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CHAPTER 7: INDIVIDUAL/DUAL SPORTS

OBJECTIVES:
Recognize different individual/dual sports.
Understand the basic rules of each game.
Appreciate different facilities and equipment in each game.

INDIVIDUAL/DUAL SPORTS

Sports played by one or two players in each competing side. However, team
competitions in individual/dual sports also occur, such as relay. Individual/Dual sports
also allow to aim personal goals without worrying about hurting the team. Individual or
pair athletes are often said to be competing against themselves. They do have
competitors to beat, but they also attempt to improve on their previous best
performances as well.

Two Basic Types of Motivation

EXTERNAL MOTIVATION – comes from someone else or involves gaining a reward.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION – means that the desire comes from within. This is a trait that many individ

Principles

There are four basic principles that govern training for an individual/dual sport:

OVERLOAD

You must train harder than normal to force your body to improve.

PROGRESSION

You must start slowly and build up to overload.

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REVERSIBILITY

If you stop training, you will lose some of your gains but if you start training again, you
can get back to your peak.
SPECIFICITY

You must train the muscles specific to your sport.

EXAMPLES OF INDIVIDUAL/DUAL SPORTS

BADMINTON

Badminton is a net game played on a rectangular court where opponents volley

shuttlecock over a net using a racket. The aim of the game is to score points by landing
the shuttlecock into opponent’s court.

BRIEF HISTORY

 The game is named for Badminton, the country estate of the dukes of
Beaufort in Gloucestershire, England, where it was first played about 1873.

 The root sport can be traced to ancient Greece, China and India and it is closely
related to the old children’s game battledore and shuttlecock.
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 Badminton is derived directly from poona, which was played by British

army officers stationed in India in the 1860’s.

 The first unofficial all-England badminton championships for men were held
in 1899 and the first badminton tournament for women was arranged the
next year.

PLAYABLE EVENTS

 Singles Event – played by one player per competing side.

 Doubles Event – played by two same gender (Men/Women) players
per competing side.
 Mixed Doubles – played by two different gender (Man & Woman) players
per competing side.

FACILITIES & EQUIPMENT

Badminton Court

Length: 13.40 meters (used for both singles and doubles event)
Width: 6.10 meters for doubles; 5.18 meters for singles.
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Another provision that the badminton field line is cultivated is clearly colored and easily
visible.

Badminton Net

The net or nets are made of fine dark green ropes.

Length: 610 cm.
Width: 76 cm.
The white ribbon on the top of the net measures 3.8 cm.

Pole Net

The net pole is made of strong enough material, such as iron. The net pole is rounded
with a middle finger measuring 3.8 cm. The net pole is installed outside the side line.
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Shuttlecock

Shuttlecock consists of head and head

feathers. Material for making shuttlecock is
a half—round cork coated with leather. In
the cork plugged poultry fur that amounted
to 14 to 16 strands.

The centerline of the cork, which is 25-

28mm the centerline of the tip is 54 – 56
mm.

The feathers were tied with threads. The

height of the hair from the surface of the
cork to the top surface, is 64 -74 mm.

The standard stand weighs between 4>73

– 5.50 grams.

Types of Shuttlecock

Feathered Shuttlecock – mostly used on tournaments and official games. This type of
shuttlecock is made of feathers of a goose or a duck.
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Synthetic Shuttlecock – usually used on an indoor badminton game and for practicing.
Synthetic Shuttlecock is made of plastic as an alternative for feathers.

Parts of the Shuttlecock

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Badminton Racket

The tool to hit shuttlecock in a badminton game is called “racket”.

The racket weighs less than 150 grams.
The materials used to make a racket are:
 Wood
 Aluminum
 Wood and Aluminum
 Fiberglass
 Charcoal (Carbonex)

Types of Badminton Racket

There are 2 types of badminton racket.:

1. One Piece – a straight badminton racket without a throat that connects the
shaft and the net frame.

2. Two Piece – a badminton racket

that has a throat that connects the
shaft to the net frame.
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Parts of the Badminton Racket

BASIC RULES

Rules

 A player must wait until his opponent is ready before serving. If the
opponent attempts a return then he is ruled having been ready.
 The feet of both players must remain in a stationary position until the serve
is made. Your feet can not be touching the line at this time.
 It is not a fault if you miss the shuttle while serving.
 The shuttle cannot be caught and slung with the racket.
 A player cannot hold his racket near the net to ward off a downward stroke by
his opponent or to interfere with his racket.

Faults

 The shuttle, at the instant of being hit is higher than the server’s waist or
the head of the racket is higher than the servers racket hand.
 The shuttle does not land in the correct service court.
 The server's feet are not in the service court or if the feet of the receiver are
not in the court diagonally opposite the server.
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 The server steps forward as he/she serves.

 Any player balking or feinting his opponent before serve or during serve.
 A serve or shot that lands outside the court boundaries, passes under or
through the net, touches any other obstructions or a player’s body or clothing.
The boundary and service lines are considered in play.
 The shuttle in play is struck before it crosses the net to the striker's side of
the net. You may follow through over the net.
 A player touching the net or its supports with his body or racket while the
shuttle is in play.
 Hitting the shuttle twice in succession by a player or team.

Scoring System

 A match consists of the best of 3 games of 21 points.

 Every time there is a serve – there is a point scored.
 The side winning a rally adds a point to its score.
 At 20 all, the side which gain 2 points lead first, wins that game.
 At 29 all, the side scoring the 30th point, wins that game.
 The side winning a game serves first in the next game.

Interval and Change of Ends

 1minute interval between each game is allowed.

 In the third game, players change ends when the leading score reaches
11 points.

Singles

 At the beginning of the game (0-0) and when the server’s score is even, the
server serves from the right service court. When the server’s score is odd,
the server serves from the left service court.
 If the server wins a rally, the server scores a point and then serves again
from the alternate service court.
 If the receiver wins a rally, the receiver scores a point and becomes the new
server. They serve from the appropriate service court – left if their score is
odd, and right if it is even.

Doubles

 A side has only one ‘set’.

 The service passes consecutively to the players as shown in the diagram.
 At the beginning of the game and when the score is even, the server serves
from the right service court. When it is odd, the server serves from the left court.
 If the serving side wins a rally, the serving side scores a point and the
same server serves again from the alternate service court.
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 If the receiving side wins a rally, the receiving side scores a point. The
receiving side becomes the new serving side.
 The players do not change their respective service courts until they win a
point when their side is serving.
 If players commit an error in the service court, the error is corrected when
the mistake is discovered.

In a doubles match between A & B against C & D. A & B won the toss and decided
to serve. A to serve to C. A shall be the initial server while C shall be the initial receiver.

BASIC SKILLS

Gripping Technique

How to Hold a Badminton Racket?

The correct way of holding a racket is as simple as a FRIENDLY HANDSHAKE.

Imagine the grip of the racquet as a hand approaching to shake your hand. Go ahead
and hold the racquet as if you’re shaking someone’s hand.
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Your thumb should be pressing comfortably against one of the wider surface of the
racquet grip while the rest of your hand holds the racquet as if you’re shaking a person’s
hand.

The way you hold your racket can affect the flexibility of your wrist.

In order to execute strong badminton strokes with high accuracy, your wrist needs to be
flexible.

Types of Gripping Technique

There are 2 types of gripping technique:

1. Forehand Grip – to hit forehand shots.

2. Backhand Grip – to hut backhand shots.

FOREHAND GRIP

BACKHAND GRIP
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Serve
A WEAK serve often creates a chance for your opponent to execute an attacking
shot. Therefore, it’s important to know how to serve properly so that you will not lose a
point after making a service.

HIGH BADMINTON SERVE

This type of serve is usually executed when you want the shuttle to land at the back
end of the court. A good high serve must have the shuttle dropping steeply downwards
at the back end of the court.

A high serve will prevent your opponent from executing a strong smash. Instead, a lob
or a drop is more expected from your opponent (unless they can do a jump smash).
Try to serve the shuttlecock to your opponent’s backhand area. The objective is to force
your opponent to use his backhand. This is because most badminton players, even
world class player, have weaker backhands (compared to their forehands)
This will force your opponent to use the backhand and hence there’s a higher chance
that he’ll return a weak shot.

However, some badminton players (especially taller players) can execute powerful
smashes even from the back of the court (usually with a jumping smash).

LOW BADMINTON SERVE

However, some badminton players (especially taller players) can execute powerful
smashes even from the back of the court (usually with a jumping smash).

Unlike the high serve, you can let the shuttle drop anywhere in front (forehand area or
backhand area of your opponent).
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Neither makes a difference because it does not disrupt your opponent’s footwork.

FLICK SERVE

The “fake” low badminton serve can also be used to trick your opponent (deceive your
opponent to expect a low serve).

When you stand in a low serve position, your opponent would probably expect a
low serve. However, push your thumb and flick your wrist harder so the shuttlecock
flies HIGH and heads to the back of the court!

Well, knowing how to serve is one thing. Practicing is another. If you want to make
perfect serves, keep practicing until you don’t make any mistakes!

Badminton Shots

Defensive High Clear/Lob

 Mainly used as a defensive shot. When you’re out of position, hit the
high clear/lob to “buy” yourself time to recover.

Drop Shots
 Make sure you have a variation of shots in your games. Drop shots are perfect
to variate the pace of the rally.

Smashing
 Rallies are often put away with the smash. It is the most powerful shot
in badminton.

Net Play
 Dominate the front area of the court by having a good net playing skill.
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Video clips you can visit for more information and study:

https://youtu.be/1UIhKZCPMYM - Badminton for Beginners

https://youtu.be/p_p3EhxzLSQ - Badminton Gripping

References you can visit for more information and study:

https://en.m.wikipedia.org//wiki/Individual_sport - Individual/Dual Sports

https://study.com/academy/topic/individual-dual-team-sports-games.html
- Individual Sports
https://sportsignup.com/blog/5-benefits-of-individual-sports -
Individual/Dual Sports
https://www.britannica.com/sports/badminton - Badminton
https://steemit.com/steemsports/@riskimauliza/facilities-and-equipment-
badminton-sports-1203775722c7f - Facilities and Equipment (Badminton)
http://web.mst.edu/~ima/rules/badmintonrules.html - Basic Rules (Badminton)
https://www.masterbadminton.com/badminton-basics.html - Basic
Skills (Badminton)

TABLE TENNIS

BRIEF HISTORY

Like most other sports, table tennis had humble beginnings as a “parlor game,” open to
anyone with access to a table, paddle, and ball. The game began in the 1880s, when
lawn tennis players adapted their game to play indoors during the winter.

Ping-Pong is a trademark name for table tennis and associated equipment. The name
“Ping-Pong” was invented by the English firm J. Jaques and Son at the end of the
1800s and later trademarked in the United States by Parker Brothers, the board
game company.

The game quickly caught on, and as early as 1901, tournaments were being conducted
with over 300 participants. The Ping-Pong Association was formed but was renamed
The Table Tennis Association in 1922.
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PLAYABLE EVENTS

Well, the table tennis competition currently consists of five events:

 Men’s Singles
 Women’s Singles
 Men’s Teams
 Women’s Teams
 Mixed Doubles

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

Tables
Included in the list of important table tennis equipment is the table where the game is to
be played. The ITTF specifies that the official table tennis tables that are used in the
tournament must be 9 ft long, 5 ft wide and must be placed 30 inches high from the
ground.
They come in either green, blue or black in color and are usually made from a type of
hardboard. The surface must be smooth as to provide the lowest friction as possible.
Not all table tennis tables are created equal! At California Table Tennis, they only use
top-of-the line Butterfly tables.

Professional Rubber Flooring

This kind of flooring is usually imported directly from China. The flooring material is
identical to the texture of a leathered basketball and this flooring commonly used at the
highest competition level.
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Ball
The ball that is used in the game is a 2.7grams, small celluloid ball that is usually
colored white or orange depending on the preference of the players. They can come in
different qualities with those possessing 3 stars being the best kind and is often
recommended especially to those who are just starting up. Also, they come in a range
of sizes from 38 mm to 54 mm in diameter. However, the 40 mm diameter ball is the
one that is used mainly on international leagues and competitions as it is the one that is
specified by the International Table Tennis Federation of ITTF.

Rubber, Rocket, or Paddle

The table tennis racket or paddle is another important piece of equipment that is used in
hitting the ball back and forth on the table. Its shape is similar to the ones used in the
game of tennis except that it is smaller and is made of different materials.
The racket is usually made of wood and rubber and is divided into two parts: the handle
and the blade. The quality of both of the parts of the racket can affect the force that can
be applied by the player and it is important the player choose the best kind of rackets in
order to really improve.
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Net and Post

The net which is the last piece of important equipment is usually brought together with
the table or with the rackets or it can be bought by itself.

Whatever the case, it should be six feet long and six inches wide and has an upper
white tape that is not more than 15mm wide. Also, it should include an assembly so that
it can be attached to the middle of the table tennis table.

BASIC RULES

Sometimes all you want to know are the basic rules to play a friendly match of ping
pong. In singles, the center lines serve no purpose, so ignore them.

Scoring
A match is played best 3 of 5 games (or 4/7 or 5/9). For each game, the first player to
reach 11 points wins that game, however a game must be won by at least a two points
margin.

A point is scored after each ball is put into play (not just when the server wins the point
as in volleyball).
The edges of the table are part of the legal table surface, but not the sides.

Flow of the match

Each player serves two points in a row and then switch server. However, if a score of
10-10 is reached in any game, then each server serves only one point and then the
server is switched. After each game, the players switch side of the table. In the final
game, the players switch side again after either player reaches 5 points.

Legal serve
The ball must rest on an open hand palm. Then it must be tossed up at least 6 inches
and struck so the ball first bounces on the server's side and then the opponent's side.
If the serve is legal except that it touches the net, it is called a let serve. Let serves are
not scored and are reserved.
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Equipment
The paddle should have a red and a black side. The ball should be either orange or
white and 40 mm in size. The table should be 2.74 meters long, 1.525 m wide, and 0.76
m high.
BASIC SKILLS

Table tennis is a complex, layered game, and mastery requires a balance of

mental strategies and physical skill. But even the most complex game is built on the
foundation of four basic skills that even a beginner can learn and practice to improve
their game.

Practicing the basic skills of table tennis improves your performance and your
enjoyment and allows you to develop more advanced skills later on. Here are the basic
skills of table tennis:

Stance and Footwork

Before hitting your first shot it’s worth getting your body in the right position. A
correct and stance in relation to the table depends to some degree on your grip, and
whether you’re are attacking, defending, or serving the ball. However, even as your arm
position and placement relative to the table changes, you should always have the
correct stance and body posture.

The right stance gives you the balance, stability, and range of movement you
need to play the game.
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Feet

 Your feet should be wide, about 1.5 or more shoulder widths apart so that
you can quickly move side-to-side.
 Keep your non-dominant foot slightly ahead of the other (for right-handed
people, this means keeping your left foot slightly closer to the table, for left-
handed people it’s the opposite).

Ankles and Knees

 Keep your knees and ankles slightly bent and flexible, with your weight
forward on your toes. This keeps your body ready to move forward or
backward as needed.

Back and Shoulders

 Keep your upper body slightly bent at the waist. With the bent ankles, knees, and
waist and your shoulders forward, your whole body is in a slightly crouched
position, ready to spring into action.

Arms

 Your arms should be in front of your body, with your elbow and paddle in front
of you.

Holding the Paddle

The exact position of your hands and arms in your stance depends on your grip or how
you hold the bat. There are two basic grips in table tennis: the shake hand grip, and
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the pen hold grip. The different types of grip have specific variations for your hand
position on the paddle depending on your preference and style of play.

Each grip has advantages and disadvantages, but it’s also important to choose the grip
that is comfortable and natural for you. Once you have mastered a basic grip, you may
want to learn more advanced grips to further improve your game and give you more
options.

Basic Table Tennis Strokes

The four basic strokes of table tennis are necessary to master forehand and backhand
attack and defense.

Forehand Drive

The forehand drive is the most basic and fundamental ping pong stroke. It returns
aggressive/attacking strokes and lands your ball close to the opponent’s baseline or
sideline. With the forehand drive, you rotate your body to the back to add power to the
ball, so rotate the upper body away and transfer your weight onto your back foot,
moving your arm straight back.

Backhand Drive

The backhand drive is the mirror of the forehand drive, intended to return attacking
shots and land the ball at the opponent’s baseline. To deliver a backhand drive, stand
with your torso in the path of the ball (rather than reaching with your arm), and keep
your stance angled toward the table with your free arm pointed toward the ball.

Backhand Push

The backhand push returns short balls, and prevents your opponent from making an
attacking return. As with the backhand drive, your body should be positioned in line with
the ball, rather than reaching to the side with your arm.
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Forehand Push

The forehand push is also designed for returning short balls and preventing attacking
shots. Like the forehand drive, you stand with the dominant foot slightly back, and rotate
the upper body to accentuate the motion of the paddle. However, unlike the forehand
drive, you do a smaller backswing, rotating your wrist forward through the range of
motion, and keep your paddle open to brush beneath the ball.

Serving

A table tennis serve is the final basic skill, and it’s a crucial skill since the serve is the
only time you have complete control of the ball and the game. There are a number of
different types of serves each with different pros and cons but the basics remain the
same.

Serve

To serve in table tennis:

1. Balance the ball on the palm of your free hand with the hand open.

2. Throw the ball vertically upward so that it rises at least 6 inches

above your hand.

3. As the ball drops, hit it with your chosen stroke, ensuring that it
bounces on your side of the table, goes over the net, and bounces on
your opponent’s side of the table.
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Video clips you can visit for more information and study:

https://youtu.be/zSKpxB3OB8 - Rules | Table Tennis

https://youtu.be/ZpAlOwKu8fg - Table Tennis Tutorial
https://youtu.be/xnMf8J6UFZs - Basic Skills | Table Tennis
https://youtu.be/s9ELscafqVs - Service | Table Tennis

References you can visit for more information and study:

https://www.athleticscholarships.net/history-of-table-tennis.htm - History
of Table Tennis
https://www.allabouttabletabletennis.com/olympic-games-table-tennis-
events.html - Table Tennis Events
https://www.pongworld.com/table-tennis-sportt/rules - Basic Rules |
Table Tennis
https://www.tabletennisspot.com/basic-types-of-table-equipment/ - Facilities
and Equipment | Table Tennis
https://pingpongruler.com/basic-table-tennis-skills/ - Basic Skills | Table Tennis

TRACK AND FIELD

HISTORY

In order to understand this sport's past, we

need to go back about 2,800 years to
ancient Greece. Religious festivals at
Olympia provided the opportunity for
runners to sprint about the length of a half
of a modern track. This flat piece of ground
where these races took place was often
straight rather than curved and was known
as a stadion, giving us the name for
the stadiums of today's sporting world.
Around 1,700 years later, these ancient
Olympic games were no longer allowed in
the region.

The religious elements of the festivals clashed with the beliefs of the Christian emperor
of the time. Although the sport was still practiced to some extent, it would take nearly
another 1,500 years until track and field would make a huge comeback in the late
1800s.
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PLAYABLE EVENTS

 Track and field events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions,
transcending cultures and civilizations. Historical evidence on the origins of
athletics competitions are still sketchy, but it is generally agreed that these
events have been present since the Ancient Olympic Games in Greece, which
date back to 776 BC.

 The first Games featured a limited number of events, such as a 180m sprint
across the length of the stadium, but have since expanded to encompass at least
12 track events, 8 field events and three events combining track and field
components. Most athletes tend to specialize in just one event, aiming to achieve
perfection.

Combined Track & Field Events

However, some athletes would take part in combined track and field events, also
known as the decathlon, heptathlon and pentathlon. They would earn points in each
event which adds up to a total score.

Here’s a summary of these combined events:

Men’s Decathlon

Track Events: 100m - 400m - 1500m - 110m Hurdles

Field Event: Long Jump - High Jump - Pole Vault - Shot Put - Discus Throw - Javelin
Throw
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Women’s Heptathlon

Track Events: 200m - 800m - 100m Hurdles

Field Events: Long Jump - High Jump - Shot Put - Javelin Throw

Men’s Heptathlon

Track Events: 60m - 1000m - 60m Hurdles

Field Events: Long Jump - High Jump - Pole Vault - Shot Put

Women’s Pentathlon

Track Events: 800m - 60m Hurdles

Field Events: Long Jump - High Jump - Shot Put

FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT

Long and Triple Jump

Plasticine is placed at the front of the take-off board in the triple and long jump so that
officials will know if an athlete has overstepped the mark. A foul jump will leave a foot
imprint in the strip of plasticine.
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Running Track

A standard running track has eight lanes. Each land is 1.22m wide. All tracks are run
around in an anti-clockwise direction.

If you’ve ever competed in or watched a track-and-field event, you might not have
realized just how much work and preparation goes into putting it all together. In addition
to getting the athletes and events organized, officials have to worry about the various
pieces of equipment necessary to conduct a track-and-field meet.

Starting Blocks

 Starting blocks serve as one of the most important pieces of equipment for track
events of 400 meters and shorter, according to USA Track and Field.
 Officials use starting blocks not as an aid to runners, but as a means for
protecting the surface of the track.
 Most starting blocks consist of foot pads that runners can adjust based on their
preferred starting position.
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Hurdles

Hurdles is a specific
track event that
combines the skill of
running with the ability to
jump over stationary
objects. USA Track and
Field regulates not only
the height of the hurdles
for different events, but
the space in between the
individual hurdles.
Hurdle heights range
anywhere between .84 meters for women’s events to 1.067 meters for men’s events,
according to USA Track and Field. In men’s 110-meter competition, the distance
between hurdles is 9.14 meters, up from 8.5 meters in the women’s 100-meter event.

Discus

The discus event features the use of a rounded

disc, challenging competitors to see who can throw
the object the farthest. Like other events, equipment
regulations specify the size and weight and makeup
of the discus. Rules specify the discus be made of
wood or other similar material with a metal rim, and
may be either solid material or hollow. The weight
specifications range anywhere between .75 and 2
kilograms, depending on the competitor’s
preference, but shall have an outside diameter
ranging between 166 and 221 millimeters.

Javelin

It might seem just like a long stick with a pointy end,

but track-and-field regulations specify that the javelin
weigh between 400 and 800 grams, with a minimum
length of 750 millimeters and a maximum length of
1060 millimeters. Rules stipulate that the javelin must
be made of metal or other similar material, with three
main parts: the head, shaft and cord grip to aid the
player in throwing.
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Shot Put

The shot put is an event that requires

players to throw a large metal ball as far as
possible down the field. The ball, known as
the “shot,” is made of solid metal and may
have a latex covering on the outside to
assist competitors with their grip. For men’s
competition, the shot weighs 7.26
kilograms. For women, the shot weighs 4
kilograms.

BASIC RULES

Track and field events set simple

goals -- run the fastest, throw the
farthest or jump the greatest distance --
that require different types of athleticism.
Track meets are a symphony of speed,
power, pure strength and focused
technical skills. And each class of events
enforces similar basic rules. Learn the
rules to gain a deeper appreciation for
the difficulty of each event.

Running and Sprinting

Running events include sprints, hurdles, mid-distance, long distance and relay races.
Starting blocks are used for sprints of 400 meters or less and relays with legs 400
meters or less.

 A referee instructs the runners to get "on your marks." For sprints, the ref says
"set" to put runners on their blocks.
 Then a starting device is fired to begin the race. Running before the shot is a
disqualifying false start.
 Every runner must stay inside her lane during short races.
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 Middle-distance runs may start inside assigned lanes and then the track opens at
a certain distance.
 Longer races may have staggered or waterfall starts, where runners starts on a
curve into an open track.
 And the baton must be handed off inside designated 20-meter-long zones during
relays, while hurdle races feature 19 jumping obstacles during the dash.

Throwing

Athletes try to throw the shot put, the discus, the javelin and the hammer farther than
one another during a meet.

Each contestant is given three throws and the farthest of the three is counted
toward scoring.
Shot put, discus and hammer are sent flying from a throwing circle.
The athlete cannot leave the circle until the throw lands or the attempt is
disqualified. In fact, if anything falls off the athlete outside the ring, including spit
or jewelry, the thrower forfeits that throw.
The javelin event has a runway with a finish line.
The thrower is allowed to run inside the runway but cannot cross the finish line,
even after letting the javelin go.
Each shot put, discus, javelin and hammer thrown must stay inside the inbound
lines of the sector for it to count.

Jumping

Jumping events include pole vault, high jump, triple jump and long jump. In pole vault
and high jump, the athlete achieves height over a bar and the jumpers go head-to-head.

 First, a jumper has three tries to make a qualifying height. Then the bar is
raised per request of each remaining jumper.
 When a certain height is achieved, other jumpers must meet or beat the height
to continue. Athletes must jump using one foot in high jump.
 Jumpers have three distance jumps into a sand pit during long jump and
triple jump, with the longest one counting toward the score.
 Athletes get a running start and must jump before a foul line.
 Triple jump requires a hop, skip and jump.
 Measurement is taken from the shortest mark left in the sand by any part of
the jumper's body.

Technicalities and Scoring

Each meet may employ a different scoring system. Usually, a progressive scoring
system is used where the top three to eight athletes in each event score points for their
teams.
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 Participants must check in with the clerk of the course prior to the meet and
the chief field judge prior to an event.
 Failure to do so may result in disqualification.
 And athletes are expected to dress properly and use good conduct.
 Refs may disqualify athletes for uniform violations, swearing or
excessive celebration.
 And the meet may limit the number of events each individual athlete
may participate in.

BASIC SKILLS

THE SPRINTERS:

The sprint events include the 400-, 200-, 100-, and 60-meter dashes. 100 meters is only
run outdoor because it is the distance for which the track is straight, and the 60 meters
is only run indoor for the same reason. Sprinters do exactly what you imagine in
practice: they sprint. However, in order to improve, they do more than run the same 60-
to 200-meter sprint. They often cross-train with biking, elliptical, and aqua-jogging, in
addition to perfecting their running form and weight lifting.

THE HURDLERS:

Hurdle events are either 100- or 400-meter with 10 hurdles in the 100 and 10 hurdles in
the 400. Similar to sprinters, hurdlers will do smaller sprints as well as longer, cross-
training, and weight lifting. They also develop their form throughout the season, not only
in sprinting but also in actual hurdling. Each hurdle is 30 inches for the 400-meter run,
and 33 inches for the 100-meter.
Similar to hurdles is the 3000m Steeplechase, which requires running and jumping,
but the jumped things do not fall if an athlete should brush against them.
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Therefore, instead of “hurdles” these are called “barriers.” Steeplechase is popular as a

spectator sport due to the second to last barrier; after this barrier is a water pit, which is
impossible to avoid getting in, and sometimes impossible to avoid falling into. Of the five
barriers constructed (including the one with the water pit), competitors must jump over
each of them seven times in this almost-two-mile race, meaning they jump 35 times
before finishing. Therefore, steeplechase competitors must train as distance runners do,
but add in hurdle drills.

THE THROWERS:

If you were beginning to think that simply every event in track and field meant running,
let the throwers show you the alternative. Part of the “power athletes” as termed by
MHC head coach Tina Lee, throwers work primarily on throwing drills with
supplementary weight training. Drills are specific to each event.

Throwing events include shot put, javelin, discus, weight throw (indoor) and hammer
throw (outdoor), which are all different shaped objects, requiring different technique.
Throwers do not often compete in more than two of these events due to the significant
muscular exertion.

THE JUMPERS:

Jumpers do less sprinting than sprinters, of course, but do need to have sprinting in
their regular routines. Those regular routines can include cross training, sprints, jumping
drills, and weight lifting. While some days jumpers will do up to 30 repetitions of their
event—long jump, triple jump, or high jump—other days will be focused less on
repetition and form, but more on increasing height or distance, like a mock track meet.

THE DISTANCE RUNNERS:

The distance events in track and field range from the 600 meters race up to 10,000
meters of running around the track. Indoor tracks are usually 200 meters all the way
around, while outdoor tracks are 400 meters. This means that for the 10,000 meters
race at an outdoor meet, athletes will run 25 times around the track. Fortunately, you do
not need to appreciate ovals that much to be a distance runner. As you have probably
come to understand by this point, track and field athletes spend a lot of time in the pool,
on a bike, on an elliptical, and in the weight room, as well as on the track or field.
Distance runners are no different, and often have a certain “mileage” goal for each
week. This means that they will do at least one truly long run—six to fifteen miles--per
week. Mileage is tailored to fit the individual, so of the twelve distance runners at Mount
Holyoke, there might be twelve different mileage goals for any given week, the shortest
being twenty miles and the longest being seventy miles.
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Video clips you can visit for more information and study:

https://youtu.be/F3SacudofuY - Track and Field

https://youtu.be/BVCm9IWSr8U - Track Events

References you can visit for more information and study:

https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-history-of-track-and-field.html - History
| Track & Field
https://www.myactivesg.com/Sports/Athletic/How-To-Play/Athletics-Facts/What-
are-track-events-in-athletics - Track Events | Track and Field
https://www.sportsrec.com/simple-rules-track-filed-events-5923072.html -
Basic Rules | Track and Field
https://sportsec.com/5819754/equipment-used-in-track-field - Facilities
and Equipment | Track and Field
https://topendsports.com/sport/athletics/equipment.htm - Facilities
and Equipment | Track and Field
https://athletics.mtholyoke.edu/sports/news/2014-
15/releases/DIIIWeek2015/diiiweek2 - Basic Skills | Track and Field