Module 1

INFORMATION AGE
The Information Age is defined as a “period starting in the last quarter of the 20 th century when information became
effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of information by computers and computer
networks” (Vocabulary.com, n.d).
The means of conveying symbolic information (e.g., writing, math, other codes) among humans has evolved with increasing
speed.
The Information Age is also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with the development
of computers.
According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982, “the Information Age is a true
new age based upon the interconnection of computers via telecommunications, with these information systems operating
on both a real-time and as-needed basis. Furthermore, the primary factors driving this new age forward are convenience
and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user dependence.

HISTORY
The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information Age (United States American History, n.d.).
Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age
YEAR EVENT
3000 BC Sumerian writing system used pictograph to represent words.
2900 BC Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.
1300 BC Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used.
500 BC Papyrus roll was used.
220 BC Chinese small seal writing was developed.
100 AD Book (parchment codex).
105 AD Woodblock printing and paper was invented by the Chinese.
1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable metal type.
1755 Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling.
1802 The Library of Congress was established.
Invention of the carbon arc lamp.
1824 Research on persistence of vision published.
1830s First viable design for a digital computer
Augusta Lady Byron writes the world’s first computer program.
1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the United States.
1861 Motion pictures were projected onto a screen.
1876 Dewey Decimal system was introduced.
1877 Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography.
1899 First magnetic recordings were released.
1902 Motion picture special effects were used.
1906 Lee DeForest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode).
1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn.
1926 First practical sound movie.
1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting began in the US.
1940s Beginnings of information science as a discipline.
1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext.
1946 ENIAC computer was developed.
1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E. Shannon.
1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni.
1958 First Integrated circuit.
1960s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable code).
1969 UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle multitasking.
1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip.
1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA.
1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format.
1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for the public.
1977 RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer.
1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced.
Mid 1980s Artificial intelligence was separated from information science.
1987 Hypercard was developed by Bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor.
1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM was released.
January 1997 RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security code cracked for a 48-
bit number.

EVOLUTION OF MAN AND INFORMATION

As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved in many ways. Eventually, we no longer kept them to
ourselves; instead, we share them and manage them in different means.
 Information got ahead of us. It started to grow at a rate we were unprepared to handle, because of the abundance of
information, it was difficult to collect and manage them starting in the 1960s and 1970s.
During the 1980s, real angst set in. Richard Wurman called it “Information Anxiety”. In the 1990s, information became the
currency in the business world. Information was the preferred medium of exchange and the information managers served
as information officers.
In the present generation, there is no doubt that information has turned out to be a commodity, an overdeveloped product,
mass-produced, and unspecialized. Soon, we become overloaded with it.

Different authors have diverse, contrasting ideas on the evolution of the Information Age. In spite of this, we can still say that
information is a very important tool that helps improve our way of life. One thing is for sure, the Information Age will continue to
move forward and for greater than our minds could imagine.

In his article “Truths of the Information Age” (n.d), Robert Harris detailed some facts on the Information Age.

Information must compete. There is a need for information to stand out and be recognized in the increasing clutter.
Newer is equated with truer. We forgot that any fact or value can endure.
Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to receive a more balanced view of
reality.
The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is driven by cultural priorities.
The early word gets the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often defines the context, terms, and attitudes
surrounding it.
You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas and information are presented to you.
Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible knowledge; scandals, and secrets is ever-
present; hence, many events are fabricated by tabloids, publicists, or other agents of information fraud.
Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any assertion that will not find some supporters
and some detractors.
Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossips never truly die down. They persist and
continue to circulate.
Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way they would if being filmed when the
media are present, especially film news or television media.
The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and slightly textual, so visual stories are
emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is usually selected, verbally charged, filtered, slanted, and
sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often even more important that what is included.

Module 2

What is World Wide Web?

The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information between computers on the Internet.
The World Wide Web is the network of pages of images, texts and sounds on the Internet which can be viewed using
browser software.

WWW …. BACKGROUND?
1989-1990 – Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web at CERN.
Means for transferring text and graphics simultaneously.
Lots of previous attempts (Gopher, WAIS, Archie, Xanadu, etc.)
Client/Server data transfer protocol.
Established a common language for sharing information on computers.

STRUCTURE
Clients use browser application to send URIs via HTTP to servers requesting a Web page.
Web pages constructed using HTML (or other markup language) and consist of text, graphics, and sounds plus embedded
files.
Servers (or caches) respond with requested Web page
 Or with error message.
Client’s browser renders Web page returned by server.
 Page is written using Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)
 Displaying text, graphics and sound in browser
 Writing data as well
The entire system runs over standard networking protocols (TCP/IP, DNS…).

WWW COMPONENTS
Structural Components:
 Clients/browsers – to dominant implementations.
 Servers – run on sophisticated hardware.
 Caches – many interesting implementations.
 Internet – the global infrastructure which facilitates data transfer.

Semantic Components:
 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) – extensible Markup Language (XML)
 Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)

THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The Hypertext concept
 Hypertext is text which contains links to other texts. The term was coined by Ted Nelson around 1965.
 The Hypermedia concept
 Hypermedia is a term used for hypertext which is not constrained to be text: it can include graphics, video and
sound.

WEB Browser
 A web browser displays a web document and enables users to access web documents.

WEB Server
 This is a program that waits patiently for the browser to request a web page. The server looks for the requested
information, retrieves it and sends it to the browser or sends an error message if the file is not found.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 These are the web addresses. The resource locator is an addressing system.
 SCIENCE AND RESEARCH IN COMPUTER FIELDS
COMPUTER - AIDED DESIGN
A CAD system is a combination of hardware and software that enables engineers and architects to design everything from
furniture to airplanes. In addition to the software, CAD systems require a high-quality graphics monitor; a mouse, light pen,
or digitizing tablet for drawing; and a special printer or plotter for printing design specifications. CAD systems allow an
engineer to view a design from any angle with the push of a button and to zoom in or out for close-ups and long-distance
views. In addition, the computer keeps track of design dependencies so that when the engineer changes one value, all other
values that depend on it are automatically changed accordingly. Until the mid 1980s, all CAD systems were specially
constructed computers. Now, you can buy CAD software that runs on general-purpose workstations and personal
computers.

COMPUTER – AIDED ENGINEERING

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the process of solving engineering problems through the use of sophisticated,
interactive graphical software.
CAE is one of the leading software employed by manufacturing organizations to mass produce products in a factory-based
environment. It allows for more computations than is possible by hand, especially when it is coupled with optimization
system.

WEATHER FORECASTING
Is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have
attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since the nineteenth century. Weather forecasts
are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere on a given place and using scientific
understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change.

EXPERIMENTATION
Determining the location of an earthquake and Recording earthquake. Nuclear testing: it studied by used of computer.
Pollution : how pollution will affect weather can be predicated using computer Outer space ,solar system and cosmos are
explored using computer Intricate molecules are designed ,diagrammed and manipulated using computer. Business clearly
sees the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some areas of business that are undergoing rapid
changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking, stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better
educated and more knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer
technology. Computers have aided in the design of safety equipment in sports such as football helmets to shoes to mouth
guards. DEFENCE • there are many uses computers in Defence such as: Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts an example
is Predator.

NETWORKING
A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. In
computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along data connections. Data is transferred in
the form of packets. The connections (network links) between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless
media. The best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate
the data are called network nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as
networking hardware. Two such devices are said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange
information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other.

SECURITY
Computer security is security applied to computing devices such as computers and smart phones, as well as computer
networks such as private and public networks, including the whole Internet. The field covers all the processes and
mechanisms by which digital equipment, information and a service are protected from unintended or unauthorized access,
change or destruction, and is of growing importance due to the increasing reliance of computer systems in most societies. It
includes physical security to prevent theft of equipment and information security to protect the data on that equipment. It
is sometimes referred to as "cyber security" or "IT security". Those terms generally do not refer to physical security, but a
common belief among computer security experts is that a physical security breach is one of the worst kind’s security
breaches as it generally allows full access to both data and equipment. Security categories Cyber security and
countermeasure Cyber warfare Information security Mobile security Network security World Wide Web Security.

GRAPHICS AND VISUALIZATION

Graphics ( 'something written' e.g. autograph) are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen,
paper, or stone to inform, illustrate, or entertain. In contemporary usage it includes: neeke, pictorial representation of data,
as in computer-aided design and manufacture, in typesetting and the graphic arts, and in educational and Neeke
recreational software. Images that are generated by a computer are called computer graphics. Examples are photographs,
drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or
other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection,
 creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flyer, poster, web site, or book without any other element.
Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or
merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such
as a photograph, or an interpretation by a scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction
with imaginary graphics may become blurred.

BANK
Computers are used in banks for storing information about different account holders.
Computers help in keeping a record of the cash.
Computers help in giving all kinds of information regarding any account in the bank.

HOSPITALS
Computers help in keeping records of all the patients in a hospital.
Computers help doctors in controlling operation theatre machines.
Computers help in doing a number of medical tests.

WHAT CAN THE URL TELL YOU?

Is it somebody's personal page?
Read the URL carefully:
 Look for a personal name
 following a tilde (~)
 percent sign ( % )
 The words "users," "members," or "people.”
 Example http://share.umasd.org/~khokanson

WHO PUBLISHES THE SITE

Does the publisher of the site make sense?
 The server is usually named in first portion of the URL (between http:// and the first /).
 Example: http://umasd.org/

DOMAIN RELIABILITY
Does it have an appropriate domain extension?
 .edu extension indicates a college or university.
 .org extension indicates an organization.
 .gov extension indicates a governmental entity.
 .com indicates a commercial enterprise.

TECHNIQUES FOR WEB EVALUATION

Scan the page perimeter & look for:
 About us, Philosophy, Background, Biography
 Truncate back page for more about the author.
 Is there contact information / email?
 Look for the date "last updated" (BOTTOM)
 Check the date on all the pages on the site.
 What are the author's credentials on this subject?

IS THIS QUALITY INFORMATION

Are sources documented (footnotes or links)
Are there links to other resources on the topic?
 Are the links well chosen?
 Do the links work?
 Do the links represent other viewpoints?
 Do the links indicate a bias?

WHY WAS THE PAGE PUT ON THE WEB

Inform, give facts, give data?
Explain, persuade?
Sell, entice?
Share?
Disclose?

Module 13
biodiversity

interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;

Create a diagram that would show the relatedness of species in forming up a diverse and healthy society without
compromising one another; and
Identify everyday tasks and evaluate whether they contribute to the wellness and health of biodiversity and society or not.

BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM

THE MEANING OF BIODIVERSITY

 The numbers of organisms that live on the earth participate in almost all processes that occur.
It’s the basis for many industrial products, as well as for the production of numerous medicines.
The elimination of a certain plant or animal creates such a great loss that no natural or technological mechanism can
recreate.
PRIMARY PRODUCERS
Primary producers are the organisms in an ecosystem that produce biomass from inorganic compounds (autotrophy). In almost all
cases these are photo synthetically active organisms (plants, cyan bacteria and a number of other unicellular organisms.

Consumers
Consumers are organisms of an ecological food chain that receive their energy by consuming other organisms. These organisms are
formally referred to as heterotrophy, which include animals, bacteria and fungus. Such organisms may consume by various means,
including predation, parasitization, and biodegradation.
Decomposers
Decomposers or saprotrophs are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so carry out the natural
process of decomposition.

The Forest Ecosystem

When upper kinds of plants (trees, bushes) dominate in the plant community of the ecosystem the forest ecosystem appears.
Therefore, the forest is an ecosystem, in the plant community where the upper plants (trees, bushes) are dominant.

Forest
There are all possible relationships in the biotic community of forest, from simple coexistence, incremental space competition, light,
water and nutrients, to the mutual interdependence between its members. All those relationships create a dynamic balance, which
constantly changes. So the forest isn't something which remains static, but it changes and develops continuously. The forest is born,
goes to its adulthood, matures and grows older and eventually dies to be reborn. A forest distinguishes to virgin, natural and
artificial forest.
The forest ecosystems play an important role in the ecological balance of the planet and cover the 32% of the surface of earth. The
production of oxygen, as the consumption of carbon dioxide with the operation of the photosynthesis from the plants is increased in
forests.

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

Provisioning services which involve the production of renewable resources (e.g.: food, wood, fresh water).
Regulating services which are those that lessen environmental change (e.g.: climate regulation, pest/disease control).
Cultural services represent human value and enjoyment (e.g.: landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation,
and spiritual significance).

Services Enhanced By Biodiversity

Greater species diversity of plants increases fodder yield, decreases disease prevalence on plants and increases resistance
to plant invasion, soil nutrient demineralization and soil organic matter.
Greater genetic diversity of plants (i.e.: diversity within a single species) increases overall crop yield.
Greater species diversity of trees increases overall wood production.
Greater species diversity of fish increases the stability of fisheries yield.
Greater species diversity of natural pest enemies decreases herbivorous pest populations.

Some Benefits from Human Point of View for Preserving Biodiversity

Economic: "Biodiversity can help people make money or keep people from losing money."
Recreational: "People love outdoor activities like fishing and backpacking, which would not be possible if ecosystems were
destroyed."
Human health: "Biodiversity can help people find better cures for illnesses."
Human rights: "If biodiversity is protected, indigenous people can continue to live in their native lands."
Spiritual/intrinsic value: "Biodiversity should be preserved for its own sake," "Animals and plants have a right to live," and
"People rely on wild places and creatures for spiritual fulfillment."

Extinction
A species becomes extinct when the last existing member dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving
individuals that are able to reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful
of individuals survive, which cannot reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of
both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons.

Criteria evaluation of living organisms based on the probability of extinction- IUCN Red List
EXTINCT (ΕΧ): Species where all the members are dead.
EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW): Species that occur only in cultivations, away from their natural environment or being prisoner.
REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE): Species that have extinct in national region.

What cause the extinction of animals and plants?

People's consumption of plants and animals is much faster than their production.
The animals cannot produce as much as they could because their habitats are being abused. For ex: the forest, and if their
habitats are being abused, it will become hard for them to live.
Destruction of habitat also aids in extinction.
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR): Species where are in imminent danger of extinction in their natural environment.
ENDANGERED (ΕΝ): An endangered species are species of organisms facing a very high risk of extinction in the near future.
VULNERABLE (VU): Species which are not ranked in these categories but facing a risk of extinction in the future.

Endangered species
 It has been estimated that over 40% of all living species on Earth are at risk of going extinct. Internationally, 199 countries
have signed an accord agreeing to create Biodiversity Action Plans to protect endangered and other threatened species.
IUCN Red List refers to a specific category of threatened species, and may include critically endangered species.
NEAR THREATENED (NT): Species are not ranked in the above categories but are close to be endangered in the future.
LEAST CONCERN (LC): Species are not in danger of extinction.
DATA DEFICIENT (DD): Species where we need more research.
NOT EVALUATED (ΝΕ): Species we must evaluate the danger of extinction.

CHANGES IN BIODIVERSITY
Alteration in any system could bring varied effects.
A change in biodiversity could have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but also in human beings.
We can clearly infer that when our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters changes that may impact
human health on such different levels.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Natural Threats - Threats that occur naturally in nature.
 There are four natural threats to biodiversity:
 Narrow geographical Area
 Low population
 Low Breeding rate
 Natural disasters

Habitat Destruction and loss of habitat is the largest cause of biodiversity loss. Severe damage has been caused to
wetlands considering them to be useless ecosystems.

Habitat Fragmentation
Sometimes loss of habitat is in installments so that the habitat is divided into small and scattered patches and there are
many wildlife species such as bears and wild cats that require large territories to subsist.

Global Climate change

Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity. Increasing atmospheric Carbon dioxide affects
plant morphology and is acidifying oceans and temperature affects species range. Dr. Lee Hannah said “We need to limit
climate change or we wind up with a lot of species in trouble possibly extinct.”

Pollution
All forms of pollution pose a serious threat to biodiversity, but in particular nutrient loading, primarily of nitrogen and
phosphorus is a major cause of biodiversity loss. In addition, nitrogen compounds can lead to eutrophication of ecosystems.
And it is seen that nitrogen deposition results in loss of species richness.

Over Exploitation
Overexploitation means harvesting species from the wild at rates faster than natural populations can recover. This occurs in
form of overfishing and overhunting. Currently, about a third of the world's endangered vertebrates are threatened by
overexploitation. Two birds that were victims of overhunting are passenger pigeons and great auks.

Invasive Species
Almost half of the species in the U.S that are at risk of extinction are because of the effects of introduced species alone or
because of their impacts combined with other processes. Invasive species threaten biodiversity by causing disease, acting as
predators or parasites, acting as competitors, altering habitat, and hybridizing with local species.

Poaching
It is illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals. The trading of such wildlife products is highly
profit making for poachers as they are paid in large numbers for smuggling elephant tusks, leopard fur coat, bones etc

Genetic Pollution
It is the term in which the genetic information is transferred to the organisms where it is not needed or where it never
existed before. This flow of genetic information is undesired and cannot be controlled. There are few possibilities If
genetically modified organisms are bred with none genetically modified:
i. GM might lead to non GM to extinction.
ii. Their genetics will be changed and they will not be able to show their characteristics.
iii. There are chances that they may develop resistance towards pesticides and this will be a disaster for farmers.

Human overpopulation
Meanwhile, the human population has risen from 6 million 10,000 years ago to 7 BILLION in 2011. Another 8 billion humans
may be added to the planet in roughly the next 70 years. By that time, unless action is taken, an estimated 50% of all
species that existed on our planet in 1900 will become extinct.

International Union for conservation of nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and
sustainable use of natural resources. It has published Red Data book which maintains a collection of all the available data on the
species threatened with extinction.

Module 14

“Genetically Modified Organisms”

WHAT ARE GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS?
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering
techniques.
Organisms that have been genetically modified include micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast, plants, fish, and
mammals.
Source of genetically modified foods, and are also widely used in scientific research and to produce useful goods other than
food.

PRODUCTION OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes.
When genes are inserted, they usually come from a different species, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer.
In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason.
To do this artificially may require attaching the genes to a virus or just physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of
the intended host with a very small syringe, or with very small particles fired from a gene gun.
Agrobacteriums ability to transfer genetic material to plants, or the ability of lent viruses to transfer genes to animal cells
are natural examples of gene transfer.

PRINCIPLE OBJECTIVE OF PRODUCTION

The basic principle for producing a GMO was to add new genetic material into an organism's genome.
This is called genetic engineering and was made possible through the discovery of DNA and the creation of the first
recombinant DNA molecules by Paul Berg in 1972.

TRANSGENIC PLANTS
Transgenic plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colors in flowers, and to create improved
crops.
In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.
One way to do this is to knock out the gene of interest and see what phenotype develops.
Another strategy is to attach the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is over expressed.

GM CROPS
In agriculture, genetically engineered crops are created to possess several desirable traits, such as resistance to pests,
herbicides, or harsh environmental conditions, improved product shelf life, increased nutritional value, or production of
valuable goods such as drugs (pharming).
Plants, including algae, jatropha, maize, and other plants have been genetically modified for use in producing fuel, known as
bio fuel.

MICROBES
Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics.
These organisms are now used for several purposes, and are particularly important in producing large amounts of pure
human proteins for use in medicine.
Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes.
Similar bacteria have been used to produce clotting factors to treat hemophilia, and human growth hormone to treat
various forms of dwarfism.

MAMMALS
Ralph L. Brinster and Richard Palmiter developed the techniques responsible for transgenic mice, rats, rabbits, sheep, and
pigs in the early 1980s.
They established many of the first transgenic models of human disease, including the first carcinoma caused by a
transgenic.
The process of genetically engineering animals is a slow, tedious, and expensive process. However, new technologies are
making genetic modifications easier and more precise.

INTENDED PURPOSE FOR THE GENETIC MODIFICATION OF MAMMALS

To research human diseases (for example, to develop animal models for these diseases).
To produce industrial or consumer products (fibers for multiple uses).
To produce products intended for human theraputic use (pharmacutical products or tissue for implantation).
To enrich or enhance the animals' interactions with humans (hypoallergenic pets).
To enhance production or food quality traits (faster growing fish, pigs that digest food more efficiently).
To improve animal health (disease resistance).

FISH
GM fish are used for scientific research and as pets, and are being considered for use as food and as aquatic pollution
sensors.
Genetically engineered fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development.
Two species of fish, zebra fish and medaka, are most commonly modified because they have optically clear chorions
(shells), rapidly develop, and the 1-cell embryo is easy to see and microinject with transgenic DNA.
The GloFish is a patented brand of genetically modified (GM) fluorescent zebra fish with bright red, green, and orange
fluorescent color.
Although not originally developed for the ornamental fish trade, it became the first genetically modified animal to become
publicly available as a pet when it was introduced for sale in 2003. They were quickly banned for sale in California on the
grounds of ethical issues.

GENETIC ENGINEERING V/S TRADITIONAL BREEDING

 With traditional breeding, plants often exchange large, unregulated chunks of their genomes.
This can lead to both useful and unwanted traits in the offspring. Sometimes these unwanted traits can be unsafe.
One example would be potato varieties made using conventional plant breeding that inadvertently produced excessive
levels of naturally occurring glycoalkoloids.
These glycoalkoloids cause gastrointestinal, circulatory, neurological and dermatological problems associated with alkaloid
poisoning.
Breeders sometimes have to cross many plants over multiple generations to produce the desired trait.
GM techniques allow new traits to be introduced one at a time without complications from extra genes and extensive
crossbreeding.
GM techniques also allow traits from different organisms to be applied, such as pest resistance.

PROS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Production of Human Insulin:
Patients suffering from diabetes are not capable of producing enough insulin.
So, there arises a need for such people to obtain insulin from external sources.
With the help of genetic engineering, human genes can be transferred into other mammals for the production of insulin.
The mammals like sheep and goat are used as medium with human genes playing the role of 'software' or the 'brain'
containing necessary genetic information for produce insulin.

Use in Gene Therapy:

The GMOs like some viruses are used in gene therapy.
Gene therapy can be used in the treatment of various genetic disorders and diseases like sickle cell anemia, muscular
dystrophy and cystic fibrosis.

Creation of Neo-organs:
The unavailability of organs for transplants is a big problem today.
The creation of neo-organs in order to increase the supply of desired organs is possible by means of genetic engineering.
The regeneration of new tissues is carried out by the injection of a growth factor using a tissue injector.
Another procedure for creating new organs in which a scaffold made from biodegradable polymers is used to contain the
plant cells. This scaffold is placed in a position where the new growth is expected. Eventually the scaffold breaks down or
dissolves and a completely new organ is formed.

Usage in Agriculture:
Genetically modified plants have many applications in the field of agriculture.
Genetic modification or engineering is used for increasing the production of crops, pest control, weed management, etc.
The genetically modified foods are also produced to make them more nutritive.
For example, the incorporation of digestible iron in the genetically modified crops influences health in a positive way.

BENEFITS AT A GLANCE
Genetic engineering when used on microorganisms help in the creation of new pharmaceuticals which cannot be made in
any other way.
Genetic engineering helps in the process of bio remediation which is the process of cleaning up waste and pollution with
the help of living organisms.
Genetic engineering has helped lower the overall usage of herbicide and pesticide.
Genetic engineering has helped with the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants.
Genetic engineering has helped produce quicker and more predictable way of generating new cultivars. Further, the cultivar
properties are better known today than it was ever known before. Today, genetic engineering can produce sustainable
agriculture.
Genetic engineering has produced very useful genetically modified breeds which can tolerate factory farming without any
suffering.
In humans, genetic engineering is used to treat genetic disorders and cancer. It also helps in supplying new body parts.
Although, this has not been done today, genetic engineering has the potential of creating new types of human beings with
many advantageous traits.
Genetic engineering is used in the field of mining to extract useful elements from the ones they are actually embedded into.
Certain bacterial sequences are manipulated to transform waste into ethanol, so that it can be used as a fuel.

CONS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Main argument made against activity of genetic modification is that it leads to unpredictable outcomes or side effects.
Genetic modification is considered to be unnatural and doesn't fit in the context of natural ways like breeding/crossing the
plants and animals for bringing out the best in them.
Thus, the possibility of unpredictable alterations taking place in the genetic make-up of organisms is one of the biggest
causes of worries among scientists regarding the whole issue of genetic modification.
It is important to note that FDA has not approved consuming animals that are genetically modified. This stand taken by the
FDA implies that they don't want these genetically organisms to become a part of the food chain.

Harmful Effects on Crops:

The genetically modified crops which the farmers plant in their fields have the same genetic make-up.
Cross-pollination of such plants with other plants increases the risk of contamination.
The 'Bt' (Bacillus thuringiensis) genes present in the GM crops kill the insects like bees, ladybird beetles, butterflies, etc.
Thus, helpful organisms too are affected along with pests.

GM Animals:
Genetic modification in animals is carried out for the production of pharmaceuticals, human proteins and in therapies.
The activity of animal cloning leads to deformities at the time of birth and many of such animals die while they are still
young. Genetic engineering is also used for creating organs by means of animals for implanting them in human beings. For
 example, pig's heart could be transplanted in a human, if he is facing the danger of heart failure. However, the pig's heart if
infected with a disease, it might spread to the human beings.
Also how exactly the modifications/alterations would affect the future generations of the species in questions.
Gambling with the fate of these innocent creatures and ultimately human beings (who consume these animals) is not at all
worth the risk.

Risk of Misuse:
The risk of the information regarding these techniques falling into wrong hands should be considered while studying the
pros and cons of genetic engineering.
Mindless cloning of animals and plants for commercial purposes would definitely have adverse effects on the gene pool we
have today.
The process of genetic erosion might accelerate with increase in the number of genetically modified organisms.

Module 15

“Nanotechnology”
NANO WORLD
 The global market leader for tips for Scanning Probe Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy.
 Sphere of influence of nanotechnology.

SCANNING PROBE MICROSCOPY (SPM)

 A branch of microscopy that forms images of surfaces using a physical probe that scans the specimen.
 Founded in 1981, with the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope, an instrument for imaging surfaces at the
atomic level.

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

 Is a type of scanning probe microscopy (SPM), with demonstrated resolution on the order of fractions of a nanometer,
more than 1000 times better than the optical diffraction limit. The information is gathered by "feeling" or "touching" the
surface with a mechanical probe.

ORIGIN OF NANOSCIENCE
 In 1959 it was discussed by the renowned physicist Richard Feynman in his talk There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom, in
which he described the possibility of synthesis via direct manipulation of atoms.
 In 1960, Egyptian engineer Mohamed Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs fabricated the first MOSFET
(metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor) with a gate oxide thickness of 100 nm, along with a gate length of 20
µm.
 In 1962, Atalla and Kahng fabricated a nano layer base metal–semiconductor junction (M–S junction) transistor that used
gold (Au) thin films with a thickness of 10 nm.

ORIGIN OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
 The term "nano-technology" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974.
 In 1986, K. Eric Drexler used the term "nanotechnology" in his book Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of
Nanotechnology, which proposed the idea of a nanoscale "assembler" which would be able to build a copy of itself and of
other items of arbitrary complexity with atomic control.
 In 1980, the emergence of nanotechnology as a field in occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public
work.
 In 1986, Drexler co-founded The Foresight Institute to help increase public awareness and understanding of
nanotechnology concepts and implications.

NANOSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 Branch of science that studies systems and manipulates matter on atomic, molecular and supra molecular scales/ultra-small
scale (the nanometer scale).

NANOTECHNOLOGY
 Study of what happens when things get very, very small – only a few atoms in size.
 Refers to the science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nano scale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers.
 Employs the study and application of exceptionally small things in materials science, engineering, physics, biology and
chemistry.
Nanotechnology is a very diverse field that is having bigger and bigger impacts on the world.
 Have applications in medicine, cars, spacecrafts, food, electronics, and materials science just to name a few.
 Refers broadly to a field of applied science and technology whose unifying theme is the control of matter on the molecular
level in scales smaller than 1 micrometer, normally 1 to 100 nanometers, and the fabrication of devices within that size
range.

NANOMETER
 A unit of spatial measurement that is 10-9 meter, or one billionth of a meter.
 Commonly used in nanotechnology, the building of extremely small machines.

NANOSCALE AND NANOSTRUCTURES

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES USED IN NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Electron microscope
 A microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination.
 In 1930, German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll built the first electron microscope.
Atomic Force Microscope
 A type of high resolution scanning probe microscope that has a resolution that you can measure in fractions of a
nanometer.
 Was pioneered in 1986 by Nobel Prize Winner Gerd Binnig along with Calvin Quate and Christoph Gerber.

Scanning Tunneling Microscope

 An instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level.
 Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer (at IBM Zürich), the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1986.

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

 Information and Communication Technologies and Semiconductors.
 Health and medicine.
 Energy
 Food and Agriculture
 Environment

NANOTECH ROADMAP FOR THE PHILIPPINES

 Information and Communication Technologies and Semiconductors
 Health and biomedical
 Energy
 Agriculture and food
 Environment
 Health and environmental risk
 Nano-metrology
 Education and public awareness

ADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
 Offers the potential for new and faster kinds of computers.
 More efficient power sources.
 And life-saving medical treatments.

DISADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
 Economic disruption.
 Possible threats to security, privacy, health and the environment.

NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Benefits
 Improved detection and removal of contaminants.
 Development of benign industrial processes and materials.

Concerns
 High reactivity and toxicity.
 Pervasive distribution in the environment.
 No nano-specific EPA regulation.

NANOTECHNOLOGY AND HEALTH

Benefits
 Improved medicine
 Could save lives by making diagnosis and treatment far more effective.

Concerns
 Ability to cross cell membranes and translocation in the body.
 No FDA approval needed for cosmetics and supplements.

NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMY

Benefits
 Better products
 New jobs

Concerns
 Redistribution of wealth
 Potential costs of clean-ups and health care
 Accessibility to all income levels

On 22 November 2018, ten eminent scientists and scientific institutions received the UNESCO Medals for contributions to the
development of nanoscience and nanotechnologies during a ceremony held at UNESCO headquarters, Paris. The medal is awarded
each year by the Director-General of UNESCO to prominent scientists, public figures and organizations that contributed to the
development of nanoscience and nanotechnologies in the spirit of UNESCO’s priorities.
Source: https://en.unesco.org/news/eighth-unesco-medals-contributions-development-nanoscience-and-nanotechnologies.
TOP TEN USES AND APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY by UNESCO
 Energy storage, productions and conversion.
 Energy storage, productions and conversion
 Water treatment and remediation.
 Disease diagnosis and screening.
 Drug delivery systems.
 Food processing and storage.
 Air pollution and remediation.
 Construction.
 Health monitoring
 Vector and pest detector and control.