobenzene)
 Halogenation : Halogenation of benzene is carried out by treating with halogen in
presence of halogen carrier (Lewis acid)
 Sulphonation : Sulphonation of benzene is carried out with Con. H2SO4 saturated with
SO3 gas
 Friedel craft’s alkylation : Alkylation of Benzene is carried out with alkyl halide in
presence of anhydrous AlCl3(Friedel craft’s catalyst)
156
 Friedel craft’s acylation : Acylation of Benzene is carried out with Acid chloride in
presence of anhydrous AlCl3(Friedel craft’s catalyst)
 Mechanism of electrophilic substitution:

Electrophilic substitution of benzene is supposed to proceed through the following 3 steps
(a) Generation of the electrophile
(b) Formation of carbocation intermediate
(c) Removal of proton from the carbocation intermediate
 During halogenation the electrophile generated is X+ with the help of the Lewis acid
anhydrous AlCl3.
 During Friedel craft’s alkylation and acylation, the electrophile generated are R+ and
+COR respectively with the help of anhydrous AlCl3.
 During nitration the electrophile generated will be +NO2
 Addition reactions:
 Addition of H2: Benzene on addition with H2 in presence of Ni at high temperature/
pressure gives hexane
Ni / ∆
C6H6 + 3H2 C6H12
Benzene Hexane
 Addition of Cl2 : Benzene combines with chlorine in presence of ultra violet rays gives
benzene hexachloride (gammaxane)
CH + 3Cl Ni / ∆ C6H6Cl6
6 6 2
Benzene Benzene hexachloride

 Directive influence of a functional group in monosubstituted benzene:
When a monosubstituted benzene undergoes further electrophilic substitution two types
of products are formed, ortho/para or meta disubstituted products. The nature of the
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substituent already present in the benzene ring directs the incoming electrophile to
ortho/para or meta positions.
 Ortho/ Para directing groups : Activating groups (+R) like –OH, -NH2 , -OR , -NHCOR,
-R etc
As a result of +R effect negative charge is developed at Ortho/Para carbon atoms of the
benzene ring, so that the incoming electrophiles can easily attack these positions.
 Meta directing groups : Deactivating groups (-R) like –NO2, -CHO, =CO, -COOH, -
COOR, -CN
These groups decrease the electron density of benzene ring specially at ortho/para carbon
atoms. So the incoming electrophiles will attack the meta carbon.
Distinction between Alkane, Alkene, and Alkyne
Test Alkane Alkene Alkyne
Flame observed on Non-luminous Luminous Smoky
combustion
Br2/CCl4 solution No action Orange colour is Orange colour is
discharged discharged
Cold aqueous or No action No action White ppt. of silver
alkaline KMnO4 acetylide (given by
solution (Baeyer’s only terminal
reagent) alkynes)
CONCEPT MAPING
Preparation of Alkane
158
1. LPG mainly contains:-

a) Methane
b) Hydrogen, methane and ethane
c) Methane and ethane
d) Butane and Isobutane
2. Hydrocarbon containing which of the following bond is more reactive

a) C ≡ C
b) C=C
c) C-C
d) All of these
3.Arenes react with halogens in the presence of a Lewis acid to yield

a) Toluene
b) Haloarenes
c) Benzene
d)Nitrobenzene
4.Isopropyl bromide on Wurtz reaction gives

a) Hexane
b) Propane
c) 2,3-Dimethylbutane
d) Neohexane
5. The first fraction obtained during the fractionation of petroleum is:

a) Gasoline
b) Diesel oil
c) Hydrocarbon Gases
d) Kerosene Oil
6. The catalyst used in Friedel – Crafts reaction is

(a) Aluminium Chloride
(b) Anhydrous Aluminium Chloride
(c) Ferric Chloride
(d) Copper .
7.What is the number of pi bonds in the compound 2 methyl propene?

a) 9
b) 0
c) 1
d) 13
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8.What makes alkenes, unstable molecules when compared to alkanes?

a) Presence of strong sigma bond
b) Presence of strong pi bond
c) Presence of orbitals
d) Presence of weak pi bond
9.Name the bond formed by axial overlapping

a) pi bond
b) Ionic bond
c) sigma bond
d) dative bond
10.Sigma bond in alkenes is formed due to

a) Head-on overlapping of sp2 hybrid orbitals
b) Axial overlapping of sp hybrid orbitals
c) Lateral overlapping of 2p orbitals.
d) Axial overlapping of p orbitals.
11.Which of the following is used for welding?

a) CH4
b) C2H2
c) C2H6
d) C2H4
12.Polymerisation product of propyne is

a) Benzene
b) Ethyl benzene
c) Propyl benzene
d) Mesitylene
13.Which is the first stable member of the alkyne series?

a) ethene
b) methyl
c) ethyne
d) propyne
14.What is ethyne popularly known as?

a) methanol
b) acetylene
c)dimethylacetylene
d)ethylacetylene
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15.On increasing molar mass the melting point, boiling point and density of alkynes
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains same
d) None of the above
16.Presence of a nitro group in a benzene ring

a) Activates the ring towards electrophilic substitution
b) Renders the ring basic
c) Deactivates the ring towards nucleophilic substitution
d)Deactivates the ring towards electrophilic substitution
17.Which one is the safest among the following?

a) LPG
b) CNG
c) LNG
18.Which of the following hydrocarbons are used as a fuel?

a) CO2
b) C4H10
c) CH3OH
19.Which of the following gas is found in coal mines and marshy places?
a)Methane
b)Argon
c)Hydrogen
20.What is the common name for alkane hydrocarbon?

a)Benzene
b)Alkyne
c)Paraffin
d) Acetylene
21.Depending upon the types of carbon-carbon bonds present. hydrocarbons are classified into
how many categories?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
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22. group is derived from a saturated hydrocarbon by removing a hydrogen atom

from carbon.
a)Alkane
b)Alkyl
c)Alkene
d) Alkyne
23.What is the correct decreasing order of boiling point?

a) NeoPentane>Isopentane>Pentane
b)Pentane>Isopentane>NeoPentane
c)Isopentane>NeoPentane>Pentane
24.. Which of the following is not a property of alkanes?

a) they have high reactivity
b) they are odourless
c) they are colourless
d) they contain carbon carbon single bond
25.. Which among the following is not an alkane isomer with 6 carbon atoms?
a)Hexane
b) Neopentane
c) 2,2 Dimethylbutane
d) 2-ethyl-1-hexene
26. The following chemical structure represents a molecule of what molecular formula?
(a) C8H10
(b) C6H6
(c) C6H8
(d) C8H12
27. Which of the following is the most volatile compound?

a) n-pentane
b) Isobutane
c) 2,2-dimethyl propane
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d) Isoprene
28. Incorrect statement regarding alkanes?

a) they have general Formula CnH2n
b)otherwise known as paraffin
c) C-C bond are single
d) Methane is the parent member of alkane series
29.. When an alkene on ozonolysis gives formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, the alkene is:
a) ethene
b) propene
c) but-1-ene
d) but-2-ene
30. When propene reacts with HBr in the presence of peroxide, it gives rise to
a) Isopropyl bromide
b) allyl bromide
c) 1-bromopropane
d) n-propyl bromide
31. Alkenes show what type of isomerism?

a) structural isomerism
b) geometrical isomerism
c) both(a) and (b)
d) Metamerism
32. Which of the following formulas represents an alkene?

(a) CH3CH2CH3
(b) CH3CH3
(c) CH3CH2CH=CH2
(d) CH3CH2Cl
33. In alkenes the carbon atoms are connected to each other by a

a) double bond
b) triple bond
c) single bond
d) not connected
34.Identify the type of hybridisation present in 6 carbon atoms in benzene.

a) sp²
b)sp3
c) sp3d2
d)sp
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35.Molecular formula of benzene.

a)C5H6
b)C6H8
c)C6H12
d)C6H6
36..What makes the benzene more stable than the hypothetical cyclohexatriene?
a) Delocalised sigma electrons.
b) Delocalised π electrons.
c)Delocalised delta electron
d) Lone pair of electrons
37. Select the correct IUPAC name for:
(a) 5-methyl-5-ethyloctane
(b) 5-methyl-5-propylheptane
(c) 4-ethyl-4-methyloctane
(d) 3-methyl-3-propyloctane
38. According to valence bond theory, concept of oscillating double bonds in benzene is
explained by
a) Orbital overlapping
b) Hybridisation
c) Resonance
d) Polymerisation
39.. The phenomenon of existence of two or more compounds possessing same molecular
formula but different properties are called
a) Stereomerism
b) Isomerism
c) Reaction mechanism
d) Allotropy
40. Position isomerism is a type of

a) Chain isomerism
b) Functional group isomerism
c) Structural isomerism
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d) Metamerism
41. Isomers with similar group arranged in opposite direction of carbon carbon double bond are
called as isomers.
a) cis
b) Trans
c) normal
d) opposite
42. Select the correct IUPAC name for:
(a) 1,4-dimethylcyclopentane
(b) 1,3-dimethylcyclopentane
(c) 2,5-dimethylcyclopentane
(d) 2,3-dimethylcyclopentane
43. What is the molecular formula of isomer propan-2-ol

a) C3H7O
b) C3H8O
c) C3H10O
d) C3H6O
44. Name the compound (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH3

a) Isopropane
b) Isobutane
c) Isopentane
d) Isoheptane
45. Which of the following cannot be prepared by wurtz reaction?

a) Ethane
b) Methane
c) Butane
d) Hexane
46. Which one of the following gives only one monochloro derivative?
a) Neopentane
b) 2- Methyl pentane
c) n- Hexane
d) 2,3- Dimethyl heptane
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47. Match the following reactants in Column I with the corresponding reaction products in
Column II.
a) 1.b 2.c 3.b 4.a

b) 1. d 2. c 3.a 4.b
c)1. d 2. c 3 .b 4.a
d)1 .a 2.b 3. c 4 .d
48. Match the reactions given in Column I with the reaction types in Column II.
a) i.d ii. a iii. b iv . c

b) i.b ii.a iii. c iv .d
c) i d ii. a iii. c iv. b
d) i .b ii .a iii.d iv. c
49. The reaction of benzene with an acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride in the presence of Lewis
acids yields
a) Acetophenone
b) Nitrobenzene
c) n-propyl benzene
d)Ethylbenzene
50.Benzene react with methyl chloride in presence of anhydrous AlCl3 to form

a)phenol
b)toluene
c)aniline
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d)ethylbenzene
ANSWERS
1.d 2.a 3. b 4.c 5.c 6.b 7. c 8.d 9.c 10.a 11.b 12.d 13.c 14.b 15.a 16.d 17.b 18.b
19.a 20.c 21 c 22.b 23.b 24.a 25.b 26 a 27.c 28.a 29.b 30.c 31.c 32 c 33.a 34.a
35.d 36.b 37.c 38.c 39.b 40. c 41.b 42 .b 43.b 44.b 45.b 46.a 47.c 48.a 49.a 50.b
ASSERTION REASON TYPE QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions selecting the appropriate option given below:
a) Assertion and reason both are correct statements and reason is correct explanation for
assertion
b) Assertion and reason both are correct statements but reason is not correct explanation
for assertion.
c) Assertion is correct, but reason is incorrect statement
d) Assertion is incorrect, but reason is correct statement
1. Assertion: Pentane and 2-Methylbutane are non-polar in nature.

Reason: Boiling point of Pentane is higher than that of 2-Methylbutane.
2. Assertion: Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium in dry ether give higher alkanes.
Reason: A good yield of propane can be obtained by the treatment of ethyl bromide and
methyl bromide with sodium in dry ether.
3. Assertion: Alkenes decolourise alkaline potassium permanganate solution.

Reason: Potassium permanganate reduces alkenes.
4. Assertion: Naphthalene is an aromatic compound.

Reason: Naphthalene is a cyclic compound.
5. Assertion: Halogenation of alkanes is classified as free radical substitution reaction.

Reason: The homolytic bond breaking takes place during halogenation of alkanes.
6. Assertion: Even though there are infinite numbers of conformations of ethane, staggered
conformation is most stable.
Reason: The staggered conformation has the least torsional strain.
7. Assertion: The boiling point of cis-But-2-ene is higher than that of trans-But-2-ene.

Reason: cis-But-2-ene is non-polar whereas trans-But-2-ene is polar.
8. Assertion: 2-Chloro-3-methylbutane on treatment with alcoholic potassium hydroxide

produces only 2-Methylbut-2-ene.
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Reason: 2-Chloro-3-methylbutane undergoes dehydrohalogenation faster than 1-Chloro-3-

methylbutane.
9. Assertion: Ethene is easily attacked by an electrophile.

Reason: The presence of the pi bonds makes ethene behave as a source of loosely held mobile
electrons.
10. Assertion: Methane reacts with chlorine in sunlight.

Reason: Chlorination of methane is a substitution reaction.
11. Assertion: Benzene is an aromatic compound.

Reason: Benzene is a planar molecule with six pi electrons and these pi electrons are
completely delocalilsed.
12. Assertion: Nitration of nitrobenzene gives mainly p-dinitrobenzene.

Reason: NO2 group is an electron withdrawing group.
13. Assertion: Aromatic hydrocarbons are immiscible with water.

Reason: Less energy is released when new attractions are set up between aromatic
hydrocarbons and the water molecules as these are not as strong as the original hydrogen
bonds in water.
14. Assertion: Sodamide reacts with ethyne to form sodium ethynide.

Reason: There are three sigma bonds and two pi bonds are present in ethyne.
15. Assertion: Ethyne is more acidic than ethene.

Reason: Ethyne has sp hybridized carbon atoms and have more s-character.
16. Assertion: Cyclopropene is aromatic.

Reason: It contains two pi electrons.
17. Assertion: Friedel – Crafts methylation of toluene produces o- and p-xylene.

Reason: In toluene –CH3 group bonded to benzene ring increases electron density only at p-
position.
18. Assertion: When but-2-yne is treated with Na/liq.NH3, trans-but-2-ene is formed.

Reason: Na in liq.NH3produces solvated electrons.
19.Assertion: Addition of HBr to propene in presence of benzoyl peroxide produces 1-

bromopropane as the major product.
Reason: Addition of HBr to propene follows free radical chain mechanism.
20. Assertion: Iodination of methane is very slow and reversible.

Reason: Iodination is carried out in the presence of iodic acid.
21. Assertion: 2-Methylpropane on oxidation with potassium permanganate gives 2-

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methylpropan-2-ol.
Reason: Normally oxidising agents have no effect on alkanes.
22. Assertion: Styrene, C6H5CH=CH2 on reaction with HBr gives 2-Bromo-2-phenylethane.

Reason: Benzyl radical is more stable than alkyl radicals.
23. Assertion: Preparation of petrol gas from kerosene oil involves the principles of pyrolysis.
Reason: Pyrolysis of kerosene is carried out by heating it in the presence of catalyst like
platinum, palladium or nickel.
24.Assertion: Methane cannot be prepared by Kolbe’s reaction.

Reason: In Kolbe’s reaction alkane is liberated at cathode.
25. Assertion: Butan-2-ol on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid gives but-2-ene as major
product.
Reason: Dehydration of butan-2-ol follows Zaitsev rule.
26. Assertion: Benzene reacts with CH3COCl produces chlorobenzene.

Reason: Chlorination benzene is an electrophilic substitution reaction.
27. Assertion: The ring activating groups are electron donors.

Reason: NH2 group is ortho and para directing group.
28. Assertion: Neopentane forms only one monosubstituted compound.

Reason: Neopentane has four identical methyl groups.
29. Assertion: Addition of bromine to but-2-ene produces 1,2-Dibromobutane.

Reason: Addition of bromine to alkene is classified as electrophilic addition reaction.
30. Assertion: Nitration of toluene is easier than that of benzene.

Reason: The methyl group in toluene is electron releasing.
ANSWER KEY
1 b 11 A 21 b
2 c 12 D 22 d
3 c 13 A 23 b
4 b 14 B 24 c
5 a 15 A 25 a
6 a 16 D 26 d
7 c 17 C 27 b
8 d 18 B 28 a
9 a 19 A 29 d
10 b 20 B 30 a
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CASE BASED QUESTIONS
I. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions
The sensation of flavour arises from a combination of both taste, detected by chemical receptors
on the tongue, and smell, detected by chemical receptors in the nose. Some chemicals are
commonly called after one particular flavour or aroma, such as: ‘strawberry furanone’ ‘cucumber
aldehyde’
strawberryfuranone cucumber aldehyde
However, a flavour such as strawberry is not created from just one chemical but can be from a
mixture containing many different chemicals, all of which can interact with various receptors in
the mouth and the nose. For example, one strawberry milkshake product contains 59 different
ingredients in order to achieve the required strawberry flavour. In order to detect the different
chemical components of a particular flavour, a number of chemical techniques can be employed.
One such technique is GCMS, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectometry. The volatile chemicals
are first separated by gas chromatography and then detected and analysed by mass spectrometry.
The flavour of various chemicals and their mixtures can be altered by the ways in which they are
processed or cooked. For example, the Maillard reaction is promoted by heating and is
responsible for the browning of bread and results in the formation of toast, which has a different
flavour to the uncooked bread.
1. The molecular formula of ‘strawberry furanone’ is

a) C6H10O3
b) C6H8O3
c) C7H8O3
d) C7H11O3
2. The number of sigma and pi bonds in cucumber aldehyde is

a) 23σ, 3𝑟
b) 22σ, 3𝑟
c) 20σ, 6𝑟
d) 24σ, 2𝑟
170
3. Which of the following is not a product of complete oxidation of cucumber aldehyde by acidic
potassium permanganate?
a) HOOC-COOH
b) CH3CH2COOH
c) CH3CH2CHO
d) HOOCCH2CH2COOH
4. Which of the following statement(s) is(are) correct about strawberry furanone and cucumber
aldehyde?
(i) Both strawberry furanone and cucumber aldehyde decolourise aqueous bromine.
(ii) Only cucumber aldehyde decolourises aqueous bromine.
(iii) Only strawberry furanonedecolourises aqueous bromine.
(iv) Strawberryfuranone undergoes dehydration on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid.
a) Only (i)
b) Only (ii)
c) (ii) and (iv)
d) (iii) and (iv)
II. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions
Aromatic compounds are those organic compounds that contain one or more rings with pi
electrons delocalized all the way around them. The term "aromatic" was assigned before the
physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered, and referred simply to the fact that
many such compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour; however, not all aromatic compounds
have a sweet odour, and not all compounds with a sweet odour are aromatic compounds.
The properties of aromatic hydrocarbons translate into their uses. One of the main uses for
aromatic hydrocarbons is as a non-polar solvent for other molecules. Thus, aromatic
hydrocarbons can be used as additives in gasoline, paints, lacquers, and other solutions. Their
low reactivity also contributes to their use as a solvent. For example, toluene is an aromatic
molecule that is used as a solvent in paint thinners.
The aromatic compound benzene is used in high-octane fuel production as well as the production
of other chemicals, such as pesticides, detergents, dyes, and more. Benzene was once a common
additive in gasoline, but due to the discovery of its carcinogenic nature in humans, it's use has
been reduced to mainly high octane fuels.
1. Which of the following is(are) not aromatic?
(i) (ii) (iii)
171
a) Only (i)
b) Only (ii)
c) (i) and (ii)
d) (i) and (iii)
2. Benzene on treatment with methyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous AlCl3 produces
toluene. The function of anhydrous AlCl3 is
a) to produce electrophile
b) to produce nucleophile
c) to produce free readicals
d) to absorb moisture
3. The reaction of benzene with chlorine in the presence of anhydrous FeCl3 is classified as
a) Nucleophilic substitution
b)Elecctrophilic substitution
c) Nucleophilic addition
d) Electrophilic addition
4. Which of the following is false about benzene?
a) It is a planar molecule.
b) It can be converted into cyclohexane by hydrogenation in the presence of nickel catalyst.
c) The C atoms in a benzene ring are sp2hybridised.
d) There are 6 isomeric dichlorobenzenes.
III. Read the passage given below and answer the following questions
Alkanes are relatively stable to common reagents at room temperature. This is due to the fact that
the electronegativity difference between carbon and hydrogen is very less and the bond is almost
non-polar. In addition to this, C – C and C – H bonds are strong bonds. In fact, the alkanes
undergo so few reactions that they are sometimes called paraffins, from the Latin parumaffinis,
meaning “little affinity.”However alkanes undergo the reactions under certain conditions.
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. This is due to the loosely held pi electrons and pi bond is
weaker than sigma bonds. Alkynes give same kind of addition reactions as do alkenes. However,
with alkynes the addition may takes place in one step or two steps, depending upon conditions.
1. Which intermediate ion is formed in the greatest amount during the addition of HBr to
propene?
a) CH3CH+ CH3
b) CH3CH2CH2+
c) CH3CH–CH2Br
d) CH3CHBrCH2–
2. The first propagation step in the reaction between methane and chlorine is shown.
CH4 + Cl• → CH3• + HCl How many different first propagation steps are possible in the
reaction between pentane and chlorine?
a) 2
172
b) 3
c) 4
d) 5
3. CH ≡ CH red hot iron tube, 873K X CH3COCl, Anhyd.AlCl3 Y
X and Y in the above sequence of reaction are

a) X = Benzene, Y = Acetophenone
b) X = Benzene, Y = Toluene
c) X = Cyclohexane, Y = Methylcyclohexane
d) X = Cyclohexene, Y = Toluene
4. The addition of ozone to an alkene ‘X’ to form ozonide and then cleavage of ozonide by Zn-
H2O to form pentan-3-one and methanal. The alkene ‘X’ is
a) Pent-2-ene
b) Hex-3-ene
c) 2-Ethylbut-1-ene
d) 2-Ethylpent-1-ene
ANSWER KEY
I II III
1 b 1 c 1 a
2 a 2 a 2 b
3 c 3 b 3 a
4 a 4 d 4 c
DESCRIPTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
1) Arrange the following in increasing order of C — C bond length C2H6, C2H4, C2H2.
Answer:C2H2 < C2H4 < C2H6.
2) The boiling point of hydrocarbons decreases with increase in branching. Give a reason.
Ans: The outcome is a more compact structure (almost spherical). This decreases the
efficient surface area and therefore the strength of the forces of the Vander wall,
which reduces the boiling point.
3) Sodium salt of which acid will be needed for the preparation of propane? Write a
chemical equation for the reaction.
Ans: Butanoic acid. The reaction is given below:
CH3CH2CH2COO-Na+ + NaOH → CH3CH2CH3 + Na2CO3
4) How is alkyne prepared from calcium carbide?
Ans: Ethyne is produced by treating calcium carbide with water. The reaction is
given below:
CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2
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5) What is aromatization? How will you convert ^hexane into benzene?

Answer:
Aromatization. It is the process that involves cyclization, isomerization, and
dehydrogenation with the application of heat and catalyst to convert alkanes containing
six or more carbon atoms into aromatic hydrocarbons.
6)
7) How is Phenol converted to benzene?

Phenol can be converted into benzene by passing its vapours over strong reducing agent like zinc
dust with strong heat. Zinc forms zinc oxide and phenyl radical thus produced forms a bond with
H radical and thus the required product benzene is obtained.
7) Which of the following compounds will show cis-trans isomerism?

i. (CH3)2C = CH – C2H5
ii. CH2 = CBr2
iii. C6H5CH = CH – CH3
iv. CH3CH = CCl(CH3)
(iii) and (iv) show cis-trans isomerism. In structures (i) and (ii), two identical groups are attached
to one of the doubly bonded carbon atoms.
174
8) Write structural formulae of the following compounds.

i. 3, 4, 4, 5-tetramethylheptane
ii. 2, 5-dimethylhexane
Structural formula of 3, 4, 4, 5-tetra methyl heptane is:
iii. Structural formula of 2, 5-dimethyl hexane is:
9) How will you distinguish between Ethene and benzene?

Ethene decolourises bromine water and Baeyer’s reagent.
Benzene does not decolourise bromine water and Baeyer’s reagent.
10) Describe the structure of benzene?

Benzene is a six carbon membered ring which includes three double bond. The double bonds
within this structure are mainly separated by a single bond, hence this arrangement is recognized
to have conjugated double bonds. All of the carbon-carbon bonds in the benzene molecule are of
the same length. The six carbon atoms in benzene are sp2 hydridised. Two sp 2 hydrid orbitals of
each carbon atom overlap with sp2 hydrid orbitals of adjacent carbon atoms to form six C-C
sigma bonds with are in the hexagonal plane. The remaining sp2 hybrid orbital of each carbon
atom overlaps with s-orbital of a hydrogen atom to form six C-H sigma bonds. Each carbon atom
is now left with one unhybridized p-orbital perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
175
11) Briefly explain β-elimination reaction?

β-elimination: When a haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of
potassium hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon and a halogen atom
from the α-carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed as a product. Since β-hydrogen atom is
involved in elimination, it is often called β-elimination
involved in elimination, it is often called β-elimination.
12) Explain why the system is not aromatic.
For the given compound, the number of π-electrons is 8. By Huckel’s rule,

⇒ 4n + 2 = 8
⇒ 4n = 6
⇒ n = 3/2
For a compound to be aromatic, the value of n must be an integer (n = 0, 1, 2…).
This is not true for the given compound as it is a fraction. Hence, it is not aromatic in nature.
13) Explain the following with examples:

(i) Wurtz reaction
(ii) Hydrogenation
Ans. (i) Wurtz reaction: Alkanes are produced by heating an alkyl halide with sodium metal in
dry ether.
176
(ii) Hydrogenation: Alkenes react with hydrogen in presence of Ni or pd catalyst to form

saturated
compounds.
14) What do you understated by Resonance energy?
Resonance energy: The difference between the energy of the most stable contributing structure
and the energy of the resonance hybrid is known as resonance energy.
15) An unsaturated hydrocarbon A on ozonolysis gives ethanal, and propanone. Give the
structure of A, write its IUPAC name, and explain the reactions involved.
Compound A on ozonolysis gives
CH3-CHO + O = C (CH3)2
The structure of compound A is CH3 - CH = C (CH3)2
IUPAC name: 2 -methyl but-2-ene.
16) Draw Cis-isomer and Trans-isomer of the following compounds. Also write their IUPAC
names.
i. CHCl=CHCl
ii. C2H5CCH3=CCH3C2H5
i. CHCl=CHCl
The Cis and Trans structure of given compound is:
ii. C2H5C(CH3 )=C(CH3)(C2H5)

The cis and Trans structure of 3,4-Dimethylhex-3-ene is:
177
17) Alkynes on reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia form trans alkenes. Will the butene
thus formed on the reduction of the 2-butyne show the geometrical isomerism?
Alkynes on reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia form trans alkenes
Yes, but - 2 - ene is capable of showing geometrical isomerism i.ecis and trans But-2-ene.
18) Sodium salt of which acid will be needed for the preparation of propane? Write chemical
equation for the reaction.
Sodium salt of Butanoic acid is needed for the preparation of propane. Sodium salt of butanoic
acid is heated with sodium hydroxide in the presence of CaO to give propane and Sodium
carbonate is formed as byproduct in this reaction.
19) How will you convert benzene to toluene? Give chemical equation.
178
20) Why does presence of a nitro group make the benzene ring less reactive in comparison to the
unsubstituted benzene ring. Explain.
Nitro group is electron withdrawing in nature. It has both -I and -R effect due to that benzene
ring deactivates and electron density decreases on ortho and para positions as compared to meta
positions and makes it less reactive in comparison to the unsubstituted benzene ring.
21) Pentane has three isomers i.e pentane, 2-methyl butane and 2,2-dimethyl propane. The B.P.
of pentane is 309.1 K whereas 2,2-dimethyl propane shows a b.p of 282.5 K. Why?
Ans: With the increase in number of branched chains, the surface area reduces and molecules
attain spherical structures. Therefore results in weak inter molecular forces between spherical
molecules, which are overcome at relatively low temperatures.
22) Complete the following reaction.
A is CH3-CH=CH2 B is CH3-CH2-CH2-Br
23) Convert acetylene to acetaldehyde.
24) How will you convert methane to a) methanol and b) methanal
25) Draw the Sawhorse and Newman projections of ethane. Which Conformer is more stable?
Newman projection Sawhorse formula
179
Staggered Conformation is more stable.
26) Predict the major product.
Ans.
27) Why iodination of alkanes is carried out in the presence of oxidizing agents?
Ans. Iodination is a slow and reversible process. Hence, the HI formed in the reaction again
decomposes to produces alkane. The oxidizing agents prevent the formation of alkane back by
decomposing HI into iodine.
28) Convert the following. a) Acetylene to benzene b) Benzene to cyclohexane

c) Benzene to Benzene hexachloride
d) Benzene to acetophenone
e) Benzene to m-nitrobromobenzene
a)
b)
180
c) (C6H6Cl6)
d)
e)
29) Convert propyne to propanone
30) Which is more acidic; ethyne or ethane? Why?
In ethyne, the Carbon atoms are in sp hybridization state with 50% s- character. As the s-
character increases, electronegativity of carbon atom increases. In this way Carbon atom i
strongly attracts bond pair electrons of C-H bond towards itself and ultimately H + ions can be
easily donated. Hence, ethyne acts as acid. Where as in ethene carbon atom exhibit sp 2
hybridization.

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Class XI Chemistry Support Material (Term-2)

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केंद्रीय विद्यालय संगठन, एरणाकुलम संभाग

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

STUDENT SUPPORT MATERIAL

Shri. R Senthil Kumar

Smt. Deepti Nair Shri. Santhosh Kumar N

CONTENT REVIEW TEAM

SYLLABUS FOR SESSION 2021-22 CLASS XI Term-I

Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure:

Term-I Evaluation Scheme

A. Basic Laboratory Techniques

1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod

B. Characterization of Chemical Substances (2 Marks)

1. Determination of melting point of an organic compound.

C. Quantitative Estimation (8 marks)

i. Using a mechanical balance/electronic balance.

S.No UNIT Periods Marks

Some p -Block Elements: General Introduction to p -Block Elements

Hydrocarbons: Classification of Hydrocarbons Aliphatic Hydrocarbons:

Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Introduction, IUPAC nomenclature, benzene: resonance, aromaticity,

TERM-II Evaluation Scheme

Guidelines on Syllabus for Visually Handicapped students.

1. There will be 12 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

1. STATE OF A SUBSTANCE: State of a substance is decided by a balance between

2. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: Forces of attraction and repulsion between

3. ATTRACTIVE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: These include

4. REPULSIVE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES: Due to repulsion between electron

6. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES:

ii) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION - ISOTHERMS

iii) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Pressure of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its density.

2) CHARLES’ LAW (TEMPERATURE – VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

iv) GRAPH - ISOBAR

v) ABSOLUTE ZERO : The lowest hypothetical temperature at which gases are

3) GAY LUSSAC’S LAW (PRESSURE- TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP)

iii) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION- ISOCHORES

4) AVOGADRO LAW (VOLUME- AMOUNT RELATIONSHIP)

9. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

10. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

11. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

12. DEVIATION FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOUR

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. The pressure of a 1:4 mixture of dihydrogen and dioxygen enclosed in a vessel is

2. Which of the following would increase the (gas) pressure of a system?

(a)p1 > p2 > p3 > p4

4. Dipole-dipole forces act between the molecules possessing permanent dipole.

5. The pressure of a 1:4 mixture of dihydrogen and dioxygen enclosed in a vessel is

6. As the temperature increases, average kinetic energy of molecules increases.

Whatwould be the effect of increase of temperature on pressure provided the

8. The rate of diffusion of methane at a given temperature is twice of a gas X.

14. The value of universal gas constant R depends on

17. Compressibility factor for ideal gas is

20. Rate of diffusion of a gas is

22. Which of the following statement is wrong for gases?

27. The state of matter that shows the uniformity of behavior:

29. In CHARLES' LAW, at constant pressure, what happens to temperature of a

35. makes carbon dioxide obey the ideal gas laws.

36. All gases except He and H2 exhibit at a lower temperature.

37. The Vander Waals’ force in hydrogen and helium are .

38. Which of these is the partial pressure of dry gas?

39. ‘Air at sea level is dense.’ – It is a practical application of .

42. Which law helps us find the moles of gas in a sample?

(d) The pressure will equalize

1. c 2. d 3.c 4. c 5.c 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. c 10. d