FACILITATING

LEARNER-CENTERED
TEACHING

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LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIORAL LEARNING FACILITATING
LEARNER-CENTERED
THEORIES TEACHING
 Theory of
Behaviorism Antecedent conditions
(Stimuli)

Behavior
(Responses)

Following conditions
(rewards, punishments or neutral effects)
PAVLOV’S
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
At the end of the lesson, the
student’s will be able to:
• explain how behavior are
learned according to the
Pavlovian and Watsonian
theories;
• discuss the salient processes and
phenomena of the Pavlovian and
Watsonian theories; and
• cite classroom applications of
the association theory
 Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
• Classical conditioning theory proposes that we
learn behaviors through association where two
stimuli are linked together to produce a new
learned response in a person or animal.
• Pavlov`s idea of behaviorism was best
represented in his experiment on dogs. He
believed that there are some things that a dog
does not need to learn. In summary,
behaviorism involves learning to associate an
unconditioned stimulus that already brings
about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with a
new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new
stimulus brings about the same response.
• Association Theory
 Pavlovian
Conditioning

https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
Salient
Phenomena in Discrimination

Classical
Conditioning
Other
Phenomena in Spontaneous
Extinction
Pavlovian Recovery
Conditioning

Generalization
 Watsonian
Conditioning
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was
the first to use the term ‘behaviorist’. A
behaviorist approach is only concerned
with observable stimulus-response
behaviors and states that all behaviors
are learned through interaction with the
environment. Watson’s methodological
behaviorism asserts the mind is tabula
rasa (a blank slate) at birth. He is also
notable for emphasizing scientific and
objective methods of investigation.
Watsonian
Conditioning

https://www.simplypsychology.org/little-albert.html
Association Theory According to Pavlov & Watson

Association
Behavioristic
Stimulus Learning
Response Repetition
 THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM
• identify the primary laws of
learning postulated by
Edward Thorndike;
• describe how behaviors are
learned according to
Thorndike’s laws of
learning; and
• provide teaching
implications of Thorndike’s
laws of learning.
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Instrumental-Conditioning--Thorndike-and-the-Law-of-Effect_29317/
 Edward S. Thorndike
Within the first half of the 21st Century in the
United States, Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
was prominent because of his laws of learning,
primarily under the umbrella of associationism
or connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly
concerned with the fact between the stimulus
and response (S-R). According to Karadut (2012),
Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who
focused on education. In proving his findings,
Thorndike believed that forming associations or
connections between sensory experiences and
neural impulses results in the prime type of
learning. The neural impulses, called responses,
are behaviorally manifested. He believed that
learning often occurs by trial and error (selecting
and connecting).
 Edward S. Thorndike
• Thorndike (1905) introduced the concept of reinforcement and was
the first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning.
• His research led to many theories and laws of learning, such as
operant conditioning. Skinner (1938), like Thorndike, put animals in
boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.
• Reward: the key to learning. The basic principle which Thorndike
formulated to account for the S-R connection is the law of effect; in
the language of such later psychologists as Clark Hull and B. F. Skinner,
this is a reinforcement theory of learning.

https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2509/Thorndike-Edward-L-1874-1949.html
Laws of Learning
1. Law of Exercise
Two parts:
a. The law of use
The law of use means that the frequent recurring
of the response to a stimulus strengthens their
connection.
b. The law of disuse
The law of disuse means that when a response is
not made to a stimulus, the connection's strength
is weakened or even forgotten.
Laws of Learning
2. The Law of Effect
The Law of Effect, emphasizes that if a response is followed by
a "satisfying" situation, the S-R connection is strengthened; if a
response is followed by an "annoying" situation, the S-R
connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers
and annoyers are critical to learning. This explains why
teachers give favorable comments to students who show
pleasant behavior in class, when such ego-boosting comments
satisfy the learners, the higher the chance that they will repeat
such behavior.
Laws of Learning
3. The Law of Readiness
The third law of learning also has something to do with
boosting human motivation. The law of readiness states that if
one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so
is punishing. In short, before learning commences, one must
be physically, emotionally, mentally, and psychologically
prepared. one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not
to do so is punishing.
Other Laws of Learning
Law of Primacy
Thorndike also observed that the first thing
learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost
inerasable. It implies that learning a concept or
skill again is more difficult than the first time one
has learned it.
Other Laws of Learning
Law of Intensity
As much as possible, teachers provide activities that
come with extreme relevance to the learners. Thorndike
believed that exciting, immediate, or even dramatic
learning within the real context of the students would
tremendously facilitate learning. Hence, the Law of
Intensity implies that exposing the students in real
world applications of the skills and concepts makes
them most likely to remember the experience.
Other Laws of Learning
Law of Recency
The concepts or skills most recently learned are least
forgotten. This is the gist of the law of recency. Thus,
when learners are isolated in time from learning a new
concept, the more difficult it is for them to remember. It
is easier to recall and recite those which are learned
minutes ago than those which were taught the other
month.
Other Laws of Learning
Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an
almost similar response to an entirely different stimulus if, on
recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared
to the previously known one. Thorndike coins this as the
Principle of Associative Shifting. For example, to teach pupils to
add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding
of a one-digit number first. As they solve increasing numbers,
pupils will tend to associate the response to the previously
paired S-R.
 Other Laws of Learning
The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have
identical elements and call for similar responses. Thorndike
called it as generalization (Thorndike, 1913). This implies that
not only skills should be taught in one isolated topic, but also
that other related subjects or topics should provide
opportunities for the students to apply them. In a Social
Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read
maps, but it is better if they are also taught to calculate miles
from inches. Later, that skill is reinforced when they will create
their maps and map problems to solve.
 Form habits,
do not
expect them
Introduce a
to create
skill when it themselves Beware of
will most fully forming a
facilitate habit that
learning which must be
will follow
shortly
Thorndike broken later
noted that
teachers
Introduce skills should Do not form
when it is most two or more
interestingly habits when
Thorndike’s producing
learning Identify a skill
one will do as
well
Connectionism when it is most
suited in
difficulty to the
and Teaching ability of the
learners
Laws of
Learning Exercise

Readiness Primacy

Effect

Generalization Recency
Principle of
Associative
Shifting
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
At the end of the students will be able to
• describe reinforcement and punishment in the context of
operant conditioning;
• differentiate the characteristics of the theories of classical
and operant conditioning:
• analyze a research article about operant conditioning; and
• devise a teaching strategy bank of classroom applications of
operant conditioning
 Skinner's Operant
Conditioning
One of the most popular behavioral
theorists of all time is B.F (Burrhus Frederic)
Skinner (1904-1990) He postulated the
operant conditioning. Classical conditioning
refers to the association of stimuli whereas
operant conditioning actively involves the
subject's participation. The subject in
operant conditioning has a choice to
respond. In other words, operant
conditioning is the type of learning whereby
learning occurs as a consequence of the
learner's behavior.
B.F (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
BF Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on
animals through his Skinner's box, a device that modified the
animal's behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a box with
a lever, a bowl, and a closed chamber. If the lever was pushed,
the chamber opened and dispensed food. Unconscious about
this mechanism, the rat accidentally pushed the lever, and the
food was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing
the lever could open the food dispenser to the bowl. Skinner
termed the food to such an experiment as the reward.
https://sites.psu.edu/rclerin/2015/03/26/conditioning-not-the-hair-kind-part-2/
B.F (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is defined as something that strengthens the
behavior or is sometimes called as the response strengthener
(Schultz, 2006). Positive reinforcement is defined as the
addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is
illustrated in the Skinner's box.
The dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that
caused the rat to continually push the lever(behavior)
B.F (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
Negative reinforcement is taking something away from a
situation that subsequently increases the occurrence of the
response. In other words, it is taking away an unpleasant
consequence to cause the behavior to happen again. Some
stimuli that often function as negative reinforcers are loud
noises, criticisms, annoying people, and low grades, because
actions that remove them tend to be reinforcing.
 Schedule of Reinforcements (Skinner, 1938, Zeiler, 1977)
Reinforcement Schedule Description Classroom Application
Reinforcement is given every time Students receive feedback after
Continuous Schedule the animal gives the desired each response concerning the
response. accuracy of their work.
Reinforcement is given irregularly Students are not called on every
as the animal gives the desired time they raise their hands, not
Intermittent Schedule
response. praised after working each
problem, and not always told they
are behaving appropriately.
The time interval is constant from Appreciating a student's answer is
Fixed interval
one reinforcement to the next. done for the first response made
after 5 minutes.
The time interval varies from The first correct response after 5
Variable interval occasion to occasion around some minutes is reinforced, but the
average value. time interval varies (e.g., 2, 3, 7,
or 8 minutes).
 Schedule of Reinforcements (Skinner, 1938, Zeiler, 1977)
Reinforcement Schedule Description
Reinforcement is given
Ratio Schedule
depending on the number of
correct responses or the
rate of responding.
Every nth correct response is
Fixed ratio
reinforced, where n is
constant.
Every nth the correct
response is reinforced, but
Variable ratio
the value varies around an
average number n.
Classroom Application
Teacher gives praises to a
student after reciting the
fifth correct answer.
Every 10th correct response
receives reinforcement.
A teacher may give free time
periodically around an
average of five completed
assignments.
 B.F (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
Punishment
Operant conditioning also includes punishment, whose main
aim is to weaken the response However, punishment does not
necessarily eliminate the behavior; when the threat of
punishment is removed, the punished response may recur
(Merrett & Wheldall, 1984). Skinner believed that positive
punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to
decrease the behavior.
B.F (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner
Punishment
Negative punishment, meanwhile, is the removal of rewarding
stimulus to decrease the behavior.
Relationship of reinforcement and
punishment
Reinforcement Punishment
(increasing the behavior) (decreasing the behavior)

Positive (adding) Adding something to Adding something to

increase the behavior decrease the behavior

Negative (subtracting) Subtracting something to Subtracting something to

increase the behavior decrease the behavior.
Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions.
Maag (2001) enumerated some common punishments like loss
of privileges, removals from the classroom, in- and out-of-
school suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are
several alternatives to punishment .The primary advantage of
this alternatives over punishment is that it shows the student
how to behave adaptively.
 Alternatives to Punishment
Allow the
Change the Extinguish the Condition an
unwanted
discriminative unwanted incompatible
behavior to
stimuli behavior behavior
continue
• Move • Have student • Ignore minor • Reinforce
misbehaving who stands misbehavior so learning
student away when he or she that it is not progress, which
from other should be reinforced by occurs only
misbehaving sitting continue teacher when a student
students to stand attention is not
misbehaving
NEO-BEHAVIORISM
Neo-Behaviorism
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

• distinguish behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to

Neo-Behaviorism by Tolman and Bandura;

• relate the salient features of Tolman's purposive behaviorism and

Bandura's social-cognitive theory to actual teaching;

• and analyze detailed lesson plans using the principles of Tolman's

purposive behaviorism and Bandura's social-cognitive theory.
Neo-Behaviorism
As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came
out to fill in the gap between behaviorism and cognitive
learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable
psychologists that contributed much to the development of
neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura.
The neo behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to
formalize the laws of behavior. They believed that some
mediating variables into the established stimulus-response
theory contribute much to learning.
 Tolman's Purposive
Behaviorism
Purposive learning encapsulates Edward
Tolman's theory. He insisted that all behavior
is directed because of a purpose. Hence, all
behaviors are focused on achieving some
goals by cognition an intervening variable.
For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the
result of mindless S-R connections. He
further believed that "mental processes are
to be identified in terms of the behaviors to
which they lead." In other words, his
intervening variables are tied to observable
behaviors.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/psychology-in-real-life-latent-learning/
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes
for 17 days. The first group of rats was fed (rewarded) every
time they found their way out. The second group of rats was
non-reinforced. The rats did not receive any food from days 1
to 10 even if they have seen the end point. Later, it was
observed that in the first 10 days, the rats developed a
cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward, they were
motivated to perform and look for the end point faster than
the first group to find food because they were hungry.
 Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a
behavior because it has a purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of latent
learning- a form of learning that occurs without any visible reinforcement of the
behavior or associations that are learned. In addition, latent learning occurs every
time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance, a 4-year-old
boy observed his father in using the TV remote control. When he would be left
alone and had the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he
could easily demonstrate the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining of
the term "cognitive map." According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the
layout of the environment. It is believed that everything in our cognitive map
influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making our cognitive map
more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
 Tolman's Other Salient Principles

1. Behavior is always purposive. By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited

to accomplish a specific goal. In its purest sense, a demonstration of learning
is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show it.

2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide behavior

are cognitions. This means that an organism is mindful of the connections
between specific actions and certain outcomes (cognitive map). Such mental
map is developed by expanding the experiences, coupled with the stimuli
and rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a
theoretical invention. He believed that cognitions should only be inferred
from behavior, not through introspection.
 Tolman's Other Salient Principles

3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also

underscored the role of reinforcement in learning. As previously stated,
learning, according to Tolman, deals with connections between stimuli and
expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs, and other
intervening variables. Because expectancies develop in situations in which
reinforcement is possible, the role of reinforcement is primarily one of
confirming expectancies. The more often an expectancy is established, the
more likely it is that the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become linked
with the relevant significate (expectancy).
Albert Bandura
(1925 – present)

Bandura is known for his social

learning theory. He is quite
different from other learning
theorists who look at learning as a
direct result of conditioning,
reinforcement, and punishment.
Bandura asserts that most human
behavior is learned through
observation, imitation, and
modeling.
 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Under the social learning theory, learning occurs within the social context and by
observing and copying others behavior or imitation (Akers & Jensen, 2006,).
Albert Bandura is the proponent of this theory, where modeling is a crucial
component. Modeling refers to a change in one's behavior by observing models
(Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978).
• Bandura's theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the
influence of cognition in his theory. He is one among few behaviorists who
believed that humans process information through cognition. The term self-
efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive psychology. Self-efficacy
is defined as one's evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or perform
an action in a particular context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as
capable, or useful, in dealing with the world and with other people.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
• Bandura, Ross and Ross carried out the Bobo doll experiment. They
found that children who had observed an adult behaving violently
towards the Bobo doll were more likely to act aggressively towards it
themselves when given the opportunity. These findings indicate that
learning takes place not only when individuals are rewarded or
punished for their own behavior, but also when they observe another
person exhibiting violent behavior – a process called observational
learning.
https://thelearningchapter.com/2016/01/15/bobo-dolls-and-learning/
The following are the fundamental principles
of social learning theory:
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This contrasts with what other
behaviorists discussed earlier, for them, a change in behavior is always an indication of
learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics (i.e.,
intelligence, physical aura, popularity, or talent) that a learner finds attractive and
desirable. Admiration plays an essential role in imitating a particular behavior of the
model. This explains why speech teachers recite a crucial sound first, then guide the
learners until they can recite the sound correctly by themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on
whether the model is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator
copies the behavior, and if the former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid
copying the behavior.
 The following are the fundamental principles
of social learning theory:
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation
line between performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by
observing someone but may opt not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur
successfully when learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam,
2013). Learning in isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that copying
behavior involves the guiding of one person's behavior by another person, such as
when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to an art student
who is attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final "copied"
response is reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when
individuals observe, assess, and judge their behavior against their standards, and
subsequently reward and punish them.
 The following are the fundamental principles
of social learning theory:
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired
from observing the consequences of others’ behavior. For instance,
when a model is given praises and rewards, the observer may likely
repeat the copied behavior because he or she feels the same
satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others.
Compliments coming from the model may strengthen the occurrence
of the behavior. Similarly, when a person is praised by his or her peers
because of a change in behavior, he or she may show an increase in
that behavior.
 Components of Successful Modeling
• Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay
attention. At any given moment, one can attend to many activities. The
characteristics of the model and the observer influence one's attention to
models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large fonts in
their instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.
• Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that
requires cognitively organizing, rehearsing, coding, and transforming
modeled information for storage in memory. Rehearsal also serves a vital role
in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of formation.
Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and
cognitive pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an observer counts 1-2-3-4
and 5 with corresponding steps to the dance steps in his or her memory.
Rehearsal without coding and coding without rehearsal a less effective.
Components of Successful Modeling
• Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one
needs to translate the visual and symbolic conceptions into
observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior
indicates an increase in learning. Bandura noted that
observers refine their skills with practice, corrective feedback,
and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled
behaviors arise not only because information is inadequately
coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information in memory into overt action.
Teachers who suspect that students are having trouble
demonstrating what they have learned may need to test
students in different ways.
Components of Successful Modeling
• Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation.
Individuals perform actions they believe will result in rewarding
outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded
negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values,
performing activities they value and avoiding those they find
unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or others.
Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers
promote in various ways, including making learning interesting,
relating material to student interests, having students set goals and
monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing
competence, and string the value of learning.
FACILITATING
LEARNER-CENTERED
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING
TEACHING THEORIES
Constructivism
Constructivism lies on the premise that learning is
an active process. When given the proper guidance and
learning environment, learners can create
representations of objective reality. Learners are not
empty vessels to be filled up, but they can construct
knowledge when new information is linked to their prior
knowledge.
Constructivism
At the end of the lesson, the student’s will be able to:
• explain the theory of constructivism;
• discuss the implications of constructivism to the teaching and
learning process; and
• cite specific teaching practices that manifest constructivism
 Jerome Bruner
Constructivist theory states that learning
takes place in contexts and that learners
form or construct much of what they
learn and understand as a function of
their experiences in situations.
Jerome Bruner’s theory of cognitive
growth does not link changes in
development with cognitive structures as
Piaget did. Instead, it highlights the
various ways that children represent
knowledge.
Constructivism
Coming from the works of Piaget and Vygotsky, the
constructivist theory of learning posits that learners derive
meaning and form concepts out of their own experiences. In the
process, the learner reflects on the experience and then creates
new understanding and knowledge from a new experience. If the
experience is related to a previous one, the learner revises the
knowledge and understanding and discards whatever information
is deemed irrelevant. Using questioning, exploring, and assessing,
the learner constructs and reorganizes knowledge. Therefore, the
learner is an active creator of knowledge and understanding.
Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
Jerome Bruner believes that learning is an active process
where learners can create new ideas or concepts using their
current or past knowledge about things, events, or situations.
Learners can select information, transform them into new ones,
add-up to them to make decisions or create new sets of
understanding. When properly guided and motivated, learners can
even go beyond the information given to them. This is a time when
learners' creativity on concept formation is made evident because
they are given opportunities to make hypotheses and tests them
through further discovery. Very remarkable from Bruner is his
emphasis on categorization in learning.
Bruner’s Constructivist Theory
"To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to
learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize."

Categorization involves perception, conceptualization, learning,

decision-making, and making inferences. Bruner encourages teachers to
allow students to discover concepts by themselves through learning
opportunities and activities that allow them to explore and experiment.
The learners should never fear committing mistakes or errors while
discovering because everything that happens in between is a part of
their construction of new ideas or concepts.
Bruner (1966) emphasized four major aspects to
be addressed during the teaching and learning
process.
1. Predisposition toward learning
The child's readiness to learn is an important aspect to consider in
learning concepts and skills. Love of learning should be emphasized
at an early age. One of the factors that can contribute to this is the
parent and teacher influences on a child. When both parents and
teachers provide enjoyable opportunities for exploration and play,
the child can discover new concepts in interesting ways. With the
guidance of teachers in school and the provision of appropriate
learning materials, spontaneous explorations bring concepts. about
learning of new concepts.
Bruner (1966) emphasized four major aspects to
be addressed during the teaching and learning
process.
2. How a body of knowledge can be structured so
that it can be most readily grasped by the learner
Topics and concepts are effectively learned when details of
such are arranged and ordered in the context of the learner.
Structures are usually arranged from simple to its more
complex form. Patterns are also based on what is recognizable
or familiar to the learners than to those who are very new to
them.
Bruner (1966) emphasized four major aspects to
be addressed during the teaching and learning
process.
3. The most effective sequences in which to present
material
Sequencing of presentation is a part of a teacher's
innovation in teaching. The teacher considers which the
learners need most and can understand first and can
master first as a prerequisite knowledge or skill to the
next topic or concept.
Bruner (1966) emphasized four major aspects to
be addressed during the teaching and learning
process.
4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments
Rewards and punishments should be properly selected
and that whenever they are given to learners, they
should know and understand why they are rewarded or
punished.
Bruner's principles of instruction:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences
and contexts that make the student willing and able to
learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily
grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate
extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
Gestalt Theory:
Gestalt came from a German term that means pattern or form. Gestalt psychology
was introduced in 1912 by Max Wertheimer. He is a German psychologist who
believed that a whole is more than just the totality of its parts. The focus of this
theory was on grouping. Figure 19 lists the laws of grouping derived from this theory
(Wertheimer, 1938):
a. Similarity-elements that have the same or nearly similar features are grouped
together
b. Proximity - elements that are near to each other are grouped together
c. Continuity-elements that define smooth lines or even curves are also grouped
together
d. Closure - elements that fill up missing parts to complete an entity are grouped
together
Gestalt Theory
The unified whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Major principles of Gestalt theory of learning
(Koffka, 2013):
1 The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying
nature of a topic or a problem.
2. Gaps, incongruities, disturbances are an essential stimulus
for learning.
3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization:
similarity, proximity, continuity, closure.
 David Ausubel

• Subsumption Theory
• David Ausubel’s subsumption theory
suggests a way of creating instructional
material that helps learners organize
their content in order to make it
meaningful for transfer. He suggested
the use of Advanced Organizers as tools
that mentally help learners learn and
retain knowledge, enabling them to
combine new with already known
information.
 Subsumption Theory
The Subsumption Theory was developed by David Ausubel. This
theory emphasizes how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from both verbal and textual presentations
in a school setting. The use of advance organizers is a useful way
of learning. Subsumption means to put or include something
within something larger or more comprehensive. A person
learns something from what he already knows. An individual's
cognitive structure consists of all his learning experiences that
make up his knowledge of facts, concepts, and other data.
Sometimes, some of these are forgotten because they are
integrated into larger structures of knowledge.
Subsumption Theory

Before a new set of knowledge can be learned, a person's

cognitive structure should be strengthened. Using advance
organizers is one way of strengthening one's cognitive
structure because they enable the learner to see a general
picture of the concept even before looking into its details or
parts. Advance organizers enable a learner to connect new
information with what he or she already knows about it and
helps the learner to see the interrelationships of concepts to
each other.
The Subsumption Theory presents four learning processes
where a piece of new knowledge is assimilated into an
existing cognitive structure (Ausubel et al., 1978):
1. Derivative subsumption: a new concept learned is an example of a
concept that you have already learned before.
2. Correlative subsumption: a new concept learned is an extension or
modification of a previously learned information.
3. Superordinate subsumption: what was learned are specific
examples of a new concept.
4. Combinatorial subsumption: a new concept is combined with a
prior known concept to enrich both concepts.
 Explore and discover learning opportunities
where he or she can generate new knowledge
that will contribute to what is existing.

CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING FACILITATING

LEARNER-CENTERED
THEORIES TEACHING
 Cooperative and Experiential Learning
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• discuss the importance of cooperative and
experiential learning in K to 12 classroom;
• relate the features of collaborative and
experiential learning to constructivism, and
• create a teaching strategy bank anchored on
collaborative and experiential learning.
 Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning allows many
opportunities to develop learners'
interpersonal skills. It would give them
experiences on how they can properly
interact with the others and at the
same time listen and learn from their
groupmates. Cooperative learning is
also a type of constructivist teaching
because it allows the creation and
innovation of knowledge through group
interaction and active participation of
each member.
Cooperative learning has the following features:
1. Students are actively engaged, thus, developing in each
member, a cooperative spirit.
2. Each member is challenged to give his or her best because it
can create a healthy and competitive spirit.
3. It allows learners creativity and innovation because they
interact with people their age, peers, or classmates.
4. It develops positivity like open-mindedness, humility, and
give-and-take attitude, as well as listening skills.
5. It reduces pressure from work and creates a positive
classroom atmosphere.
 Cooperative Learning
When teachers use cooperative learning as an
instructional strategy, proper guidance should be
established. Clear instructions should be given before
the groupings. Expectations and outputs should be
made clear so that the learners will not be wasting their
time during their groupings. Cooperative learning
usually follows three stages:
 Cooperative learning usually follows three
stages:
1. Teachers assign learners to groups. Sometimes,
learners can also be given a chance to choose their
groupmates depending on the nature of the task
given. Teachers should be creative; groupings should
also be varied now and then so that learners get to
experience working with others.
 Cooperative learning usually follows three
stages:
2. Tasking is a vital component of cooperative learning.
Everybody should clearly understand what is expected
from them and what kind of output are they supposed
to accomplish at the end of the grouping. Clear and
concrete instructions should be given by the teacher,
like the time element involved to finish the task,
materials to use, the role of the members, and the like.
This way, time is also well spent.
 Cooperative learning usually follows three
stages:
3. The working time and task collaboration
should be an active process. Teachers
need to also actively monitor how tasks
are done. Each member performs his or
her assigned role. Learners should be
free to interact and to comment on each
other's work.
 Experiential Learning
Actual hands-on activities are still
the most effective means of
learning. Experiences that are direct
and purposeful are still the learners’
best opportunity to master a
concept or a skill. Direct and
purposeful experiences are rich
experiences that the senses bring,
from which ideas, concepts,
generalizations are constructed
(Dale, 1969)
https://teachernoella.weebly.com/dales-cone-of-experience.html
 Experiential Learning
Contrived experiences are substitutes for real things, objects or
situations. Examples of these are models, mock-ups, specimens,
simulations, and even games. These are brought or performed in
the classroom because not all real things can be brought to the
classroom. Substitutes such as these can also bring near-to-real
experiences to the learners. In addition, experiential learning can
also take the form of dramatized experiences like plays, pageants,
tableau, pantomime, puppets, and role-playing.
Experiential Learning
Learners enjoy when they take active roles in
experiential learning activities. Teachers challenge them
to come up with their creative styles of presentation.
With all their access to varied information combined
with their experiences, creation and construction of
new concepts are seen visibly from them.
 FACILITATING
Chapter 6: Psychosocial, Psychosexual, and LEARNER-CENTERED
Humanist Theories of Learning TEACHING
Objectives:
• In this chapter you are expected to:
• discuss the development of learners following the concepts of the
different theories,
• assess classroom scenario or situations where learning theories are
applied;
• and recommend appropriate dealings with learners applying the
different theories.
 Lesson 1: Erikson's Psychosocial Theory and
Freud's Psychosexual Theory
After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

• compare and contrast Erikson's Psychosocial and Freud's Psychosexual

Theories;
• connect Erikson's Psychosocial and Freud's Psychosexual Theories to
teaching; and
• relate Erikson's Psychosocial and Freud's Psychosexual Theories to current
issues of learners.
 Erik Erikson's
Psychosocial Theory
Erikson's work described the development
of human beings, including all the human
lifespan-from infancy to adulthood. He
stressed the importance of interpersonal,
social, and cultural influences in the
development of the people. Erikson saw
that each stage presents its own specific
challenges, which he called crisis. He
believed that these crises presented
challenges in an individual's identity.
Successful development of the personality
depends on meeting and overcoming these
tasks or crises (Fleming, 2004). (1902-1994)
 The
Psychosocial
Stages

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740
 Stage One: Trust vs Mistrust
Starting from infancy to about 18 months, this first stage
develops the infants to trust others. Letting them feel that they
are cared for is a paramount concern. They should view the
world as non-threatening. When caregivers provide reliability,
care, and protection, children will develop a sense of trust. A
lack we of this will lead to mistrust. Hence, it is implied that
parents should provide the best possible means to meet all the basic needs
of the infant like shelter, food, and water, and ensure that the place within
which the infant moves is safe and secured.
Stage Two: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
The prime ways to take good care of themselves should be taught to
children from 2 to 3 years old. Feeding themselves, toilet
training, and changing their clothes are a few examples. In
this stage, they ask themselves if they can stand alone or
always need to rely on others. This stage implies that parents
should ensure that their children develop a sense of personal control
over personal skills. Eventually, success leads to feeling of autonomy, any
failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage Three: Initiative vs Guilt
Children, at this stage, are fond of doing things on their own.
Exploration and play are crucial activities for them to learn new ideas
to apply in their lives. Children need to assert control and power
over their environment. Success in this state results to a sense
purpose. If they exert too much effort and become too
authoritative, they will feel a sense of guilt.
Preschool teachers, therefore, should ensure that children are
given sufficient opportunities to select choices and act independently.
Stage Four: Industry vs Inferiority
At this stage, levels of maturity and self-awareness are increased.
Children always ask themselves how they can be good. They are
ensured to cope with the new social and academic demands.
Success at this stage results to a sense of competence, whereas
failure leads to feeling of inferiority. Teachers need to ensure
that, at this stage, children feel successful in their own learning.
Classroom opportunities to apply their learning should be rich. As much
as possible, the difficulty of each task is gradually controlled so that the
feeling of accomplishment is felt, and their industry is maximized.
 Stage Five: Identity vs Role Confusion
Social relationships play a vital role at this stage, when
their sexual identity is developed. Discovery of oneself
comes with the thought of where one should fit in a social
circle. At this stage, too, adolescents develop their framework of morality.
Identity crisis, as a result of the transition from childhood to adulthood, may
also be experienced. It is a result of high expectations from others.
Some of them may be doubtful whether what they do is appropriate for
their age. Failure to balance at this stage may result to experiencing
upheaval and role confusion. Hence, teachers should ensure that teens have
the opportunities to develop a sense of self and personal identity through
collaborative tasks and activities.
 Stage Six: Intimacy vs Isolation
Finding the right partner confronts the young adults at this stage.
Failure to do so results to fear of spending the rest of their lives alone or
isolated. Because young people interact most frequently with others,
they are most susceptible to feeling intimacy and loneliness. Although
finding someone whom they can share a lifelong commitment is not
always the norm, some may opt to be single and forge significant
friendly relationship with their peers and colleagues.
Stage Seven: Generativity vs Stagnation

Adults, at this stage, are mostly attached to their careers and

professional journeys. They find life’s meaning by contributing
something to the community, taking responsibilities and
control, and leaving an indelible legacy. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness or generativity, whereas failure to attain so causes
inactivity or meaninglessness.
Stage Eight: Ego Integrity vs Despair
When thinking that they have contributed something
valuable during their younger years, retired and
about-to-retire people should feel a sense of
fulfillment. Harking back the days with sense of
fulfillment, adults can feel a sense of wisdom and integrity, Failure
results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
 Sigmund Freud's
Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud's Psychosexual Theory states the
need to satisfy basic biological needs. His theory,
also known as the theory of libidinal
development, is one of the earliest theories
explaining how personality develops in human
beings. He posited a series of universal
developmental stages in which psychic energy
becomes focused in different erogenous zones.
The psychic energy refers to the biologically
based, instinctual drives that energize behavior,
thoughts, and feelings. The erogenous zones are
the areas of the body that become erotically
sensitive in successive stages of development. It
is through this premise that the personality
structure of a human being is also influenced.
 Personality Structure
• ID- This is known as the biological drives with which
the infant is born. It is said to be the earliest and most
primitive personality structure and refers to the
unconscious and usually operates with the goal of seeking
pleasure.
• Ego- This structure is the rational, logical, problem-solving
component of the personality.
• Superego- Superego This is the structure based on the child's
internalization of the adults’ attributes, beliefs, and standards.
 Summary of the psychosexual stages
according to Freud
Psychosexual Stage Age Description
Oral Birth to Infants find pleasure on doing oral activities like sucking, chewing. and
1 year biting; hence, feeding activities are vital. In effect, infants weaned too
early or abruptly may later crave close contact and become
overdependent on a spouse.
Anal 1-3 years Gratification is primarily caused by voluntary urination and defecation.
Thus, toilet-training produces major conflicts between children and
parents. The emotional climate that parents create can have lasting
effects. For example, children who are punished for toileting accidents
may be messy, topsy-turvy, or wasteful.
Phallic 3-6 years Genital stimulation causes gratification at this stage Children develop
incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus complex for boys
and Electra complex for girls). Anxiety stemming from this conflict causes
children to internalize the sex-role characteristics and moral standards of
their same-sex parental rival.
 Summary of the psychosexual stages
according to Freud
Psychosexual Age Description
Stage
Latency 6-11 Traumas of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to be
years repressed and sexual urges to be rechanneled into schoolwork
and vigorous play. The ego and superego continue to develop
as the child gains more problem-solving abilities at school and
internalizes societal values.
Genital 12 Puberty triggers a reawakening of sexual urges. Adolescents
years must now learn how to express these urges in socially
acceptable ways. If development has been healthy, the mature
sex instinct is satisfied by marriage and raising children.
 Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory
After completing this lesson, you will be
able to:

• discuss the levels and stages of

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory;

• explain the salient features of Kohlberg's

Moral Development Theory; and

• relate Kohlberg's Moral Development

Theory to current issues of learners.
 Lawrence Kohlberg's Moral
Development Theory
Moral development does not simply talk
about increasing knowledge of cultural
values leading to ethical standards (Kohlberg,
1977). It represents the transformations that
occur in a person's form or structure of
thought. According to him, children form
ways of thinking through their experiences,
which include understandings of moral
concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and
human welfare. Once children had a
negative experience on these concepts, they
would develop an idea, and later on, a moral
concept that what they did was just and
good.
Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory
Level Stage Description
Preconventional. This is the 1 Punishment and Obedience. One is
level where moral reasoning is motivated by fear of punishment.
based on the consequence or Thus, he will act to avoid punishment
result of the act (reward and or for the sake of following an
punishment) or the physical 2 authority.
consequences of the action,
not on whether the act itself is Instrumental-Relativist. A person is
good or bad. motivated to act by the benefit that
one may obtain later or the concept
of mutual benefit.
Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory
Level
Conventional. Moral reasoning is
based on the conventions or
norms of society; these may
include approval of others, law,
and order, and expectations from
a person's family, group, or
nation are perceived as valuable.
The attitude is not only one of
conformity to personal
expectations and social order, but
of loyalty, of actively maintaining,
supporting, and justifying the
order, and of identifying with the
persons or group involved in it.
Stage Description
3 Interpersonal Concordance. One is
motivated by what others expect in
behavior. The person usually acts
because he or she values how he or she
will appear to others. One gives
importance to what people will think or
say about him or her.
4 Law and Order Orientation. One is
motivated to act to uphold law and
order. It refers to doing one's duty,
showing respect to authority, and
maintaining the given social order for its
own sake.
Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory
Level
Post-conventional, Autonomous,
or Principled. Moral reasoning is
based on enduring or consistent
concept of moral values and
principles and not just following
the law. Moral values and
principles are clearly defined on
this level.
Stage Description
5 Social - Contract, Legalistic. There is a
clear awareness of the relativism of
personal values and opinions and a
corresponding emphasis upon
procedural rules for reaching consensus.
6 Universal - ethical principle. The moral
values and principles are defined
through the conscience by self-chosen
ethical principles. This also refers to the
universal principles of justice, equality,
respect for the dignity of human beings.
Isaksson (1979) postulated that Kohlberg's theory can be a basis for moral education
in school g other educational settings. The conditions for the efficacy of such
programs are the following:

1. The teachers' prior knowledge of the developmental stage or level of

the individual students both as regards cognitive and moral
development, as well as some knowledge of the principles underlying
cognitive-developmental psychology
2. An accepting classroom atmosphere (and probably some minimum of
correlation between this classroom atmosphere and the ambience of
the school as a whole, as well as a morally advanced ethos in the family,
the peer group, the mass media, politics, etc., that is, in the child's
environment and the society at large);
Isaksson (1979) postulated that Kohlberg's theory can be a basis for moral education
in school g other educational settings. The conditions for the efficacy of such
programs are the following:

3. Exposure of the students to the next stage above their own:

4. Cognitive conflict; and
5. Role-taking by students.
Thank you!
Rodalie Dineros