Control Systems

Subject Code: BEC-26 Third Year ECE

Unit-I
Shadab A. Siddique
Assistant Professor
(NPIU-MHRD)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,

Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur
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 UNIT- I
UNIT-I: Basic Components of a control system, Feedback and its effect, Types of
feedback control Systems, Block diagrams: representation and reduction, Signal Flow
Graphs, Modeling of Physical Systems: Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems,
Force-voltage analogy, Force-current analogy.
⮚ Introduction to Control Systems
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
❖ Transfer Function
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy 2
Shadab. A. Siddique
Course Assessment methods:
Continuous assessment through tutorials, attendance, home assignments,
quizzes, practical work, record, viva voce and Three Minor tests and One
Major Theory & Practical Examination

Course Outcomes:
The students are expected to be able to demonstrate the following knowledge,
skills and attitudes after completing this course,
✔Describe the response characteristic and differentiate between the open
loop and closed loop of a control system.

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UNIT- I
⮚ Introduction to Control Systems
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
❖ Transfer Function
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy 4
Shadab. A. Siddique
Input Output

Input Input Output

⮚ The stimulus or excitation ⮚ The actual response obtained from

applied to a control system a system is called as output.
from an external source in order
to produce the output is called
input

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 Control System
⮚ It means to regulate, direct or Input System Output
command a system so that the
desired objective is attained (May or may not
be desired)
⮚ It is a combination or arrangement of
different physical components connected or
related in such a manner so as to form an
entire unit to attain a certain objective.
Combining above definitions
System + Control = Control System

Control System:
Desired
Input Control System Output

⮚ A control system is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in such a

manner so as to regulate, direct, command itself or some other system to achieve a certain
objective.
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Difference between System and Control System
⮚ An example : Fan

230V/50Hz
Input Fan (System) Output
AC Supply Air Flow

⮚ A Fan: Can't Say System: A Fan without blades cannot be a “SYSTEM”

Because it cannot provide a desired/proper output. i.e. airflow

Input Output

230V/50Hz No Airflow
AC Supply (No Proper/ Desired
Output)

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A Fan: Can be a System
⮚ A Fan with blades but without regulator can be a “SYSTEM” Because it can
provide a proper output. i.e. airflow
⮚ But it cannot be a “ControlSystem” Because it
cannot provide desired output i.e. controlled airflow
Input Output

230V/50Hz Airflow
AC Supply (Proper Output)

A Fan: Can be a Control System

⮚ A Fan with blades and with regulator can be a “CONTROL SYSTEM”
Because it can provide a Desired output. i.e. Controlled airflow
Control
Input Output
Element

230V/50Hz
AC Supply Controlled Airflow
(Desired Output)
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Shadab. A. Siddique
UNIT- I
⮚ Introduction to Control Systems
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy

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 Basic Components of Control System:
Forward Path

Command Reference Error Actuating

Signal Controlled
I/p I/p Signal
Reference O/p
Controller Plant/Process
Transducer r(t) e(t) u(t) c(t)

Disturbances

Feedback b(t) c(t)

Feedback
Signal Transducer

Feedback Path

✔Basic components in the control systems are shown in the above block diagram.
✔Disturbances can be external or internal.

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Basic Components of Control System:

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 Classification of Control System:
Control system can be broadly classified as-
1. Natural control system e.g: Respiratory system, Biological systems of human
body
2. Man-made control system e.g: Vehicle
3. Combination control system e.g: Driving a car
4. Time variant and Invariant control system
5. Linear and Nonlinear control system
6. Continuous time and Discrete time control system
7. Deterministic (o/p is predictable) and stochastic (o/p is unpredictable) control
system
8. Lumped parameter and Distributed parameter control system
9. SISO (Serial input serial output) and MIMO (Multiple input and multiple
output) control system
10. Open loop and Closed loop control system
i/p Plant/ o/p i/p Plant/ o/p
Controller Controller
process process
Open Loop Control System
Feedback
Closed Loop Control System 12
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 Classification of Control System
(Depending on control action)

Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System

Open Loop Control System

Definition: “A system in which the control action is totally independent of the
output of the system is called as open loop system”

Reference I/p Controlled o/p

Controller Process
r(t) u(t) c(t)

Fig. Block Diagram of Open loop Control System

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 OLCSExamples
⮚ Electric Hand Drier:- Hot air (output) comes out as
long as you keep your hand under the machine,
irrespective of how much your hand is dried.

⮚ Automatic Washing Machine:- This machine runs

according to the pre-set time irrespective of washing is
completed or not.

⮚ Bread Toaster:- This machine runs as per adjusted

time irrespective of toasting is completed or not.

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OLCSExamples
⮚ Automatic Tea/Coffee Vending Machine:- These
machines also function for pre adjusted time only.

⮚ Light Switch:- lamps glow whenever light switch is

on irrespective of light is required or not.

⮚ Volume on Stereo System:- Volume is adjusted

manually irrespective of output volume level.

Advantages of OLCS Disadvantages of OLCS

❖ Simple in construction and design ❖ They are inaccurate
❖ Economical ❖ They are unreliable output
❖ Easy to maintain cannot be corrected
❖ Generally stable ❖ Any change is automatically.
❖ Convenient to use as output is difficult to
measure

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 Closed Loop System
Definition:- A system in which the control action is somehow dependent on
the output is called as closed loop system
Forward Path

Command Reference Error Manipulated Controlled

I/p Signal
Reference I/p Signal O/p
Controller Plant
Transducer r(t) e(t) m(t) c(t)
±

Feedback b(t) Feedback c(t)

Signal Transducer

Feedback Path

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CLCS Examples
⮚ Automatic Electric Iron:- Heating elements are controlled by output
temperature of the iron.

⮚ Servo voltage stabilizer:- Voltage controller operates depending upon output

voltage of the system.

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Advantages of CLCS
⮚ Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-
linearity
⮚ Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback
signal
⮚ Bandwidth range is large
⮚ Facilitates automation
⮚ The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable
⮚ This system is less affected by noise

Disadvantages of CLCS
⮚ They are costlier
⮚ They are complicated to design
⮚ Required more maintenance
⮚ Feedback leads to oscillatory response
⮚ Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback
⮚ Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable
closed loop system
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Difference Between OLCS & CLCS
Open Loop Control System
1. The open loop systems are simple &
economical.
2. They consume less power
3. The OL systems are easier to
construct because less number of
components required
4. The open loop systems are inaccurate
& unreliable
5. Stability is not a major problem in
OL control systems. Generally, OL
systems are stable
6. Small Bandwidth
7. Feedback element is absent
8. Output measurement is not necessary
9. The changes in the output due to
external disturbances are not
corrected automatically. So, they are
more sensitive to noise and other
disturbances.
10. Examples: Coffee maker, Automatic
Toaster, Hand Drier etc.
Shadab. A. Siddique
Closed Loop Control System
1. The closed loop systems are complex and
costlier
2. They consume more power
3. The CL systems are not easy to construct
because more number of components
required
4. The closed loop systems are accurate &
more reliable
5. Stability is a major problem in closed
loop systems & more care is needed to
design a stable closed loop system
6. Large bandwidth
7. Feedback element is present
8. Output measurement is necessary
9. The changes in the output due to external
disturbances are corrected automatically.
So, they are less sensitive to noise and
other disturbances.
10. Examples: Guided Missile, Temp control
of oven, Servo Voltage Stablizer etc.
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UNIT- I (15 Marks)
⮚ Introduction to Control system
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
❖ Transfer Function
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy
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Shadab. A. Siddique
 Feedback and its Effect:
The effect of parameter variation on the system performance can be analyzed by
sensitivity of the system.
⮚ Effect of Parameter variation in open loop control system:
Consider an open loop control system whose transfer function will be
R(s) C(s)
G(s)

Let ∆G(s) be the changes in G(s) due to parameter variation, the corresponding
change in the output be ∆C(s)
C(s) + ∆C(s) = [G(s) + ∆G(s)] R(s)
= G(s) . R(s) + ∆G(s) . R(s)
C(s) + ∆C(s) = C(s) + ∆G(s) . R(s)
Therefore, ∆C(s) = ∆G(s) . R(s)
⮚ Effect of Parameter variation in closed loop control system:
R(s) C(s) Consider a closed loop control system whose
E(s)
+ G(s) transfer function is given by,
±
C(s) = G(s)
TF = T(s) =
B(s) R(s) 1 ± G(s).H(s)
H(s)
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Let ∆G(s) be the changes in G(s) due to
parameter variation in system. The
corresponding change in the output is ∆C(s)
Shadab. A. Siddique
⮚ Sensitivity of a control system:
An effect in the system parameters due to
parameter variation can be studied
mathematically by defining the term
sensitivity of a control system.
Let the variable in a system is varying by T
due to the variation in parameters K of the
system. The sensitivity of system
parameters K is expressed by,
T may be the transfer function of output
variable & K may be the gain or feedback
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factor.
⮚ Sensitivity of T(s) with H(s):
Let K be the gain ( forward path transfer function) & T be the overall transfer function of
the control system.

For open loop control system:

Forward path transfer function = Gain = G(s) ---------------- (2)

---------------- (1)

For closed loop control system:

Forward path transfer function = Gain = G(s)

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⮚ Sensitivity of T(s) with H(s):
Let us calculate the sensitivity function which indicates the sensitivity of overall transfer
function T(s) with respect to feedback path transfer function H(s). Such a function can be
expressed as,

For closed loop control system,

Feedback path transfer function = H(s)

---------------- (3)

It can be observed from equation (2) and (3) that the closed loop system is more sensitive
to variation in feedback path parameter than the variation in forward path parameter i.e.
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gain.
Shadab. A. Siddique
Problem 1:

R(s) C(s)
+
Solution:
- To find the sensitivity first we need to calculate
transfer function of system shown,

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Problem 2:
R(s) C(s)
+
- Solution:
[G1(s) . R(s) + H(s) . C(s)] . G2(s) = C(s)
G1 . R(s) . G2(s) = C(s) . [1 - H(s) . G2(s)]

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Effect of feedback on time constant of a control system:

Where T = time constant ------------- (4)

Consider an open loop system
Here feedback H(s) = h(t) is introduced in the
system

Therefore, k = A(1 + sT) + Bs R(s) C(s)

+
For s = 0, A = k -
For s = -1/T, B = -Tk

Taking Inverse Laplace transform

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Let us consider H(s) is a unity value function,
i.e. H(s) = 1

--------- (5)

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Effect of feedback on overall gain of a control system:

Effect of feedback on stability of a control system:

The closed loop poles is now located at s = - (T + k)

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 Imaginary Imaginary

Real Real
S = -T S = - (T + k)

For open loop For closed loop

The stability of the system depends on the location of poles in s- plane. Thus, it can be
concluded that the feedback effect the stability of the system.

Types of feedback control systems:

There are two main types of feedback control systems: negative feedback and positive
feedback. In a positive feedback control system the setpoint and output values are added.
In a negative feedback control the setpoint and output values are subtracted. As a rule
negative feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems. Negative
feedback also makes systems more immune to random variations in component values and
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Transfer Function:

❖ Open Loop control system:- R(s) C(s)

G(s)

❖ Closed Loop control system:-

Error
R(s) C(s)
+ Signal
G(s) Output
Input - E(s) C(s) = G(s).E(s) ---------------(3)
Substitute value of E(s) from eq. 1 to 3
B(s) C(s) = G(s) . (R(s) − B(s))
H(s)
Feedback C(s) = G(s) . R(s) − G(s) . B(s) --------(4)
Signal Substitute value of B(s) from eq. 2 to 4
Error signal is given by; C(s) = G(s) R(s) − G(s).H(s).C(s)
E(s) = R(s) − B(s) --------------------- (1) G(s).R(s) = C(s) + G(s).H(s).C(s)
R(s) = E(s) + B(s)
G(s).R(s) = C(s)(1+ G(s).H(s))
Transfer function is given by;
C(s) = G(s)
T.F .= = T(s) CLTF
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R(s) 1 + G(s).H(s)
UNIT- I (15 Marks)
⮚ Introduction to Control system
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy

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Shadab. A. Siddique
Block Diagram of a Control System:
✔If the system is simple & has limited parameters then it is easy to analyze such
systems using the methods discussed earlier i.e transfer function, if the system is
complicated and also have number of parameters then it is very difficult to analyze it.
✔To overcome this problem block diagram representation method is used.
✔It is a simple way to represent any practically complicated system. In this each
component of the system is represented by a separate block known as functional
block.
✔These blocks are interconnected in a proper sequence.
✔The block diagram has following five basic elements associated with it
a) Blocks
b) T.F of elements shown inside the block
c) Summing point
d) Take off points
e) Arrow
✔For a closed loop systems, the functions of comparing the different signals is indicated
by the summing point, while a point from which a signal is taken for feedback purpose
is indicated by take off point in block diagram.
✔The signal can travel along the arrow only.
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Shadab. A. Siddique
Advantages of block diagram:
a) Very simple to construct the block diagram for complicated systems.
b) The function of individual element can be visualised from the block diagram.
c) Individual as well as the overall performance of the system can be studied by
using transfer function.
d) Overall closed loop transfer function can be easily calculated using block
diagram reduction rule.
Disadvantages of block diagram:
a) Block diagram does not includes about physical construction of the system.
b) Source of energy is generally not shown in the block diagram.

Basic elements of block diagram:

Blocks:- It is shorthand, pictorial representation of the cause and effect relationship
between input and output of a physical system.
Input Block Output
Output:- The value of the input is multiplied to the value of block gain to get the output.

Input 2s Output
X(s) Y(s)
Output, Y(s) = 2s . X(s) 34
Shadab. A. Siddique
Basic elements of block diagram:
Summing Point:- Two or more signals can be added/ subtracted at summing point.
y

x +
output

- Output =x+y-z
z
Take off Point:- The output signal can be applied to two or more points from a take off
point.
Take off point

Forward path
Forward Path:- The direction of R(s)
+ C(s)
flow of signal is from input to G1 G2
output. -

Feedback Path:- The direction of

flow of signal is from output to H1
input.
Feedback path
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 Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 1:- For blocks in cascade:- Gain of blocks connected in cascade gets multiplied
with each other.

R1(s) R(s) C(s)

R(s) G1 G2 C(s) G1G2
R1(s) = G1R(s) C(s) = G1G2R(s)
C(s) = G2R1(s) = G1G2R(s)

R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s) R(s) G1G2G3 C(s)

Find Equivalent

R(s) G1 G2 G3 C(s) R(s) G1G2G3 C(s)

Find Equivalent

C1(s) R(s) G1G2 G3 C(s)

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Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 2:- For blocks in parallel:- Gain of blocks connected in parallel gets added
algebraically by considering the sign.
R1(s)
G1

R(s) R2(s) + C(s) R(s) C(s)

G2 - G1-G2+G3
+
C(s)= R1(s)-R2(s)+R3(s) C(s)= (G1-G2+G3) R(s)
R3(s)
G3 = G1R(s)-G2R(s)+G3R(s)
C(s)=(G1-G2+G3) R(s)
Rule 3:- Eliminate feedback loop:- Feedback loop can be either +ve or -ve
R(s) E(s) C(s)
G R(s) G C(s)
+ +-
1 ± GH
B(s)
H
- Sign is of –ve feedback
+ sign is for +ve feedback
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Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
For Negative Feedback From Shown Figure,
R(s) E(s) C(s) E(s) = R(s) − B(s) and
+
G C(s) = G.E(s) = G[R(s) − B(s)] = GR(s) −
− GB(s)But, B(s) = H . C(s)
B(s) ∴C(s) = G . R(s) −G.
H HC(s) + G.H.C(s) = GR(s)
. C(s)
∴C(s) [1+ G . H(s) ] = G.
R(s)
For Positive Feedback
From Shown Figure,
R(s) E(s) C(s)
+ G E(s) = R(s) + B(s) and
C(s) = G.E(s) = G[R(s) + B(s)] = GR(s) +
+
GB(s)But, B(s) = H . C(s)
B(s)
H ∴C(s) = G . R(s) + G . H .
C(s) − G.H.C(s) = GR(s)
C(s)
∴C(s) [1 − G . H(s)] = G.
R(s)
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Shadab. A. Siddique
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 4:- Associative law for summing point:- It hold god for summing point which are
directly connected to each other i.e. there is no any summing point or take off point or
block in between summing points.
The order of summing points can be changed if two or more summing points are in
series.

R(s) + X C(s) R(s) + X C(s)

+ +
- -

B1 B2 B2 B1
X = R(s) - B1 X = R(s) - B2
C(s) = X - B2 C(s) = X - B1
C(s) = R(s)-B1-B2 C(s) = R(s) - B2 - B1

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Shadab. A. Siddique
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 5:- Shift summing point before block:-

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G G
+ +
C(s) = R(s)G + X C(s) = G [R(s) + X/G]
X 1/G = GR(s) + X

Rule 6:- Shift summing point after block:-

R(s) + C(s) R(s) + C(s)

G G

+ +
C(s) = G [R(s)+X] C(s) = GR(s)+XG
= GR(s)+GX = GR(s)+XG G
X
X
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 Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
Rule 7:- Shift a take-off point before the block:-
R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)
G G

C(s) = GR(s) and C(s) = GR(s) and

X X = C(s) = GR(s) X = GR(s)
G

Rule 8:- Shift a take-off point after the block:-

R(s) C(s) R(s) C(s)

G G

X C(s) = GR(s) and C(s) = GR(s) and 1/G

X = R(s) X = C(s).{1/G}
= GR(s).{1/G}
= R(s) X
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Shadab. A. Siddique
Block Diagram Reduction Techniques
✔ While solving block diagram for getting single block equivalent, the said
rules need to be applied. After each simplification a decision needs to be taken. For
each decision we suggest preferences as

✔ First Choice:-
First preference : Rule 1 (for Series)
Second preference : Rule 2 (for Parallel)
Third preference : Rule 3 (for Feedback Loop)

✔Second Choice:- equal preferences to all

Rule 4 : Adjusting summing order
Rule 5/6 : Shifting summing point before/after the block
Rule7/8 : Shifting take off point before/after block

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Shadab. A. Siddique
 Problem 1:
Determine transfer function of the system shown in the figure.

G4
+
+ + +
R(s) G1 G2 G3 G6 C(s)
- +
-

H1 G5

H2
Solution:
✔Rule 1 cannot be used as there are no immediate series blocks.
✔Hence Rule 2 can be applied to G4, G3, G5 in parallel to get an equivalent of
G3+G4+G5 G4
✔Apply Rule 2 Blocks in Parallel +
+ + +
R(s) G1 G2 G3 G6 C(s)
- +
-

H1 G5
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H2
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 ✔Apply Rule 1 Block in Series
+ +
R(s) G1 G2 G3+G4+G5 G6 C(s)
- -

H1

H2

✔Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback

+ +
R(s) G1 G2 (G3+G4+G5) G6 C(s)
- -

H1

H2
✔Apply Rule 1 Block in Series

+
R(s) G2 (G3+G4+G5) G6 C(s)
-

H2 44
Shadab. A. Siddique
 ✔Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback loop

+
R(s) G6 C(s)
-

H2

✔Apply Rule 1 Block in Series

R(s) G6 C(s)

R(s) C(s)

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Shadab. A. Siddique
Problem 2:
Determine transfer function of the system shown in the figure.

-
+ + +
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
-
-
H1 H2
Solution:
✔Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback

-
+ + +
R(s) G1 G2 C(s)
-
-
H1 H2

✔Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feedback

-
+ +
R(s) G1 C(s)
-

H1
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Shadab. A. Siddique
 Which option we have to use????
✔Apply Rule 4 Exchange summing point

1 2 -
+ +
R(s) G1 C(s)
-
H1

✔Apply Rule 4 Elimination of feedback loop

2 - 1
+ +
R(s) G1 C(s)
-

H1
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Shadab. A. Siddique
 ✔Apply Rule 1 Block in series

2 -
+
R(s) C(s)

✔Apply Rule 1 Block in series

-
+
R(s) C(s)

✔Now which Rule will be applied

-------It is blocks in parallel OR -------It is feed back loop
✔Let us rearrange the block diagram to understand
✔Apply Rule 3 Elimination of feed back loop

+
R(s) C(s)
-

1
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 R(s) C(s)

Note 1: According to Rule 4

✔By corollary, one can split a summing point to two summing point and sum in any
orderB B
+ +
R(s) + C(s) R(s) + + C(s)
G G
- -

H H

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 UNIT- I (15 Marks)
⮚ Introduction to Control system
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy

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 Signal Flow Graph (SFG) Representation:
1. SFG is a graphical representation of variables of a set of linear algebraic equations
representing the system.
2. Variables are represented by small circles called nodes.
3. The line joining the nodes are called branches which is associated with a T.F and an
arrow.
4. Eg: V = IR
5. Let V & I are the variables in which I is the input & V is the output
R
I V = IR

Properties of SFG:
1. SFG is only applicable to LTI system.
2. The signal gets multiplied by branch gain when it travels along it.
3. The value of variable is represented by any node is the algebraic sum of the signals
entering at the node.

1. The no. of branches leaving a node doesn’t affect the value of variable represented by
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 Introduction
✔SFG is a graphical representation of variables of a set of linear algebraic equations
representing the system.
✔Variables are represented by small circles called nodes.
✔The directed lines joining the nodes are called branches which is associated with a T.F and
an arrow.
✔Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed by Samuel Jefferson
Mason.
✔Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also called Mason’s gain formula.
✔It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives the
relationships among the signals.
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is represented by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is represented by a Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
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 Signal-Flow Graph Model 1:

Signal-Flow Graph Model 2:

r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

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 Signal-Flow Graph Model 3:
xo is input and x4 is output

f
c
x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h

b e

Terminologies of SFG:
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is
passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4
• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths. 54
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 Cntd… Terminologies of SFG
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the
same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.

• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e. the
gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43

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 Cntd… Terminologies of SFG
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of the
feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no nodes in
common.

Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following:

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) No. of Forward paths.
d) No. of Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
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Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are two forward path gains:

• There are four loops:

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Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following
• Nontouching loop gains:

a) Input node: R(s)

b) Output node: C(s)
c) No of Forward paths: two
d) No. of Feedback paths (loops): four
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops:
1. G2(s)H1(s)
2. G4(s)H2(s)
3. G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)
4. G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths:
1. G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s) G5(s) G7(s)
2. G1(s) G2(s) G3(s) G4(s) G6(s) G7(s)
g) Non-touching loops:
1. [G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)H2(s)]
2. [G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G5(s)H3(s)]
3. [G2(s)H1(s)][G4(s)G6(s)H3(s)] 58
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Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following:

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.

• Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

a) Output node
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 (c) Forward Paths

(d) Feedback Paths or Loops

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 (d) Feedback Paths or Loops

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 (e) Self Loop(s)

(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths

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 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of fundamental
relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer
function requires the application of one formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow graph to the
simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.

Mason’s Gain Formula:

• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is;

Where,
n = number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path
• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since ∆=0 is the
system characteristic equation. 63
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• ∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of all
possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of the gains of all
possible three loops that do not touch each other) + … and so forth with sums of higher
number of non-touching loop gains.
• ∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th forward path
(Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)

Systematic approach for problems:

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i

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 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Solution:

There are two forward paths,

Therefore,

There are three feedback loops

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆1 = 1 ∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
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∆2 = 1
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 Example#1: Continue

Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

Solution:
1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

2. Calculate all loop gains. 66

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 Example#2: Continue
3. Consider two non-touching loops.
L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3

4. Consider three non-touching loops: None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4

Eliminate forward path-1 Eliminate forward path-2

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 Example#2: Continue

Example#3: Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in
figure below.

Solution:
• There is only one forward Path

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 Example#3: Continue
• There are four feedback loops.

• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.

• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.

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 Example#3: Continue

• Eliminate forward path-1

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 Example#5: From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models

H1

R(s E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

) G1 G2 G3 G4
X2
－ －
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X 3 G4 C(s)

－H2
－H3

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Example#4: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

Solution:
• The signal flow graph is shown in
the figure.

• The two forward path gains

are
• The five feedback loop gains
are
• There are no non-touching loops,
• All feedback loops touches the two hence
forward paths, hence
• Hence the control ratio

T= 72
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Example#6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

－
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ －X +
2
G2
－ Y2

Solution: -1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1

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 Example#6: Continue
7 loops:

3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :

Then:
4 forward paths:

We have

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UNIT- I (15 Marks)
⮚ Introduction to Control system
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy

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 Mathematic Modeling of Dynamical Systems

• The set of mathematical equation describing the dynamic characteristics of a system is

called mathematical model of a system.
• Dynamics/ mathematical equation of many systems can be written in terms of
differential equations
– Mechanical, thermal, electrical, economic, biological systems etc.
• We said that these D.E.’s can be derived using basic physical laws
• All systems we will study will be ‘causal’, i.e. the system’s response at any time ‘t’
depends only on past and not future inputs
• Recall transfer functions:
– It is the ratio of Laplace Transform of output to Laplace Transform of input, when
initial conditions are zero.
– We assume
• Zero initial conditions
• Linearity
• Time Invariance
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 Similarities in Mechanical and Electrical Systems
3 basic components in mechanical systems: ✔3 basic components in electrical systems:
– Mass – Resistance
– Spring – Capacitor
– Damper – Inductor
• Basic form of differential equations is the same.
• Therefore, learning to model one type of system easily leads to modeling method for the
other.
• Also, electrical and mechanical systems can be easily cascaded in block diagrams due to
this similarity.
• In fact, many other types of systems have similar forms
• We will begin with electrical systems. This will make modeling mech easier!

Modelling Electrical Systems (Nise)

• Current (i) is the rate of flow of charge (q)

• Taking Laplace transform

⇒
• Impedance (complex resistance) is defined as

⇒
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• It’s mathematical inverse is called admittance.
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 Passive Electric Components

• We will combine these elements in complex networks using Kirchoff’s Laws

– Current and Voltages in a loop sum to zeros

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 Single Loop RLC Circuit
• Find transfer function of Vc(s) to input V(s)

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 Simplifying the Procedure
• Let us look at this in another way.

• Let’s define impedance (similar to resistance) as

• Unlike resistance, impedance is also applicable to capacitors & inductors.
• It represents information about dynamic behavior of components.

c
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 Solving Multi-Loop Electric Circuits
• For multiple loops and loads, use the following recipe.
– Replace passive element values with their impedances.
– Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform.
– Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh.
– Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh.
– Solve the simultaneous equations for the output.
– Form the transfer function.

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 Multi-loop Example
• Find the transfer function I2(s) / V (s)

• Solving for Loop 1 and Loop 2

(1)
(2)

• There are various ways to solve this.

• This will yield the following transfer function

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 Summarizing the Method

• Let us look at the pattern in the last example

• This form will help us write such equations rapidly

• Mechanical equations of motion (covered next) have the same form. So, this form
is very useful!

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 Class
Quiz

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Mechanical Systems (Translational)
• Many concepts applied to electrical networks can also be applied to
mechanical systems via analogies.
• This will also allow us to model hydraulic/pneumatic/thermal systems.

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 Electrical/Mechanical Analogies
• Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have 3 passive, linear components:
– Two of them (spring and mass) are energy-storage elements; one of them,
the viscous damper, dissipates energy.
– The two energy-storage elements are analogous to the two electrical
energy-storage elements, the inductor and capacitor. The energy dissipater
is analogous to electrical resistance.
• Displacement ‘x’ is analogous to current I
• Force ‘f’ is analogous to voltage ‘v’
• Impedance (Z=V/I) is therefore Z=F/X
• Since, [Sum of Impedances] I(s) = [Sum of applied voltages]
• Hence, [Sum of Impedances] X(s) = [Sum of applied forces]

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 Electric Mechanical Analogy

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 Spring Mass Damper System

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 Transfer Function??

• System has two degrees of freedom, since each mass can be moved in the horizontal
direction while the other is held still.
• 2 simultaneous equations of motion will be required to describe system.
• The two equations come from free-body diagrams of each mass.
• Forces on M1 are due to (a) its own motion and (b) motion of M2 transmitted to M1
through the system.

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 Force Analysis
Forces on M1 Forces on M2

a. Hold M2 a. Hold M1
still, move still, move
M1 to right M2 to right
b. Hold M1 b. Hold M2
still, move still, move
M2 to right M1 to right
c. combined c. combined

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 Use Analogy

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 Homework

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 Mechanical Systems (Rotational)
• Torque replaces force; angular displacement replaces translational displacement.

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 Example#1:

Physical system

Schematic of the
system

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 Loop 1

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 Loop 2

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 Homework

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UNIT- I (15 Marks)
⮚ Introduction to Control system
❖ Control System – Definition and Practical Examples
❖ Basic Components of a Control System
⮚ Feedback Control Systems:
❖ Feedback and its Effect
❖ Types of Feedback Control Systems
⮚ Block Diagrams:
❖ Representation and reduction
❖ Signal Flow Graphs
⮚ Modeling of Physical Systems:
❖ Electrical Networks and Mechanical Systems
❖ Force-Voltage Analogy
❖ Force-Current Analogy

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 Electrical Analogies of Mechanical Systems

Force to Voltage Analogy:

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 100
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 Force to Current Analogy:

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 UNIT-I
The End
Thank You

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