Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

Subject: ALGEBRA-III
Semester-IV
Lesson: Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings
Lesson Developer: Varinder Kumar
College/Department: Shaheed Bhagat Singh College,
University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

Contents
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3

2. Definition and Examples..................................................................................... 3

3. Some Important Results .................................................................................... 9

4. Properties of Ring Homomorphisms ................................................................... 12

5. Some Solved Problems .................................................................................... 15

6. Isomorphism Theorems for Rings ...................................................................... 22

First Isomorphism Theorem for Rings ...................................................................... 22

Second Isomorphism Theorem for Rings .................................................................. 23

Third Isomorphism Theorem for Rings ..................................................................... 24

7. Applications of Isomorphism Theorems .............................................................. 25

An ideal of a ring is the kernel of a ring homomorphism. ............................................ 25

Homomorphism from ℤ to a Ring with Unity. ............................................................ 28

A ring with Unity contains ℤ𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ℤ ............................................................................. 28

ℤ𝑚𝑚 is homomorphic image of ℤ. ............................................................................. 29

A field contains ℤ𝑝𝑝 or ℚ .......................................................................................... 29

8. The Field of Quotients ...................................................................................... 31

Exercices....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

References .............................................................................................................. 33

Suggested Readings ................................................................................................. 33

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

1. Introduction

In this chapter, homomorphisms and isomorphisms for rings are discussed in a way
analogous to homomorphisms and isomorphisms in groups.

Recall that a homomorphism between two groups (𝐺𝐺 , . ) and (𝐺𝐺’, ∗) is a function that
preserves the binary operation,
i.e., if 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝐺𝐺 → 𝐺𝐺 ′ is a group homomorphism, then
𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 . 𝑔𝑔2 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ) ∗ 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔1 ) for all 𝑔𝑔1 , 𝑔𝑔2 ∈ 𝐺𝐺, (#)
and an isomorphism between two groups is a bijective homomorphism.

In a similar way, a homomorphism between two rings 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 is a function that

preserves both the binary operations + and . and an isomorphism between two rings is a
bijective homomorphism.
Again as in group theory, the roles of isomorphism and homomorphism are totally
different. An isomorphism is used to show that two rings are algebraically identical whereas
a homomorphism is used to simplify a ring while retaining some of its properties.

2. Definition and Examples

Definition 2.1: A ring homomorphism from a ring (𝑅𝑅, +𝑅𝑅 , .𝑅𝑅 ) to another ring (𝑆𝑆, +𝑆𝑆 , .𝑆𝑆 ) is
a mapping 𝜙𝜙 from 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑆𝑆 that preserves both the ring operations; that is, for all 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅,

i. 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎+𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) +𝑆𝑆 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏), and

ii. 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎 .𝑅𝑅 𝑏𝑏) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) .𝑆𝑆 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏).

Note: 1. We will use the symbols 𝜙𝜙, 𝜓𝜓, 𝜃𝜃, 𝑓𝑓, 𝑔𝑔 etc. to denote homomorphisms.

2. In case there is no ambiguity, we will simply use the notation + and . for ring
operations.

Definition 2.2: Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism, then 𝜙𝜙 is called:

a) a ring monomorphism: if 𝜙𝜙 is 1-1 (injective);

b) a ring epimorphism: if 𝜙𝜙 is onto (surjective); and
c) a ring isomorphism: if 𝜙𝜙 is both 1-1 and onto (bijective).

We say that two rings are isomorphic if there exists a bijective (one-one and onto)
homomorphism between them and we denote it as 𝑅𝑅 ≅ 𝑆𝑆.
Value Addition
If 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a one-one ring homomorphism, then 𝑹𝑹 ≅ 𝝓𝝓(𝑹𝑹).
(as 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝜙𝜙(𝑅𝑅) is always onto)

Now we define kernel of a ring homomorphism.

Definition 2.3: Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. Then kernel of 𝝓𝝓 denoted by 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝝓𝝓
is a subset of 𝑅𝑅 all of whose elements are mapped to 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 of 𝑆𝑆,
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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

i.e., ker 𝜙𝜙 = {𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 ∶ 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0}.

We first list down some examples of maps which are ring homomorphisms.

Example 2.1: Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a map defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0 for every 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.

Then, 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.

Indeed, 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟 + 𝑠𝑠) = 0 = 0 + 0 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑠𝑠)

Also, 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟. 𝑠𝑠) = 0 = 0.0 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑠𝑠).

Example 2.2: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a ring. The identity map 𝐼𝐼 on 𝑅𝑅 is a ring homomorphism.

Indeed, 𝐼𝐼(𝑟𝑟 + 𝑠𝑠) = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑟𝑟) + 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠).

Also, 𝐼𝐼(𝑟𝑟. 𝑠𝑠) = 𝑟𝑟. 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐼𝐼(𝑟𝑟). 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠).

So, 𝐼𝐼 is a ring homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑅𝑅.

Example 2.3: Let 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ be a positive integer, then the mapping 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ𝑛𝑛 defined as

𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 is a ring homomorphism from ℤ onto ℤ𝑛𝑛 .

Indeed, let 𝑗𝑗, 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ be arbitrary. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘) = (𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = �(𝑗𝑗 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛) + (𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛)�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑗𝑗) ⊕𝑛𝑛 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘)

And 𝜙𝜙(𝑗𝑗. 𝑘𝑘) = (𝑗𝑗. 𝑘𝑘) 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = �(𝑗𝑗 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛). (𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛)�𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑗𝑗) ⊙𝑛𝑛 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘).

Also, it is easy to verify that 𝜙𝜙 is onto as well.

Hence, 𝜙𝜙 is an onto ring homomorphism.

(This mapping is called the natural homomorphism from ℤ onto ℤ𝒏𝒏 ).

Also, note here that 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 iff 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘) = 0

⇔ 𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛 = 0

⇔ 𝑘𝑘 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛

⇔ 𝑘𝑘 ∈ < 𝑛𝑛 >

Thus, we have ker 𝜙𝜙 = < 𝑛𝑛 >.

Example 2.4: The correspondence 𝜙𝜙: ℤ4 → ℤ10 defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 is a ring homomorphism.

To verify this we must first show that 𝜙𝜙 is well defined;

that is; if 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ4 ) then 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) (in ℤ10 ), i.e., 5𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ10 ).

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(Remember that elements in ℤ4 and ℤ10 are not just single elements, they are equivalance
classes. So many elements have same coset representation and we have to check if
elements are equal then their images are also equal so that 𝜙𝜙 is well defined.)
Now, observe that 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 in ℤ4 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑘𝑘 for some integer 𝑘𝑘.

Thus, 5𝑥𝑥 − 5𝑦𝑦 = 20𝑘𝑘 and so 5𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ10 ).

As 5(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 5(𝑥𝑥) + 5(𝑦𝑦), it may appear simple that 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦),

but we must keep in mind that the addition on the left is done modulo 4 whereas the
addition on the right is done modulo 10.

A similar difficulty arises with showing that 𝜙𝜙 preserves multiplication.

So, to verify that 𝜙𝜙 preserves both operations, we write

𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑞𝑞1 + 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑞𝑞2 + 𝑟𝑟2 , where 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟1 < 4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟2 < 4. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) = 5𝑟𝑟1

= 5(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 4𝑞𝑞1 )

= 5𝑥𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦 − 20𝑞𝑞1

= 5𝑥𝑥 + 5𝑦𝑦

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℤ10 .

Similarly, we have 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 )

= 5𝑟𝑟2 = 5(𝑥𝑥y − 4𝑞𝑞2 )

= 5𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 20𝑞𝑞2

= (5 ∙ 5)𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦

(using the fact that, in ℤ10 , 5 ∙ 5 = 5)

= 5𝑥𝑥. 5𝑦𝑦

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℤ10 .

Hence, 𝜙𝜙 is a homomorphism from ℤ4 to ℤ10 . One can easily verify that 𝜙𝜙 is not onto.
(Why?)

Also, one can easily verify that ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0, 2}

Example 2.5: The mapping 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 → 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 is a ring isomorphism from ℂ, the set of complex
numbers onto ℂ.

Consider the map 𝑓𝑓 ∶ ℂ → ℂ defined as

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

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Then 𝑓𝑓 is a homomorphism,

as 𝑓𝑓[(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)] = 𝑓𝑓((𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑))

= (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐) − 𝑖𝑖(𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑)

= (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

And 𝑓𝑓[(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖). (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)] = 𝑓𝑓((𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏))

= (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)

= (𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

So, 𝑓𝑓 is a ring homomorphism.

Observe that ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}. Indeed,

𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 ⇔ 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 0

⇔ 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0

⇔ 𝑎𝑎 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 = 0

⇔ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 0

So, ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}.

Now we will show that 𝑓𝑓 is one-one and onto.

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

⇒ 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

⇒ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑑𝑑

⇒ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

∴ 𝑓𝑓 is one-one.

Let 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝜖𝜖 ℂ be arbitrary.

Then 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

∴ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the pre-image of 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 under 𝑓𝑓.

So, 𝑓𝑓 is onto as well. Hence, 𝑓𝑓 is a ring isomorphism.

Example 2.6: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a commutative ring of characteristics 2 (i.e. 2.𝑥𝑥 = 0 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅).
Then the mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅 given by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 is a ring homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑅𝑅.
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Let 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be arbitrary. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)2
= (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦). (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦. 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 2
(since R is a commutative ring, so 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦. 𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 = 0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 2)
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦)
Also, 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦)2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 . 𝑦𝑦 2 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦)
So, 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.

As a general case of the above example we have the following example

Example 2.7: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a commutative ring and suppose 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑝𝑝 (i.e. 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅),
where 𝑝𝑝 is a prime number. Then the mapping 𝑓𝑓 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅 defined by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝 , 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 is a
homomorphism.

For any 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑝𝑝

= 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶1 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝−1 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶2 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝−2 𝑦𝑦 2 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 (𝑅𝑅 being commutative) (∗)

We will show that 𝑝𝑝| 𝑝𝑝

𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 , 1 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑝𝑝 − 1.

𝑝𝑝!
Let 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = (𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟)!
𝑟𝑟!

𝑝𝑝(𝑝𝑝−1)…..(𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟+1)(𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟)!
= (𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟)!1 .2…….𝑟𝑟

⇒ 𝑛𝑛. 𝑟𝑟! = 𝑝𝑝(𝑝𝑝 − 1) … (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1)

Since 𝑝𝑝 divides RHS, it will divide 𝑛𝑛. 𝑟𝑟!

⇒ 𝑝𝑝|𝑛𝑛 or 𝑝𝑝|𝑟𝑟! (whenever a prime divides product 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, it must divide at least one of 𝑎𝑎 or 𝑏𝑏).

But 𝑝𝑝 ∤ 𝑟𝑟! as 1, 2, … . , 𝑟𝑟 − 1 are all less than 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑝𝑝 is a prime such that none of 1, 2, … . , 𝑟𝑟 − 1
divides 𝑝𝑝, so 𝑝𝑝 cannot divide any one of them.

Thus 𝑝𝑝 ∤ 𝑟𝑟! (as whenever 𝑝𝑝|𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, then 𝑝𝑝|𝑎𝑎 or 𝑝𝑝|𝑏𝑏).

𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒., 𝑝𝑝|𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝

𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 .
𝑝𝑝
⇒ 𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 = 𝑝𝑝. 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑝𝑝 − 1

∴ 𝑝𝑝
𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 . 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟 . 𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟 (𝑝𝑝. 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟 . 𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑟𝑟 . 0 = 0 for every 1 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑝𝑝 − 1

(As 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝−𝑟𝑟 . 𝑦𝑦 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 for all 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅)

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This gives all the terms on the RHS of (∗), except 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 , will be zero.

Therefore, we will have 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦)

Also 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦)𝑝𝑝 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝 . 𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 (as 𝑅𝑅 is commutative)

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦)

Hence, 𝑓𝑓 is a ring homomorphism.

Example 2.8: Let ℝ[𝑥𝑥] denote the ring of all polynomials with real coefficients. The
mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℝ[𝑥𝑥] → ℝ given by 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(1) is a ring homomorphism from ℝ[𝑥𝑥] onto ℝ.
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∈ ℝ[𝑥𝑥] be arbitrary. Then
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎0
And 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏0 , where 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖′ 𝑠𝑠 and 𝑏𝑏𝑗𝑗′ 𝑠𝑠 ∈ ℝ.
Then (assuming 𝑚𝑚 > 𝑛𝑛),
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 −1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 −1 )𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑏𝑏0 + 𝑎𝑎0 )
So, 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 ) + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 ) + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 ) + (𝑏𝑏0 + 𝑎𝑎0 )
= (𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 ) + (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 )
= 𝑓𝑓(1) + 𝑔𝑔(1)
= 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� + 𝜙𝜙 �𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�
Also,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛 + (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 +𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 )𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑎0 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏0 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑏𝑏0 𝑎𝑎0 )

So, 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛 + (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 +𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 −1 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 )𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑎0 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏0 ) + (𝑏𝑏0 𝑎𝑎0 )
= (𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏0 ). (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 )
= 𝑓𝑓(1). 𝑔𝑔(1)
= 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� . 𝜙𝜙 �𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)�
Thus, 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.
Now, we will show that 𝜙𝜙 is onto.
Let 𝑎𝑎 ∈ ℝ be any real number, then the constant polynomial defined as 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎 is pre image
of 𝑎𝑎 under 𝜙𝜙.
Hence, 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℝ[𝑥𝑥] → ℝ given by 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(1) is an onto ring homomorphism.
Example 2.9: Consider the inclusion map 𝑖𝑖 ∶ ℤ → ℤ[𝑥𝑥] defined by 𝑖𝑖(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛, for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ .
Then 𝑖𝑖 is a ring homomorphism from ℤ to ℤ[𝑥𝑥] which is not an isomorphism

Let 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ be arbitrary. Then we know that 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ and 𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

So, we have 𝑖𝑖(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛) = 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑖𝑖(𝑚𝑚) + 𝑖𝑖(𝑛𝑛)

and 𝑖𝑖(𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛) = 𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑖𝑖(𝑚𝑚). 𝑖𝑖(𝑛𝑛).

Thus, 𝑖𝑖 is a ring homomorphism.

Also, verify that ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}.

One can easily verify that 𝑖𝑖 is one-one.

Also, observe that 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ[𝑥𝑥] has no pre image in ℤ.

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Therefore, 𝑖𝑖 is not onto and hence is not an isomorphism.

In the following examples, we show that not every map between two rings is a ring
homomorphism.

Example 2.10: Consider the rings (ℤ5 ,⊕5 ,⊙5 ) and (ℤ10 ,⊕10 ,⊙10 ).

Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ5 → ℤ10 be a map defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥.

Then 𝜙𝜙 is not a ring homomorphism.

Since, 𝜙𝜙(2 ⊕5 3) = 𝜙𝜙(5) = 5.0 = 0 = 0ℤ10

On the other hand

𝜙𝜙(2) ⊕10 𝜙𝜙(3) = 5.2 ⊕10 5.3 = 10 ⊕10 15 = 5.

So, 𝜙𝜙(2 ⊕5 3) ≠ 𝜙𝜙(2) ⊕10 𝜙𝜙(3)

Thus, 𝜙𝜙 does not preserve addition.

Hence, 𝜙𝜙 is not a homomorphism.

Example 2.11: Consider the rings (ℤ4 ,⊕4 ,⊙4 ) and (ℤ12 ,⊕12 ,⊙12 ) and the map

𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ4 → ℤ12 given by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥

Then 𝜙𝜙 does not preserve multiplication.

Indeed, 𝜙𝜙(1 ⊙4 3) = 𝜙𝜙(3) = 3 ⊙12 3 = 9 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚12)

However, 𝜙𝜙(1) ⊙12 𝜙𝜙(3) = (3 ⊙12 1) ⊙12 (3 ⊙12 3) = 3 ⊙12 9 = 3 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 12)

Thus, 𝜙𝜙(1 ⊙4 3) ≠ 𝜙𝜙(1) ⊙12 𝜙𝜙(3)

So, 𝜙𝜙 doesn’t preserve multiplication and hence, 𝜙𝜙 is not a homomorphism.

3. Some Important Results

Next, we prove two small but crucial results.

Result 3.1: Let 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 be two rings and let 𝑓𝑓 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism, then

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) = 0𝑆𝑆 , i.e., under a homomorphism zero of a ring is mapped to zero of the other
ring,

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓𝑓(−𝑎𝑎) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎), i.e., homomorphic image of additive inverse of an element of a ring is
additive inverse of image of that element, and

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏)

where 0𝑅𝑅 and 0𝑆𝑆 are zeroes of the rings 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆, respectively.

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Proof: (𝑖𝑖) Since 0𝑅𝑅 + 0𝑅𝑅 = 0𝑅𝑅

We have 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 + 0𝑅𝑅 ) = 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 )

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) + 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) = 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) + 0𝑆𝑆

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) = 0𝑆𝑆 (Cancelling 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) on both sides, since cancellation laws hold
in the group (𝑆𝑆, +))

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) Again, as 𝑎𝑎 + (−𝑎𝑎) = 0𝑅𝑅

Since 𝑓𝑓 is a well defined map, so applying 𝑓𝑓 on both sides, we get

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + (−𝑎𝑎)) = 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 )

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) + 𝑓𝑓(−𝑎𝑎) = 𝑓𝑓(0𝑅𝑅 ) = 0𝑆𝑆 (as 𝑓𝑓 is a homomorphism)

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(−𝑎𝑎) = − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) We can write 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 + (−𝑏𝑏))

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) + 𝑓𝑓(−𝑏𝑏)

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) (Using (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) above) □

Result 3.2: Let 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 be two rings such that R has unity 1𝑅𝑅 and 𝑓𝑓 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 is a surjective
(onto) homomorphism, then

(i) 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 ) is the unity of 𝑆𝑆.

−1
(ii) If 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 is a unit of 𝑅𝑅, then 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) is a unit of 𝑆𝑆 and �𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)� = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎−1 ) .

Proof: (i) Let 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 be arbitrary.

Since 𝑓𝑓 is onto, ∃ 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅, such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠

Now 𝑠𝑠. 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟). 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟. 1𝑅𝑅 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠

Similarly, 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 ). 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠.

Showing thereby that 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 ) is the unity of 𝑆𝑆.

(ii) Let 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be a unit, i.e., there exist 𝑎𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 and we have

𝑎𝑎. 𝑎𝑎 −1 = 𝑎𝑎 −1 . 𝑎𝑎 = 1𝑅𝑅

Applying 𝑓𝑓 on both sides, we get

𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎. 𝑎𝑎 −1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 −1 . 𝑎𝑎) = 𝑓𝑓(1𝑅𝑅 )

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎). 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 −1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 −1 ). 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) = 1𝑆𝑆

This gives 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎) is invertible and that (𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎))−1 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎 −1 ). □

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Value Addition:
The condition of the homomorphism to be surjective in Result 2 (i) cannot be dropped,
i.e., we can have two rings 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 and a homomorphism 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆, such that 𝑓𝑓(1) is not the
unity of 𝑆𝑆, where 1 is unity of 𝑅𝑅.

Consider the ring of integers ℤ and the map 𝑓𝑓: ℤ → ℤ defined as,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0 for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ.
Then f is a homomorphism.
Indeed, for any 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℤ,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 0 = 0 + 0 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦).
Similarly, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) = 0 = 0.0 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦).
So, 𝑓𝑓 is a ring homomorphism.
Again 𝑓𝑓(1) = 0, but 0 is not unity of ℤ.
Thus although ℤ (on R. H. S) has unity it is not equal to 𝑓𝑓(1).

Next, we show that kernel of a homomorphism is always an ideal.

Theorem 3.3: Let 𝜙𝜙 be a homomorphism from a ring 𝑅𝑅 to a ring 𝑆𝑆. Then ker 𝜙𝜙 is an ideal of
𝑅𝑅.
Proof: Let 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be arbitrary.
⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 0
Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) − 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 0.
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙.
Also, 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟. 𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 0 = 0
And 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥. 𝑟𝑟) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0. 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0
So, both 𝑟𝑟. 𝑥𝑥, 𝑥𝑥. 𝑟𝑟 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙.

Hence, by ideal test, ker 𝜙𝜙 is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅. □

Problem 3.4: If 𝑅𝑅 is a ring with unity and 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑅𝑅′ is a homomorphism where 𝑅𝑅′ is an
integral domain such that ker 𝑓𝑓 ≠ 𝑅𝑅, then show that 𝑓𝑓(1) is unity of 𝑅𝑅′ .

Solution: Let 𝑎𝑎′ 𝜖𝜖 𝑅𝑅′ be any element. We show

𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑓𝑓(1) = 𝑎𝑎′

We know 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ = 0′

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1 .1)𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ = 0′

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1). 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ = 0′

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1). [𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑎𝑎′ ] = 0′

⇒ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓(1) = 0′ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑎𝑎′ = 0′ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅′ is an integral domain.

𝑓𝑓(1) = 0′ ⇒ 1 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝑓𝑓, which is not possible.

For if, 1 ∈ ker 𝑓𝑓, then ker 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑅 as ker 𝑓𝑓 is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅.

Hence, 𝑓𝑓(1). 𝑎𝑎′ − 𝑎𝑎′ = 0′ .

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⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1). 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎𝑎′

Similarly, we can show 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎𝑎′ . 𝑓𝑓(1).

Hence, 𝑓𝑓(1) is unity of 𝑅𝑅′ . □

Next we give a very short and useful result in the form of a lemma.
Lemma 3.5: Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a homomorphism. Prove that 𝜙𝜙 is injective (1 − 1) if and only
if ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}.

Proof: Let 𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be injective and 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 be arbitrary. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 0 = 𝜙𝜙(0)

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 0 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)

But 𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙 was arbitrary, so we must have ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}.

Conversely, let ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}

To show: 𝜙𝜙 is 1-1.

Let 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) for some 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) − 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 0

⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 0

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦

Thus, 𝜙𝜙 is injective. Hence, 𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 is 1-1 if and only if ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}. □

4. Properties of Ring Homomorphisms

We give below seven properties of ring homomorphisms. In all these properties, we assume
that 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 are any two rings and 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑆𝑆.

I. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. Then for any 𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖 𝑅𝑅 and any positive integer 𝑛𝑛,
𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(𝑟𝑟) and 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 ) = (𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟))𝑛𝑛 .

Proof: Consider 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = 𝜙𝜙 �𝑟𝑟���������

+ 𝑟𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑟�
𝑛𝑛−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) + 𝜙𝜙 �𝑟𝑟���������
+ 𝑟𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝑟� (Repeating this process 𝑛𝑛 times, we get)
𝑛𝑛−1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟)

�����������������
𝑛𝑛−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(𝑟𝑟).

Now consider 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟.

�� 𝑟𝑟.
���𝑟𝑟 …��
. 𝑟𝑟)
𝑛𝑛−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙 �𝑟𝑟.
�����
𝑟𝑟 … . 𝑟𝑟 � (Repeating this process 𝑛𝑛 times, we get)
𝑛𝑛−1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= �����������������
𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) … . 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟)
𝑛𝑛 − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑛𝑛
= �𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟)� . □

II. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism and 𝐴𝐴 be a subring of 𝑅𝑅.

Then 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) = {𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎): 𝑎𝑎 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴} is a subring of 𝑆𝑆. (i.e., Homomorphic image of a subring is a
subring).

Proof: Let 𝐴𝐴 be a subring of 𝑅𝑅.

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, for all 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.

Let 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥), 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) be arbitrary, (where 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴).
Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) − 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴).
Also, 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴)
Hence, by subring test, 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) is a subring of 𝑆𝑆. □

III. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. If 𝐴𝐴 is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅 and 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 is

onto, then 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) is an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.

Proof: Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be an onto homomorphism and 𝐴𝐴 be an ideal of 𝑅𝑅.

To Show: 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) is an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.

∵ 𝜙𝜙 is onto
⇒ ∀ 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, ∃ 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 such that 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑆𝑆. (1)
Let 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥), 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) be arbitrary, where 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴.
Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) − 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Also, for any 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 and 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴).
𝑠𝑠. 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) [𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (1)]
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟. 𝑥𝑥)
∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟. 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Hence, by ideal test, 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) is an ideal of 𝑆𝑆. □

Remark: However, if 𝜙𝜙 is not onto, then 𝜙𝜙(𝐴𝐴) need not be an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.

Example: Consider the inclusion map 𝑖𝑖 ∶ ℤ → ℤ[𝑥𝑥] defined as

𝑖𝑖(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛, for all 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ.
Then it has been verified that 𝑖𝑖 is a homomorphism from ℤ to ℤ[𝑥𝑥] which is not onto
(in Example 2.9).
Now, consider the set 𝐴𝐴 = < 2 > ⊂ ℤ.
Then 𝐴𝐴 is an ideal of ℤ. (Verify!)
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We will show that 𝑖𝑖(𝐴𝐴) = < 2 > is not an ideal of ℤ[𝑥𝑥].

As 2 = 𝑖𝑖(2) ∈ 𝑖𝑖(𝐴𝐴) and 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ[𝑥𝑥].
But 2𝑥𝑥 ∉ 𝑖𝑖(𝐴𝐴).
Thus, 𝑖𝑖(𝐴𝐴) is not an ideal of ℤ[𝑥𝑥]. □

IV. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism and 𝐵𝐵 be an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.

Then 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) = {𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 ∶ 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) ∈ 𝐵𝐵} is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅.
(i.e., 𝜙𝜙 pulls back an ideal of 𝑆𝑆 to an ideal of 𝑅𝑅).

Proof: Note that 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) ⊆ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) is a non empty set.

(as 𝜙𝜙(0) = 0 ⇒ 0 ∈ 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) ).

Let 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 ∈ 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) and 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be arbitrary.

Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) ∈ 𝐵𝐵 and 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 ) ∈ 𝐵𝐵
∵ 𝐵𝐵 is an ideal of 𝑆𝑆
⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) − 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 − 𝑟𝑟2 ) ∈ 𝐵𝐵
⇒ 𝑟𝑟1 − 𝑟𝑟2 𝜖𝜖 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵)
Again, since 𝐵𝐵 is an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.
𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟. 𝑟𝑟1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) ∈ 𝐵𝐵
⇒ 𝑟𝑟. 𝑟𝑟1 ∈ 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵).
Similarly, 𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵).
Hence, by ideal test, 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝐵𝐵) is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅. □

V. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. If 𝑅𝑅 is commutative, then 𝜙𝜙(𝑅𝑅) is

commutative.

Proof: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a commutative ring.

Let 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎), 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏) ∈ 𝜙𝜙(𝑅𝑅) be arbitrary.

Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎). 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎. 𝑏𝑏) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏. 𝑎𝑎) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
= 𝜙𝜙(𝑏𝑏). 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)
Hence, 𝜙𝜙(𝑅𝑅) is commutative. □

VI. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. Then 𝜙𝜙 is an isomorphism if and only if 𝜙𝜙 is

onto and ker 𝜙𝜙 = {𝑟𝑟 ∈ | 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0} = {0}.

Proof: Since, 𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 is a homomorphism and is onto.

So, it is enough to show that

𝜙𝜙 is 1-1 if and only if ker 𝜙𝜙 = {0}.
which has been proved in the Lemma 3.5.
Hence, the result follows. □

VII. Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a ring homomorphism. If 𝜙𝜙 is an isomorphism, then 𝜙𝜙 −1 is

also an isomorphism.

Proof: Given 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 is an isomorphism.

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To show: 𝜙𝜙 −1 ∶ 𝑆𝑆 → 𝑅𝑅 is an isomorphism.
We know 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑟𝑟 if and only if 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠.
We will first show that 𝜙𝜙 −1 is a homomorphism.
Let 𝑠𝑠1 , 𝑠𝑠2 ∈ 𝑆𝑆 be arbitrary.
∵ 𝜙𝜙 is onto.
⇒ ∃ 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 such that 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) = 𝑠𝑠1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 ) = 𝑠𝑠2 .
Consider, 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠1 + 𝑠𝑠2 ) = 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 ))
= 𝜙𝜙 −1 �𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 )� (as ϕ is a ring homomorphism)
= 𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2
= 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠1 ) + 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠2 )
Also, 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠 −1
1 . 𝑠𝑠2 ) = 𝜙𝜙 (𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 ))
= 𝜙𝜙 −1 �𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 )� (as ϕ is a ring homomorphism)
= 𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2
= 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠1 ). 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠2 )
So, 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism.
−1

We will show now that 𝜙𝜙 −1 is bijective.

Now, let 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠1 ) = 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠2 )
Applying 𝜙𝜙 on both sides, we get

𝜙𝜙�𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠1 )� = 𝜙𝜙�𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠2 )� (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ).

⇒ 𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑠𝑠2

Concluding that 𝜙𝜙 −1 is 1-1.

Let 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 be arbitrary.

Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠 for some 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑆𝑆.

⇒ 𝜙𝜙 −1 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑟𝑟.

So, 𝑠𝑠 is the pre image of 𝑟𝑟 under 𝜙𝜙 −1 .

Thus, 𝜙𝜙 −1 is onto.

Hence, 𝜙𝜙 −1 is an isomorphism. □

5. Some Solved Problems

Problem 5.1: Show that 2ℤ , the group of even integers under addition, is group–
isomorphic to the group ℤ under addition, but the ring 2ℤ is not ring–isomorphic to the ring
ℤ.

Let us consider the map 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ → 2ℤ defined by 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥.

Then it is easy to verify that 𝜙𝜙 is a group homomorphism as 2(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦.

Also, this map is bijective.

Thus, 2ℤ is group–isomorphic to ℤ under addition.

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

But 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) = 2(𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦) ≠ (2𝑥𝑥). (2𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦).

So, 𝜙𝜙 is not a ring homomorphism, but this doesn’t mean that 2ℤ, is not ring–isomorphic to
ℤ. (as there might be some other isomorphism between ℤ and 2ℤ).

Now we show that there does not exist any isomorphism between ℤ and 2ℤ.

For if, there exist an isomorphism 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ → 2ℤ, then 𝜙𝜙(1) must be the unity of 2ℤ. (in view of
Result 2 proved above).

Which is not true as 2ℤ does not contain unity.

Hence, ℤ is not ring–isomorphic to 2ℤ. □

Problem 5.2: Determine all ring homomorphisms from ℤ12 to ℤ30 .

Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ12 → ℤ30 be a ring homomorphism. (Observe that a ring homomorphism is also a
group homomorphism).

Recall that, in groups if we want to find out all homomorphisms from ℤ12 to ℤ30 , we were
only interested in the possible values 𝜙𝜙(1) as any 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ12 can be written as 1
��+�1
��+���
1 +�⋯
��+
��1.
𝑥𝑥 −𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

So, 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙 �1
��+�1
��+���
1 +�⋯
��+
��1� = 𝜙𝜙(1) + 𝜙𝜙(1) + ⋯ + 𝜙𝜙(1) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(1).
�����������������
𝑥𝑥−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

Also, since |𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)| divides |𝑎𝑎|. So, |𝜙𝜙(1)| divides |1| = 12, thus the possibilities for |𝜙𝜙(1)| are
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

Hence, 𝜙𝜙(1) can takes values 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 in ℤ30 .

(As |0| = 1, |5| = 6, |10| = 3, |15| = 2, |20| = 3, |25| = 6 and there are no elements of order 4 and
12 in ℤ30 ).

Let 𝜙𝜙(1) = 𝑎𝑎. Then we must have 𝑎𝑎 ⊙30 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 in ℤ30 , since 1 ⊙12 1 = 1 in ℤ12 .

Now 0 ⊙30 0 = 0 in ℤ30 .

5 ⊙30 5 = 25 = 25 in ℤ30

10 ⊙30 10 = 100 = 10 in ℤ30

15 ⊙30 15 = 225 = 15 in ℤ30

20 ⊙30 20 = 400 = 10 in ℤ30

25 ⊙30 25 = 625 = 25 in ℤ30

These calculations rule out 20 and 5 as possibilities for 𝑎𝑎

𝜙𝜙(1).

Finally, simple calculations show that each of the remaining four choices does yield a ring
homomorphism.
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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

We will illustrate here for one of them and leave the remaining as exercises for the readers.

Let us take 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙

𝜙𝜙(1) = 15.1𝑎𝑎
= 15.

And let us denote this mapping as 𝜙𝜙15 .

So, 𝜙𝜙15 : ℤ12 → ℤ30 is a map defined as 𝜙𝜙15 (𝑥𝑥) = 15𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

.

To verify this we must first show that 𝜙𝜙15 is well defined;

that is, if 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ12 ) then 𝜙𝜙15 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙15 (𝑦𝑦) (in ℤ30 ), i.e., 15𝑥𝑥 = 15𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ30 ).

Note that 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 in ℤ12 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑘𝑘 for some integer 𝑘𝑘.

Thus, 15𝑥𝑥 − 15𝑦𝑦 = 180𝑘𝑘 = 30. (6𝑘𝑘) and so 15𝑥𝑥 = 15𝑦𝑦 (in ℤ30 ).

As 15(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 15(𝑥𝑥) + 15(𝑦𝑦), it may appear simple that 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦),

but we must keep in mind that the addition on the left is done modulo 12 whereas the
addition on the right is done modulo 30.

A similar difficulty arises with showing that 𝜙𝜙 preserves multiplication.

So, to verify that 𝜙𝜙 preserves both operations, we write

𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑞𝑞1 + 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑞𝑞2 + 𝑟𝑟2 , where 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟1 < 12 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟2 < 12. Then

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) = 15𝑟𝑟1

= 15(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 12𝑞𝑞1 )

= 15𝑥𝑥 + 15𝑦𝑦 − 180𝑞𝑞1

= 15𝑥𝑥 + 15𝑦𝑦

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℤ30 .

Similarly, we have 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 )

= 15𝑟𝑟2 = 15(𝑥𝑥y − 12𝑞𝑞2 )

= 15𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 180𝑞𝑞2

= (15 ∙ 15)𝑥𝑥. 𝑦𝑦

(using the fact that, in ℤ30 , 15 ∙ 15 = 15)

= 15𝑥𝑥. 15𝑦𝑦

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥). 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ℤ30 .

Hence, 𝜙𝜙15 is a homomorphism from ℤ12 to ℤ30 .

Using similar steps, one can show that 𝜙𝜙0 , 𝜙𝜙10 and 𝜙𝜙25 defined as:
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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

𝜙𝜙0 (𝑥𝑥) = 0, ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ12

𝜙𝜙10 (𝑥𝑥) = 10𝑥𝑥, ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ12

𝜙𝜙25 (𝑥𝑥) = 25𝑥𝑥, ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ12

are all homomorphisms from ℤ12 to ℤ30 .

Therefore, in all there are four homomorphisms from ℤ12 to ℤ30 , viz. 𝜙𝜙0 , 𝜙𝜙10 , 𝜙𝜙15 and 𝜙𝜙25 . □

Applications of ring homomorphisms

Problem 5.3 (Test for Divisibility by 9): Show that an integer 𝑛𝑛 with decimal
representation 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 … 𝑎𝑎0 is divisible by 9 if and only if 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 … + 𝑎𝑎0 is divisible by 9.

To verify this, observe that we can write 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 10𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 10𝑘𝑘 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 .

Then, letting 𝛼𝛼 denote the natural homomorphism from ℤ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ℤ9 .

[In particular, 𝛼𝛼(10) = 1], we note that 𝑛𝑛 is divisible by 9 if and only if

𝑘𝑘−1
0 = 𝛼𝛼(𝑛𝑛) = 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 )(𝛼𝛼(10))𝑘𝑘 + 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 )(�𝛼𝛼(10)� + ⋯ + 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎0 )

= 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 ) + 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 ) + ⋯ + 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎0 )

= 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 ).

But 𝛼𝛼(𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 ) = 0 is equivalent to 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 being divisible by 9.

Hence, the result follows. □

Problem 5.4: Show that none of the elements of the sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, … can be written
as the sum of two squares.

Note that the elements of this sequence are of the form 3 + 4𝑘𝑘, for 𝑘𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … .

If possible, let us assume that 3 + 4𝑘𝑘 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 for some integers 𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏.

Applying the natural homomorphism from ℤ to ℤ4 to both sides of above expression, we see
that the equation

3 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 (#)

has a solution in ℤ4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}.

In ℤ4 , 02 = 0; 12 = 1; 22 = 0 and 32 = 1.

By direct substitution, one may verify that (#) has no solution in ℤ4 .

Thus, no integer in the sequence can be written as the sum of two squares. □

Problem 5.5: Show that sum of squares of three consecutive integers cannot be a square.

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

Let (𝑛𝑛 − 1), (𝑛𝑛), (𝑛𝑛 + 1) be any three consecutive integers.

Let, if possible, (𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 + (𝑛𝑛)2 + (𝑛𝑛 + 1)2 = 𝑚𝑚2 for some 𝑚𝑚 ∈ ℤ.

⇒ 3𝑛𝑛2 + 2 = 𝑚𝑚2

⇒ 𝑚𝑚2 = 2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3).

For any 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ℤ3 = {0, 1, 2}.

For 𝑘𝑘 = 0(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3), 𝑘𝑘 2 = 0 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3)

𝑘𝑘 = 1(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3), 𝑘𝑘 2 = 1 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3)

𝑘𝑘 = 2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3), 𝑘𝑘 2 = 1 (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3).

So, for any integer 𝑘𝑘, it is impossible that 𝑘𝑘 2 = 2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3).

But, we have 𝑚𝑚2 = 2(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3), a contradiction.

Hence, ∄ any 𝑚𝑚 ∈ ℤ such that,

𝑚𝑚2 = (𝑛𝑛 − 1)2 + 𝑛𝑛2 + (𝑛𝑛 + 1)2 . □

Problem 5.6: Let ℤ be the ring of integers. Show that the only homomorphisms from
ℤ → ℤ are the identity and zero mappings.

Let 𝑓𝑓: ℤ → ℤ be any homomorphism.

2
Now �𝑓𝑓(1)� = 𝑓𝑓(1)𝑓𝑓(1) = 𝑓𝑓(1 . 1) = 𝑓𝑓(1).

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1)(𝑓𝑓(1) − 1) = 0

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(1) = 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓(1) = 1

Now for any 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ,

if 𝑥𝑥 > 0 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1) = 𝑓𝑓(1) + 𝑓𝑓(1) + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑓(1)

= 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(1) (∗)

If 𝑥𝑥 < 0 then let 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑦𝑦

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑓𝑓(−𝑦𝑦) = −𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦) = −𝑓𝑓(1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1) = −[𝑓𝑓(1) + 𝑓𝑓(1) + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑓(1)]

= −𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦(1) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥(1) (∗∗)

and 𝑓𝑓(0) = 0 holds for any homomorphism.

Case I: If 𝑓𝑓(1) = 0, then in view of (∗) and (∗∗), 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0, for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ.

That is 𝑓𝑓 is the zero mapping.

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

Case II: If 𝑓𝑓(1) = 1, then in view of (∗) and (∗∗), 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥, for all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℤ.

That is 𝑓𝑓 is the identity mapping.

Hence, the only homomorphisms from ℤ → ℤ are the zero and the identity mappings. □

Theorem 5.7: If 𝑁𝑁 be an ideal of a ring 𝑅𝑅 then there exists a one-to-one correspondence

𝑅𝑅
between the set of all ideals of 𝑅𝑅 containing 𝑁𝑁 and the set of ideals of .
𝑁𝑁

𝑅𝑅
Proof: Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → be the natural homomorphism defined by 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑁𝑁.
𝑁𝑁

Note that ker 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑁𝑁 (as we know that 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑁𝑁).

𝑅𝑅
Now, if 𝐴𝐴 be any ideal of 𝑅𝑅 then as 𝑓𝑓 is onto homomorphism, 𝑓𝑓(𝐴𝐴) is an ideal of .
𝑁𝑁

(Using Property III)

We have, 𝑓𝑓(𝐴𝐴) = {𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎): 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴}

= {𝑎𝑎 + 𝑁𝑁: 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴}

𝐴𝐴
=
𝑁𝑁

𝑅𝑅
Let now ℒ be the set of all ideals of 𝑅𝑅 which contain 𝑁𝑁 and ℒ ′ be the set of all ideals of .
𝑁𝑁

𝐴𝐴
Define 𝜑𝜑: ℒ → ℒ ′ as 𝜑𝜑(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑓𝑓(𝐴𝐴) �= �
𝑁𝑁

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
Then 𝜑𝜑 is clearly well – defined as if 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵, then = i.e. 𝜑𝜑(𝐴𝐴) = 𝜑𝜑(𝐵𝐵).
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

Again, 𝜑𝜑(𝐴𝐴) = 𝜑𝜑(𝐵𝐵)

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑓𝑓(𝐵𝐵)

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
⇒ =
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
If 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 be any element then 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑁𝑁 ∈ ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑁𝑁 ∈
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁

⇒ 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐵𝐵

𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒., 𝐴𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵𝐵.

Similarly, 𝐵𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴 and thus 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵𝐵.

Showing that 𝜑𝜑 is one–one.

𝑅𝑅
To show that 𝜑𝜑 is onto, let 𝑋𝑋 ∈ ℒ ′ be any member then 𝑋𝑋 is an ideal of .
𝑁𝑁

Take 𝐴𝐴 = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅: 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝑋𝑋}.

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

We show 𝐴𝐴 is the required pre-image of 𝑋𝑋 under 𝜑𝜑.

It can easily be verified that 𝐴𝐴 is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅. (verify using ideal test)

Now we show that 𝑁𝑁 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴.

Let 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝑁𝑁 = ker 𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝑅
⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ∈ 𝑋𝑋
𝑁𝑁

This gives 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 or that 𝑁𝑁 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴.

Therefore 𝐴𝐴 is a member of ℒ.

Hence, by definition of 𝐴𝐴, we obtain that 𝜑𝜑 is onto. □

𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴
Corollary 5.8: If 𝑁𝑁 is an ideal of a ring 𝑅𝑅 then any ideal of is of the type , where 𝐴𝐴 is an
𝑁𝑁 𝑁𝑁
ideal of 𝑅𝑅 containing 𝑁𝑁.

𝑅𝑅
Proof: Let 𝑋𝑋 be any ideal of .
𝑁𝑁

Then by above theorem, there exists an ideal 𝐴𝐴 of 𝑅𝑅 containing 𝑁𝑁 such that 𝜑𝜑(𝐴𝐴) = 𝑋𝑋.

𝐴𝐴
And by the definition of 𝜑𝜑 (as defined in above theorem), 𝑋𝑋 = 𝜑𝜑(𝐴𝐴) = .
𝑁𝑁

ℤ
Problem 5.9: Show that ℤ𝑛𝑛 ≅ (𝑛𝑛) .

We have ℤ𝑛𝑛 = {0,1,2, … . , (𝑛𝑛 − 1)}

ℤ
And = �������
{0 + (𝑛𝑛), 1 + (𝑛𝑛), 2 + (𝑛𝑛), … . , (𝑛𝑛 − 1) + (𝑛𝑛)}
(𝑛𝑛)

ℤ
Define 𝜃𝜃 ∶ → ℤ𝑛𝑛 , such that
(𝑛𝑛)

𝜃𝜃�𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)� = 𝑟𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛 − 1

Let 𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛) = 𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛) and if possible, let 𝑟𝑟 ≠ 𝑠𝑠.

Then 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑠𝑠 ∈ (𝑛𝑛) ⇒ 𝑛𝑛|(𝑟𝑟 − 𝑠𝑠) ⇒ 𝑛𝑛 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑠𝑠, where 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠 < 𝑛𝑛. Thus, we get a contradiction.

Hence, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑠𝑠 and so 𝜃𝜃 is well defined.

It is clearly seen to be 1-1.

Again, as

𝜃𝜃 ��𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)� + �𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛)�� = 𝜃𝜃� �������

𝑟𝑟 + 𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛)� = 𝜃𝜃�(𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑡𝑡) + (𝑛𝑛)� for some 𝑞𝑞, 𝑡𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 < 𝑛𝑛

= 𝜃𝜃�𝑡𝑡 + (𝑛𝑛)� = 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑟𝑟 ⊕𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 = 𝜃𝜃�𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)� ⊕𝑛𝑛 𝜃𝜃� 𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛)�

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𝜃𝜃 ��𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)��𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛)�� = 𝜃𝜃�𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)� = 𝜃𝜃�(𝑛𝑛𝑞𝑞 ′ + 𝑘𝑘) + (𝑛𝑛)�, for some 𝑞𝑞 ′ , 𝑘𝑘, 0 ≤ 𝑘𝑘 ≤ 𝑛𝑛

= 𝜃𝜃�𝑘𝑘 + (𝑛𝑛)� = 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑟𝑟 ⊙𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠 = 𝜃𝜃(𝑟𝑟 + (𝑛𝑛)) ⊙𝑛𝑛 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠 + (𝑛𝑛))

We find 𝜃𝜃 is a homomorphism and hence an isomorphism. □

6. Isomorphism Theorems for Rings

First Isomorphism Theorem for Rings

𝑅𝑅
Theorem 6.1: Let 𝑓𝑓 be a ring homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to 𝑆𝑆. Then the mapping from to
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝑅
𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅), given by 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓 ⟼ 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) is an isomorphism. In symbols, ≈ 𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅).
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓

(Equivalently, we can say that homomorphic image of a ring 𝑅𝑅 is isomorphic to quotient ring
𝑅𝑅
.)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓

Proof: Let 𝑓𝑓: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 be a homomorphism. Let us write 𝐾𝐾 = ker 𝑓𝑓.

𝑅𝑅
Define a map 𝜑𝜑 ∶ → 𝑆𝑆 as
𝐾𝐾

𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) for all 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝑅𝑅.

Then 𝜑𝜑 is well defined and 1 − 1 as

𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾

⇔ 𝑟𝑟1 − 𝑟𝑟2 𝜖𝜖 𝐾𝐾 = ker 𝑓𝑓

⇔ 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 − 𝑟𝑟2 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟2 ) = 0

⇔ 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 ) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟2 )

⇔ 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾).

Again, as 𝜑𝜑�(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾) + (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾)� = 𝜑𝜑�(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐾𝐾�

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 )

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 ) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟2 )

= 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾) + 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾)

Also, 𝜑𝜑 [(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾). (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾)] = 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾)

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 )

= 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟1 ). 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟2 )

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= 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐾𝐾). 𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐾𝐾)

So, 𝜑𝜑 is a homomorphism.

Now if 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅) be any element, ∃ 𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖 𝑅𝑅 such that 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠. Then we have

𝜑𝜑(𝑟𝑟 + 𝐾𝐾) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑠𝑠

We find 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐾𝐾 is the required pre- image of 𝑠𝑠 under 𝜑𝜑 showing thereby that 𝜑𝜑 is onto and
hence an isomorphism.
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Thus ≅ 𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅) or ≅ 𝑓𝑓(𝑅𝑅). □
𝐾𝐾 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 𝑓𝑓

Second Isomorphism Theorem for Rings

Theorem 6.2: Let 𝐴𝐴 be a subring of 𝑅𝑅 and 𝐵𝐵 be an ideal of the ring 𝑅𝑅. Show that 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 is an
𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴
ideal of 𝐴𝐴 and that ≅ .
𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴∩𝐵𝐵

Proof: We will first verify that 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 is an ideal of 𝐴𝐴 (by making use of the ideal test).

Let 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 and 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 be arbitrary.

⇒ 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝐵.

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 as both 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are closed under subtraction being subring and ideal of the
ring 𝑅𝑅.

Also, both 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 since 𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴.

And both 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵 since 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝐵, 𝐵𝐵 being ideal of 𝑅𝑅.

Thus 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵.

Therefore, by ideal test, 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 is an ideal of 𝐴𝐴.

𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴
Now, we will show that ≅ .
𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴∩𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵
Define a mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝐴𝐴 → as
𝐵𝐵

𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝐵𝐵 for all 𝑎𝑎 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴

Indeed, if 𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑎2 , then 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎2 ).

Implying that 𝜙𝜙 is well defined.

Now consider 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 ) = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝐵𝐵 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵) + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎2 ).

And 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎1 . 𝑎𝑎2 ) = (𝑎𝑎1 . 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝐵𝐵 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵). (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎1 ). 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎2 ).

So, 𝜙𝜙 is a well defined homomorphism.

𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵
Again if 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵 𝜖𝜖 be any element then
𝐵𝐵
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𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏, for some 𝑎𝑎 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝐵𝐵.

So, 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎 + (𝑏𝑏 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝐵𝐵.

Thus 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎)

i.e., 𝑎𝑎 is the pre-image of 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵 under 𝜙𝜙 thereby implying that 𝜙𝜙 is onto.

𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴
Therefore, by first isomorphism theorem for rings, ≅
𝐵𝐵 ker 𝜙𝜙

Now 𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙 ⇔ 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝐵𝐵

⇔ 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐵𝐵 ⇔ 𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 𝐵𝐵

⇔ 𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵 ( 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴)

Hence, ker 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴 ∩ 𝐵𝐵.

𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴
Thus, ≅ . □
𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴∩𝐵𝐵

Third Isomorphism Theorem for Rings

𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅
Theorem 6.3: Let 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 be two ideals of a ring 𝑅𝑅 with 𝐵𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴𝐴. Show that is an ideal of
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵
and

𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
≅ 𝐵𝐵 .
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅
Proof: First we will show that is an ideal of .
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅
Let 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵, 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵 ∈ and 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵 ∈ be arbitrary.
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴
Then (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵) − (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝐵𝐵) = (𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝐵𝐵 ∈ . (as 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴𝐴)
𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴
Also, (𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵). (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵) = (𝑟𝑟. 𝑎𝑎1 ) + 𝐵𝐵 ∈ . (as 𝑟𝑟. 𝑎𝑎1 ∈ 𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴 being an ideal)
𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴
Similarly, (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝐵𝐵). (𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵) = (𝑎𝑎1 . 𝑟𝑟) + 𝐵𝐵 ∈ .
𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴 𝑅𝑅 𝐴𝐴
So, by ideal test, is an ideal of and we can talk of the quotient ring .
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
Now, define a mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ → as,
𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴

𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐴𝐴

Claim: 𝜙𝜙 is an onto homomorphism.

Consider 𝜙𝜙�(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐵𝐵) + (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐵𝐵)� = 𝜙𝜙�(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐵𝐵�

= (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐴𝐴
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= (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐴𝐴) + (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐴𝐴)

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐵𝐵) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐵𝐵)

Similarly, 𝜙𝜙�(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐵𝐵). (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐵𝐵)� = 𝜙𝜙�(𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐵𝐵�

= (𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐴𝐴

= (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐴𝐴). (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐴𝐴)

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐵𝐵). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐵𝐵)

Thus, 𝜙𝜙 is a homomorphism.

𝜙𝜙 is onto can be seen easily.

𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅/𝐵𝐵
Therefore, by first isomorphism theorem for rings, ≅
𝐴𝐴 ker 𝜙𝜙

Again, 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙 ⇔ 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵) = 𝐴𝐴

⇔ 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴

⇔ 𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖 𝐴𝐴

𝐴𝐴
⇔ 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐵𝐵 ∈
𝐵𝐵

𝐴𝐴
Thus, we obtain ker 𝜙𝜙 =
𝐵𝐵

𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
Hence, ≅ 𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴 . □
𝐴𝐴
𝐵𝐵

7. Applications of Isomorphism Theorems

As an application of first isomorphism theorem we will show that every ideal of a ring
is the kernel of a ring homomorphism.
Theorem 7.1: Every ideal of a ring 𝑅𝑅 is the kernel of a ring homomorphism of 𝑅𝑅 . In
𝑅𝑅
particular, an ideal 𝐴𝐴 is the kernel of the mapping 𝑟𝑟 ↦ 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐴𝐴 from 𝑅𝑅 to .
𝐴𝐴

Proof: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a ring and 𝐼𝐼 be any ideal of 𝑅𝑅.

To Show: there exists a homomorphism

𝜙𝜙: 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑆𝑆 such that ker 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼 (where 𝑆𝑆 is any ring )

𝑅𝑅
Since, 𝐼𝐼 is an ideal of 𝑅𝑅, we can talk of the quotient ring .
𝐼𝐼

𝑅𝑅
Define a map 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼

Claim: 𝜙𝜙 is a homomorphism.
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Let 𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 𝜖𝜖 𝑅𝑅 be arbitrary, then

𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 ) = (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐼𝐼

= (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐼𝐼) + (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐼𝐼)

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 )

And

𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 ) = (𝑟𝑟1 . 𝑟𝑟2 ) + 𝐼𝐼

= (𝑟𝑟1 + 𝐼𝐼). (𝑟𝑟2 + 𝐼𝐼)

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟1 ). 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟2 )

𝑅𝑅
So, 𝜙𝜙 is a homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to .
𝐼𝐼

Claim: ker 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼.

Let 𝑟𝑟 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 be arbitrary

𝑅𝑅
Then 𝜙𝜙(𝑟𝑟) = 0 + 𝐼𝐼 (𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 )
𝐼𝐼

⇒ 𝑟𝑟 + 𝐼𝐼 = 0 + 𝐼𝐼

⇒ 𝑟𝑟 − 0 𝜖𝜖 𝐼𝐼

⇒ 𝑟𝑟 𝜖𝜖 𝐼𝐼

∴ ker 𝜙𝜙 ⊆ 𝐼𝐼 (1)

Now, let 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝐼 be arbitrary, then 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼

𝑅𝑅
⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 0 + 𝐼𝐼 = (𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 )
𝐼𝐼

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙

⇒ 𝐼𝐼 ⊆ ker 𝜙𝜙 (2)

So, by (1) and (2), ker 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐼𝐼.

As, 𝐼𝐼 was any arbitrary ideal of 𝑅𝑅 . So, every ideal of ring 𝑅𝑅 is the kernel of a ring
homomorphism of 𝑅𝑅. □

𝑅𝑅
Note: The homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to in above theorem is called the natural
𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅
homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 to .
𝐴𝐴

ℤ[𝑥𝑥]
Problem 7.2: Show that ≅ ℤ.
<𝑥𝑥>

Consider the map 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ[𝑥𝑥] → ℤ given by

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𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(0) = the constant term of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

Claim: 𝜙𝜙 is an onto homomorphism with ker 𝜙𝜙 =< 𝑥𝑥 >.

For any 𝑘𝑘 𝜖𝜖 ℤ, consider the constant polynomial

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘

Then 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(0) = 𝑘𝑘. So, 𝜙𝜙 is onto.

Now, let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝜖𝜖 ℤ[𝑥𝑥] be arbitrary.

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎0

and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑏1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑏𝑏0 , where 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖′ 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖′ 𝑠𝑠 𝜖𝜖 ℤ.

Take 𝑚𝑚 > 𝑛𝑛, then

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 −1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + (𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 )𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑎𝑎1 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑏𝑏0 + 𝑎𝑎0 )

and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛 + (𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚 −1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 )𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (𝑏𝑏1 𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑏𝑏0 𝑎𝑎1 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑏𝑏0 𝑎𝑎0 )

So, 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑎𝑎0 + 𝑏𝑏0 = 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� + 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))

and 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑎𝑎0 . 𝑏𝑏0 = 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)�. 𝜙𝜙(𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥))

Thus, 𝜙𝜙 is a homomorphism.

So, 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℤ[𝑥𝑥] → ℤ is an onto homomorphism.

Therefore, by first isomorphism theorem for rings,

ℤ[𝑥𝑥]
We have ≈ ℤ.
ker 𝜙𝜙

Now, we will show that ker 𝜙𝜙 =< 𝑥𝑥 >.

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) 𝜖𝜖 ker 𝜙𝜙 be arbitrary.

⇒ 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 0

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(0) = 0

⇒ constant term of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 0

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 for some 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖′ 𝑠𝑠 ∈ ℤ.

= (𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 )𝑥𝑥 ∈ < 𝑥𝑥 >

⇒ ker 𝜙𝜙 ⊆ < 𝑥𝑥 > (1)

Now, let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ < 𝑥𝑥 > be arbitrary.

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥. 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) for some 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∈ ℤ[𝑥𝑥]

⇒ 𝜙𝜙�𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)� = 𝑓𝑓(0) = 0. 𝑔𝑔(0) = 0

⇒ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 (2)

So, by (1) and (2), we get ker 𝜙𝜙 =< 𝑥𝑥 >

ℤ[𝑥𝑥]
Hence, we have ≅ ℤ. □
<𝑥𝑥>

In the following theorem, we show that there always exists a homomorphism from ℤ,
the ring of integers, to a Ring with Unity.
Theorem 7.3: Let 𝑅𝑅 be a ring with unity 1. Then the mapping 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → 𝑅𝑅 given by 𝑛𝑛 → 𝑛𝑛. 1 is a
ring homomorphism.

Proof: We have to show that both the operations (addition and multiplication) are
preserved under 𝜙𝜙.

Let 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ be arbitrary, then

𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛) = (𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛). 1 = 1 +1 + ⋯+ 1

���������
(𝑚𝑚 +𝑛𝑛)−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= �1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1� + (1
��������� ���������
+ 1 + ⋯ + 1)
𝑚𝑚 −𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

= 𝑚𝑚. 1 + 𝑛𝑛. 1 = 𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛).

So, 𝜙𝜙 preserves addition.

Now, we show that 𝜙𝜙 preserves multiplication as well.

Recall that for 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ and 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 (where R is a ring), we have (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚). (𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛) = (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎).

Consider 𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛) = (𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛). 1 = (𝑚𝑚. 𝑛𝑛). (1.1) = (𝑚𝑚. 1). (𝑛𝑛. 1) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚). 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛).

Hence, 𝜙𝜙 is a ring homomorphism. □

As a corollary to above theorem we will now show that a ring with Unity contains a
subring isomorphic to ℤ𝒏𝒏 or ℤ, depending on the characteristic of ℝ.
Corollary 7.4: If 𝑅𝑅 is a ring with unity and the characteristics of 𝑅𝑅 is 𝑛𝑛 > 0, then 𝑅𝑅 contains
a subring isomorphic to ℤ𝑛𝑛 . If the characteristic of 𝑅𝑅 is 0 , then 𝑅𝑅 contains a subring
isomorphic to ℤ.

Proof: Let 1 be the unity of 𝑅𝑅, and 𝑆𝑆 = {𝑘𝑘. 1 | 𝑘𝑘 𝜖𝜖 ℤ} be a subring of 𝑅𝑅.

Now by the above theorem, the mapping 𝜙𝜙 from ℤ onto 𝑆𝑆 given by 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘. 1 is a
homomorphism, and so by first isomorphism theorem for rings, we have

ℤ
≈ 𝑆𝑆
ker 𝜙𝜙
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Now we show that if 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛, then ker 𝜙𝜙 = 〈𝑛𝑛〉.

Indeed, if 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛, then 𝑛𝑛. 1 = 0.

⇒ 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 ⇒ < 𝑛𝑛 > ⊂ ker 𝜙𝜙

Now, let 𝑘𝑘 ∈ ker 𝜙𝜙 be arbitrary.

⇒ 𝜙𝜙(𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘. 1 = 0.

⇒ 𝑛𝑛|𝑘𝑘 (as 𝑛𝑛 is the least positive integer such that 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 0)

⇒ 𝑘𝑘 ∈ < 𝑛𝑛 >.

So, ker 𝜙𝜙 ⊂ < 𝑛𝑛 >.

Therefore, ker 𝜙𝜙 = 〈𝑛𝑛〉.

ℤ
Hence, if 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑛𝑛, 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 〈𝑛𝑛〉 ≈ ℤ𝑛𝑛 .

ℤ
And in case, 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 = 0, then 𝑆𝑆 ≈ 〈0〉 ≈ ℤ . □

In the following corollary, we prove that ℤ𝒎𝒎 is homomorphic image of ℤ.

Corollary 7.5: For any positive integer 𝑚𝑚, the mapping of 𝜙𝜙: ℤ → ℤ𝑚𝑚 given by 𝑥𝑥 → 𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 is
a ring homomorphism.

Proof: This follows directly from the statement of above Theorem, since in the ring ℤ𝑚𝑚 ,

𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑥𝑥. 1

And 1 is the unity of ℤ.

[For example, in ℤ3 , if 𝑥𝑥 = 5, we have 5(1) = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 2 = 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 3] □

In the next corollary we prove that every field contains a copy ℤ𝒑𝒑 or ℚ. Recall from
the previous chapter that “Characteristic of an integral domain is either 𝟎𝟎 or a prime
𝒑𝒑” and since every field is an integral domain. Thus we have 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭 = 𝟎𝟎 or 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭 = 𝒑𝒑, where
𝒑𝒑 is a prime.
Corollary 7.6: If 𝐹𝐹 is a field of characteristics 𝑝𝑝, then 𝐹𝐹 contains a subfield isomorphic to ℤ𝑝𝑝 .
If 𝐹𝐹 is a field of characteristics 0 , then 𝐹𝐹 contains a subfield isomorphic to the field of
rational numbers.

Proof: By Corollary 7.4, if 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑝𝑝, then 𝐹𝐹 contains a subring 𝑆𝑆 isomorphic to ℤ𝑝𝑝 .

Since we know that ℤ𝑝𝑝 is a field and 𝑆𝑆 is isomorphic to ℤ𝑝𝑝 , so 𝑆𝑆 is a subfield of 𝐹𝐹.

In case, 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐹𝐹 = 0 then by Corollary 7.4, 𝐹𝐹 has a subring 𝑆𝑆 isomorphic to ℤ.

Let 𝜃𝜃: 𝑆𝑆 → ℤ be the isomorphism, i.e., for every 0 ≠ 𝑠𝑠 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, ∃ 0 ≠ 𝑚𝑚 ∈ ℤ such that 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑚𝑚.

In this case, consider the set

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𝑇𝑇 = {𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 |𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆, 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0} ⊂ 𝐹𝐹 with addition and multiplication defined as:

𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)−1

And 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 . 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)−1

(as addition and multiplication are defined in the set of rational numbers).

Claim: the set 𝑇𝑇 is isomorphic to the set of rationals ℚ and as ℚ is a field so is 𝑇𝑇.

𝜃𝜃 (𝑎𝑎) 𝑚𝑚
Define a map 𝜙𝜙: 𝑇𝑇 → ℚ as 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = = , where 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎), 𝑛𝑛 = 𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏) ∈ ℤ; 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏) 𝑛𝑛

We will show that 𝜙𝜙 is a ring isomorphism.

𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1

⟺ 𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = 𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 )

⟺ 𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎)𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = 𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐)𝜃𝜃(𝑑𝑑 −1 )

−1 −1
⟺ 𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎)�𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏)� = 𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐)�𝜃𝜃(𝑑𝑑)�

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎) 𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐)
⟺ =
𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏) 𝜃𝜃(𝑑𝑑)

⟺ 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 )

So, 𝜙𝜙 is well defined and one-one.

𝑚𝑚
Let ∈ ℚ be arbitrary.
𝑛𝑛

Since, 𝜃𝜃: 𝑆𝑆 → ℤ be the isomorphism, i.e., for every 𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ∃ 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑆𝑆

such that 𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎) = 𝑚𝑚 and 𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑛𝑛 (since 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0, so 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0).

𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃 (𝑎𝑎)
Thus, = = 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ).
𝑛𝑛 𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏)

Therefore, 𝜙𝜙 is onto.

Now, 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 ) = 𝜙𝜙((𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)−1 )

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 +𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
=
𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )+ 𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
=
𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎)𝜃𝜃(𝑑𝑑)+ 𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏)𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐)
=
𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏)𝜃𝜃(𝑑𝑑)

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎) 𝜃𝜃(𝑐𝑐)
= +
𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏) 𝜃𝜃 (𝑑𝑑)

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 Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms in Rings

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ) + 𝜙𝜙(𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 )

And 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 . 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 ) = 𝜙𝜙((𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)−1 )

𝜃𝜃 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
=
𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )

𝜃𝜃 (𝑎𝑎)𝜃𝜃 (𝑐𝑐)
=
𝜃𝜃(𝑏𝑏)𝜃𝜃 (𝑑𝑑)

𝜃𝜃(𝑎𝑎) 𝜃𝜃 (𝑐𝑐)
= .
𝜃𝜃 (𝑏𝑏) 𝜃𝜃 (𝑑𝑑)

= 𝜙𝜙(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 −1 ). 𝜙𝜙(𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑 −1 )

Therefore, 𝜙𝜙 is an isomorphism.

Hence, 𝑇𝑇 is a subfield of 𝐹𝐹 which is isomorphic to ℚ. □

8. The Field of Quotients

Note that the ring of integers, ℤ, is an integral domain that is not a field, but it is contained
in a field – the field of rational numbers, ℚ. Also, observe that the field of rational numbers
is nothing but quotients of integers. Now the question that arises naturally here is:

“Can we mimic the construction of the rationals from the integers for other integral
domains?”

That is, if 𝐷𝐷 is any integral domain, then can we find a field 𝐹𝐹 (containing 𝐷𝐷 as a subring)
consisting of the quotient of elements of 𝐷𝐷?

And the answer to this question is a Yes and the field obtained so is called the field of
quotients. We present this as following theorem

Theorem 8.1: Let 𝐷𝐷 be an integral domain. Then there exists a field 𝐹𝐹 (known as the field
of quotients of 𝐷𝐷) that contains a subring isomorphic to 𝐷𝐷.

The proof of this theorem we will not do here. It can be proved on the lines of proof of
Corollary 7.6 above.

Example 8.2: Let 𝐷𝐷 = ℤ[𝑥𝑥]. Then the field of quotients of 𝐷𝐷 is

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
� ∶ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝐷𝐷, 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝� .
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)

Value Addition
• When 𝐹𝐹 is a field, the field of quotients of 𝐹𝐹[𝑥𝑥] is traditionally denoted by 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥).

• Let D be an integral domain. Then there exists a field F (called the field of quotients
of D) that contains a subring isomorphic to D.

Example 8.3: Let 𝑝𝑝 be a prime. Then

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𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
∶ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ∈ ℤ𝑝𝑝 [𝑥𝑥], 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) ≠ 0�
ℤ𝑝𝑝 (𝑥𝑥) = �
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
is an infinite field of characteristic 𝑝𝑝.

Exercises

1. Let 𝑓𝑓 be a ring homomorphism from ℤ𝑚𝑚 to ℤ𝑛𝑛 . Prove that if 𝑓𝑓(1) = 𝑎𝑎, then 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎.
2. a. Is the ring 2ℤ isomorphic to the ring 3ℤ?
b. Is the ring 2ℤ isomorphic to the ring 4ℤ?
3. Prove that the intersection of any collection of subfields of a field 𝐹𝐹 is a subfield of 𝐹𝐹.
4. Let ℤ3 [𝑖𝑖] = {𝑎𝑎 + 𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑏 |𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℤ3 }. Show that ℤ3 [𝑖𝑖] is a field and that it is ring-isomorphic to
ℤ3 [𝑥𝑥]
the field .
<𝑥𝑥 2 +1>
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
5. Consider the mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑀𝑀2 (ℤ) → ℤ given by 𝜙𝜙 � � �� = 𝑏𝑏 . Prove or disprove that
𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑
this is a ring homomorphism.
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
6. Let 𝑅𝑅 = � � � � 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐 ∈ ℤ �. Prove or disprove that the mapping 𝜙𝜙 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 → ℤ given by
0 𝑐𝑐
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
𝜙𝜙 � � �� = 𝑏𝑏 is a ring homomorphism.
0 𝑐𝑐
7. Is the mapping from ℤ5 to ℤ30 given by 𝑥𝑥 ↦ 6𝑥𝑥 a ring homomorphism?
(Note that the image of the unity is the unity of the image but not the unity of ℤ30 .)
8. Prove that a ring homomorphism carries an idempotent to an idempotent. (Recall
that a ring element 𝑎𝑎 is called an idempotent if 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎.)
9. Let 𝑛𝑛 be an integer with decimal representation 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 … 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎0 . Prove that 𝑛𝑛 is
divisible by 3 if and only if 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎0 is divisible by 3.
10. Let 𝑛𝑛 be an integer with decimal representation 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 … 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎0 . Prove that 𝑛𝑛 is
divisible by 4 if and only if 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎0 is divisible by 4.
11. Let 𝑛𝑛 be an integer with decimal representation 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘−1 … 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎0 . Prove that 𝑛𝑛 is divisible
by 11 if and only if 𝑎𝑎0 − 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 − ⋯ + (−1)𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 is divisible by 11.
12. Determine all ring homomorphisms from ℚ to ℚ.
[Hint: Let 𝜙𝜙 ∶ ℚ → ℚ be a ring homomorphism. Let 𝜙𝜙(1) = 0 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1 as 12 = 1, so we must
2
have �𝜙𝜙(1)� = 𝜙𝜙(1) . In case, 𝜙𝜙(1) = 0 , then 𝜙𝜙 is the zero homomorphism. If 𝜙𝜙(1) = 1,
𝑝𝑝 −1 𝑝𝑝
then 𝜙𝜙(𝑝𝑝) = 𝑝𝑝 ∀ 𝑝𝑝 ∈ ℤ. So, 𝜙𝜙 � � = 𝜙𝜙(𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 −1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑝𝑝)�𝜙𝜙(𝑞𝑞)� = . Thus, in this case, 𝜙𝜙 is
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
the identity homomorphism.]
13. Is there a ring homomorphism from ℝ, the ring of real numbers, to some ring whose
kernel is ℤ, the set of integers?
[Hint: Let 𝜙𝜙 be a ring homomorphism such that ker 𝜙𝜙 = ℤ , but this is not possible as
kernel of a homomorphism is always an ideal but ℤ is not an ideal of ℝ.]
14. Show that a homomorphism 𝜙𝜙 from a field 𝐹𝐹 onto a ring 𝑅𝑅 with more than one
element must be an isomorphism.
[Hint: It is enough to show that the homomorphism is one-one. Let, if possible, 𝜙𝜙 is
not 1 − 1 . Then ∃ 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑦𝑦 in 𝐹𝐹 such that 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑦𝑦) . Take 0 ≠ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑧𝑧 ∈ 𝐹𝐹 , then
𝜙𝜙(𝑧𝑧) = 0 ⇒ 𝜙𝜙(1) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 −1 ) = 𝜙𝜙(𝑧𝑧)𝜙𝜙(𝑧𝑧 −1 ) = 0 . So, we must have 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥) = 0 ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 . This
gives us that 𝜙𝜙 is not onto (why?), a contradiction. Hence, the result.]

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15. Suppose that 𝑅𝑅 and 𝑆𝑆 are commutative rings with unities. Let 𝑓𝑓 be a ring
homomorphism from 𝑅𝑅 onto 𝑆𝑆 and let 𝐵𝐵 be an ideal of 𝑆𝑆.
a. If 𝐵𝐵 is a prime ideal in 𝑆𝑆, show that 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝐵𝐵) = {𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑅 |𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) ∈ 𝐵𝐵} is a prime ideal
in 𝑅𝑅.
b. If 𝐵𝐵 is maximal in 𝑆𝑆, show that 𝑓𝑓 −1 (𝐵𝐵) is maximal in 𝑅𝑅.

16. Show that the homomorphic image of a principal ideal ring is a principal ideal ring.
(Recall that a principal ideal ring is a ring in which every ideal is of the form < 𝑎𝑎 >).
17. Show that if 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are distinct positive integers, then 𝑚𝑚ℤ is not ring-isomorphic to
𝑛𝑛ℤ.
18. Prove or disprove that the field of real numbers is ring-isomorphic to the field of
complex numbers.
19. Determine all ring homomorphisms from ℝ to ℝ.
20. Let ℚ�√2� = �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏√2 � 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℚ} and ℚ�√5� = �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏√5 � 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏 ∈ ℚ} . Show that ℚ�√2� and
ℚ�√5� are not ring-isomorphic.

References
1. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra (4th Edition), Narosa
Publishing House.
2. David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, Abstract Algebra (3rd Edition), John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Suggested Readings
1. John B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract Algebra (7th Edition), Pearson.
2. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra (7th Edition), Narosa
Publishing House.
3. Vijay.K. Khanna and S.K. Bhambri, A Course in Abstract Algebra, (4th
Edition), Vikas Publications.
4. Serge Lang, Algebra, (3rd Edition), Graduate Text in Mathematics, Springer.

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