BEC-26 Control Systems UNIT-II

Control Systems
Subject Code: BEC-26 Third Year ECE
Unit-III
Shadab A. Siddique Maj. G. S. Tripathi
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,

Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur
1
UNIT - III
Time response of continuous data systems, Different test Signals for the time response, Unit step
response and Time-Domain Specifications, Time response of a first-order and second order
systems for different test signals, Steady State Error and Error constants, Sensitivity, Control
Actions: Proportional, Derivative, Integral and PID control.
✓ Time Response of a Continuous data systems/ Time Domain Analysis

✓ Transient and Steady State Response
✓ Standard Test Signal : Step, Ramp, Parabolic and Impulse, Need, Significance
and corresponding Laplace Representation
✓ Poles and Zeros : Definition, S-plane representation
✓ First Order Control System : Analysis for step Input, Concept of Time Constant
✓ Second Order Control System : Analysis for step input, Concept, Definition
and effect of damping
✓ Time Response Specifications ( no derivations )
✓ Tp, Ts, Tr, Td, Mp, ess – problems on time response specifications
✓ Steady State Analysis – Type 0, 1, 2 system,
✓ steady state error constants, problems
✓ Control Actions: Proportional, Derivative, Integral, PI, PD and PID control 2
Shadab. action
A. Siddique Maj. G. S. Tripathi
Time Response
➢ In time domain analysis, time is the independent variable. When a system is given an
excitation, there is a response (output).
➢ Definition: The response of a system to an applied excitation is called “Time

Response” and it is a function of c(t).
➢ Time Response - Example

The response of motor’s speed when a command is given to increase the speed is shown in
figure,
As seen from figure, the motors speed gradually picks up from 1000 rpm and moves
towards1500 rpm. It overshoots and again corrects itself and finally settles down at the
last value 3
Shadab. A. Siddique Maj. G. S. Tripathi
Time Response
Generally speaking, the response of any system thus has two parts
(i) Transient Response

(ii) Steady State Response
➢ That part of the time response that goes to zero as time becomes very large is called as
“Transient Response”
i.e. L c(t) = 0
t→ 
➢ As the name suggests that transient response remains only for some time from initial
state to final state.
➢ From the transient response we can know;
✓ When system begins to respond after an input is given.

✓ How much time it takes to reach the output for the first time.
✓ Whether the output shoots beyond the desired value & how much.
✓ Whether the output oscillates about its final value.
✓ When does it settle to the final value. 4
Steady State Response
➢ That part of the response that remains after the transients have died out is called
“Steady State Response”.
➢ From the steady state we can know;
✓ How long it took before steady state was reached.

✓ Whether there is any error between the desired and actual values.
✓ Whether this error is constant, zero or infinite i.e. unable to track the input.
5
Standard Test Signal
➢ It is very interesting fact to know that most control systems do not know what their
inputs are going to be.
➢ Thus system design cannot be done from input point of view as we are unable to know
in advance the type input
Need of Standard Test Signal
➢ From example;
✓ When a radar tracks an enemy plane the nature of the enemy plane’s variation is
random.
✓ The terrain, curves on road etc. are random for a drives in an automobile system.
✓ The loadingon a shearing machine when and which load will be applied or thrown of.
6
Need of Standard Test Signal
➢ Thus from such types of inputs we can expect a system in general to get an input
which may be;
a) A sudden change
b) A momentary shock
c) A constant velocity
d) A constant acceleration
➢ Hence these signals form standard test signals. The response to these
signals is analyzed. The above inputs are called as,
a) Step input - Signifies a sudden change
b) Impulse input – Signifies momentary shock
c) Ramp input – Signifies a constant velocity
d) Parabolic input – Signifies constant acceleration
7
Step Input
Mathematical Representations Graphical Representations
r(t) = R. u(t) t>0
=0 t<0
This signal signifies a sudden change in the reference input r(t) at time t=0
Laplace Representations L { R u ( t ) } = R
s
Unit Step Input
Mathematical Representations Graphical Representations
r(t) = 1. u(t) t>0
=0 t<0
This signal signifies a sudden change in the reference input r(t) at time t=0
Laplace Representations L { u ( t ) } = 1
s 8
Ramp Input Graphical Representations
Mathematical Representations
r(t) = R.t t>0
=0 t<0
Signal have constant velocity i.e. constant change in it’s value w.r.t. time
R
Laplace Representations L { R t } =
2
s
Unit Ramp Input Graphical Representations
r(t) = 1.t t>0
=0 t<0
If R=1 it is called a unit ramp input
1
Laplace Representations L { R t } =
2
s 9
Parabolic Input
Graphical Representations
Rt 2
r(t) = t>0
2
=0 t<0
R
Laplace Representations L { R t } = 3
s
Impulse Input
Graphical Representations

r(t) = (t) =1 t>0
=0 t<0
The function has a unit value only for t=0. In practical cases, a pulse whose time approaches
zero is taken as an impulse function.
Laplace Representations L{ (t)} = 1
10
Poles & Zeros of Transfer Function
The transfer function is given by,
C(s)
G(s) = R(s)
Both C(s) and R(s) are polynomials in s
G(s) = b m s m
+ bm − 1 s m−1
+ ............. + bo
sn + an − 1sn−1 + .................. + an
K(s− b1)(s− b 2)(s− b 3)............(s− bm)

=
(s− a1)(s− a2)(s− a3)............(s− an)
Where, K= system gain
n= Type of system
➢ Poles: The values of ‘s’, for which the transfer function magnitude |G(s)| becomes
infinite after substitution in the denominator of the system are called as “Poles” of
transfer function.
➢ Zeros: The values of ‘s’, for which the transfer function magnitude |G(s)| becomes zero
after substitution in the numerator of the system are called as “Zeros” of transfer
function. 11
Pole- Zero Plot
➢ The diagram obtained by locating all poles and zeros of the transfer function in the s-
plane is called as “Pole-zero plot”.
➢ The s-plane has two axis real and imaginary. Since s =  + j , the X-axis stands for real
axis and shows a value of 
➢ Similarly, Y-axis stands for j and represents the imaginary axis.
Characteristics Equation
Definition: The equation obtained by equating the denominator polynomial of a
transfer function to zero is called as the “Characteristics Equation”
s n + an − 1 s n−1 + an − 2 s n − 2 + ............... + an
12
Example 1
For the given transfer function,
K ( s + 6)
T. F . =
s ( s + 2) ( s + 5)(s 2 + 7 s + 1 2 )
Find: (i) Poles (ii)Zeros

(iii) Pole-zero Plot (iv) Characteristics Equation
Solution: (i)Poles
The poles can be obtained by equating denominator with zero
s(s+ 2)(s+ 5)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0
s = 0
s+2 = 0 s = −2
s+ 5 = 0 s = −5 13
Example 1 Cont….
s(s+ 2)(s+ 5)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0
(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = (s+ 3)(s+ 4)
s+ 3 = 0 s = −3
s+4 = 0 s = −4
The poles are s=0, -2, -3, -4, -5
(ii) Zeros:
The zeros can be obtained by equating numerator with zero
s+ 6 = 0 s = −6
The zeros are s=-6
14
Example 1 Cont….
(iii) Pole-zero plot: j
3j
2j

-1 0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2
-j
-2j
-3j
15
Example 1 Cont….
(iv) Characteristics Equation:

s(s+ 2)(s+ 5)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0
s(s 2 + 7 s+ 10)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0
(s 3 + 7 s 2 + 10s)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0
s 5 + 7s 4 +12s 3 + 7s 4 + 49s 3 + 84s 2 +10s 3 + 70s 2 +120s = 0
s 5 +14s 4 + 71s3 +154s 2 +120s = 0
16
Example 2
For the given transfer function,
( s + 2)
T. F . =
s ( s + 4)(s 2 + 6 s + 25)
Find: (i) Poles (ii)Zeros

(iii) Pole-zero Plot (iv) Characteristics Equation
Solution: (i)Poles
The poles can be obtained by equating denominator with zero
s(s+ 4)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0
s = 0
s+ 4 =0 s = −4
17
Example 2 Cont….
s(s+ 4)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0
−b  b 2 − 4ac
roots =
2a
s = −3 + j4
s = −3 − j4
The poles are s= 0, -4, -3+j4, -3-j4
(ii) Zeros:
The zeros can be obtained by equating numerator with zero
s+ 2 =0 s = −2
The zeros are s=-2
18
Example 2 Cont….
j
(iii) Pole-zero plot:
4j
3j
2j

0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-j
-2j
-3j
-4j
19
Example 2 Cont….
(iv) Characteristics Equation:

s(s+ 4)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0
(s2 + 4s)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0
s 4 + 6 s3 + 25s 2 + 4 s3 + 24s 2 +100s = 0
s 4 +10 s3 + 49s 2 +100s = 0
20
Analysis of first order system for Step input
Consider a first order system as shown;
+ 1
R(s) C(s)
Ts
-
1 and H(s) = 1
Here G( s) =
Ts
G 1
C(s)
 = = Ts =
1
R(s) 1+ GH 1 1 + Ts
1 +
Ts
21
For step input;

r(t) = u(t) t>0
=0 t<0
Taking Laplace transform;
1
R(s) = L{Ru(t)} =
s
but
C (s) 1
=
R(s) 1 + Ts
1
 C(s) =  R (s)
1 + Ts
22
1 1
 C(s) = 
1 + Ts s
Using partial fraction;
A
 C(s) = + B
s 1
s +
T
Solving;
 A = s . C ( s ) |s = 0 = 1
1
 B = (s + ) C (s) | 1 = −1
T s=−
T
23
1 1
 C(s) = −
s 1
s +
T
Taking Inverse Laplace transform;
 c(t) = L−1{C (s)} = L−1{ 1 } − L−1{ 1

}
s 1
s +
T
−1 t
 c(t) = 1 − e T
24
Plot c(t) vs t;
Sr. No. t C(t)
1 T 0.632
2 2T 0.86
3 3T 0.95
4 4T 0.982
5 5T 0.993
6  1
25
Time Constant (T)
✓ The value of c(t) = 1 only at t = ∞.

✓ Practically the value of c(t) is within 5% of final value at t = 3T and within 2% at t = 4T.
✓ In practice t = 3T or 4T may be taken as steady state.
✓ How quickly the value reaches steady state is a function of the time constant of the
system.
✓ Hence smaller T indicates quicker response.
26
Damping
Every system has a tendency to oppose the oscillatory behavior of the system which is
known as “Damping”.
Damping Factor 
The damping in any systemis measured by a factor or ratio which is known as damping
ratio. It is denoted by (Zeta)
27
Analysis of second order system for Step input
Consider a second order system as shown;
R(s) + n 2
C(s)
s ( s + 2  n )
-
n
2
Here G(s) = and H(s) = 1

s(s+ 2n)
n 2
C(s) G s ( s + 2n) n
 =
2
= = 2
n 2
s + 2  n s+  n 2
R(s) 1+ GH 1+
s ( s + 2n)
28
C (s)
= 2  n
2
R (s) s + 2  n s+  n 2
This is the standard form of the closed loop transfer function

These poles of transfer function are given by;
s 2 + 2ns+n 2 = 0
−2n  ( 2n) 2 − 4 (n ) 2

s =
2
= −n 2n − n
2 2
= −n  n 2 − 1
29
The poles are;
(i) Real and Unequal if 2 − 1  0

i.e.   1 They lie on real axis and distinct
(ii) Real and equal if 2 − 1 = 0

i.e.  = 1 They are repeated on real axis
(iii) Complex if 2 − 1  0
i.e.   1 Poles are in second and third quadrant
30
Relation between and pole locations
(i) 0    1 Under damped
Pole Location Step Response c(t)
(ii)  = 1 Critically damped

31
(iii)   1 over damped
(iv)  = 0
Pole Location Step Response c(t) 32

(v) 0    − 1
(vi)  = − 1
Pole Location Step Response c(t) 33

(vii)   − 1
Time Response Specifications:
34
Time Response Specifications
✓ Delay Time (td): It is time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in
the first attempt.
1 + 0.7 
td =
 n
✓ Rise Time (tr): It is time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the final
value for overdamped systems. (It is 0 to 100% for under damped systems)
− 
tr =  d
1−2
where,  = t a n− 1

and d = n 1−2
35
Time Response Specifications
✓ Peak Overshoot (Mp): The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity. It is therefore largest error between input and
output during the transient period.

−{ }
1− 2
%Mp = e  100
✓ Peak Time (tp): It is the time required for the response to reach the first peak.
t =

p
 d
✓ Settling Time (ts): It is the time required for the response curve to reach and stay
within a specified percentage (usually 2% or 5%) of the final value.
4
T s = 4T =
 n
36
Example 3
A unity feedback system has

16
G(s) =
s(s + 5)
If a step input is given calculate
1. Damping Ratio
2. Overshoot
3. Settling Time
16
Solution: G(s) = H (s) = 1
s(s + 5)
Determine the closed loop transfer function
16
C (s) G s(s + 5) 16
= = =
R(s) 1 + G H 1 +
16 s2 + 5s + 16
s(s + 5)
37
Example 3 cont……
Compare closed loop TF with standard form of second order system

n 2 16
=
s2 + 2ns +  n 2 s2 + 5s + 16
Compare denominators of both
Natural Frequency;
n2 = 16 n = 4 rad / sec
Damping Ratio;
5 5
2ns= 5s = = = 0.625
2 n 2 4
Settling Time;
4 4
Ts = = = 1.6 sec
n (0.625)  (4)
38
Overshoot
− {
 }
1−2
% M p = e  1 0 0
− {
( 0.625)  }
1 − ( 0.625)
= e  1 0 0
2
% M p
% M p = 8 . 0 8 %
39
Example 4
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is,
4
G(s) =
s(s +1)
Determine;
1. Delay Time
2. Rise Time
3. Peak Time
4. Settling Time
5. Maximum Peak Overshoot
40
4
Solution: G(s) = H (s) = 1
s(s +1)
Determine the closed loop transfer function
4
C (s) G s ( s + 1) 4
= = =
R(s) 1 + G H 1 +
4 s2 + s + 4
s ( s + 1)
Compare closed loop TF with standard form of second order system

n 2 4
=
s2 + 2ns +  n 2 s2 + s + 4
By comparing denominators of both
Natural Frequency;
n2 = 4 n = 2 rad / sec
41
Damping Ratio;
1 1
2ns = s = = = 0.25
2 n 2 2
Damped frequency of oscillations;
d = n 1−2 d = 2 1− (0.25)2 = 1.936 rad /sec
Delay Time;
1 + 0.7  1 + 0.7(0.25)
Td = = = 0.587 sec
n 2
42
Rise Time;
1−2 1 − (0.25)2
 = tan −1
= tan−1 = 1.310 rad
 (0.25)
Tr =
−  = −1.310 = 0.945 sec
d (1 . 9 3 6 )
Peak Time;
 
Tp = = = 1.622 sec
d 1.936
Settling Time;
4 4
T s = 4T = = = 8 sec
n (0.25)  (2)
43
Maximum Peak Overshoot

− {
 }
1−2
% M p = e  1 0 0
− {
( 0.25)  }
1 − ( 0.25)
= e  1 0 0
2
% M p
% M p = 4 3 .2 6 %
44
Type of System
The open loop transfer function of unity feedback system can

be written in two standard forms: the time constant form and
the pole-zero form.
K ( s + z 1 ) ( s + z 2)..................
G(s) = (Pole-zero form)
s n ( s + p 1 ) ( s + p 2)................
K (1+ T z1s)(1 + T z 2s)..................

G(s) = (Time constant form)
s n (1+ T p1s)(1 + T p 2s)................
45
Type-0 (Zero) System
Definition: A control system with no integration in the open

loop transfer function and no pole of transfer function G(s) at
the origin of s-plane is designated as “Type-0 ” system.
K(1+T z1s)(1+T z 2s)..................

G(s) = (Standard form)
(1+T p1s)(1+T p2s)................
An amplifier type control system is a practical example of

Type-0 system
46
Type-1 (One) System
Definition: A control system with one integration in the

open loop transfer function and one pole of transfer function
G(s) at the origin of s-plane is designated as “Type-1 ”
system.
K (1+ T z1s)(1 + T z 2s)..................

s(1 + T p1s)(1 + T p 2s)................
An pneumatic type control system is a practical example of

Type-1 system
47
Type-2 (Two) System
Definition: A control system with two integration in the

open loop transfer function and two pole of transfer function
G(s) at the origin of s-plane is designated as “Type-2 ”
system.
K (1 + T z1s)(1 + T z 2s)..................
s 2 (1 + T p1s)(1 + T p 2s)................
A mechanical displacement system is a practical example of

Type-2 system
48
Derivation of Steady State Error
The steady state response is important to judge the accuracy

of the output. The difference between the steady state
response and desired reference gives the steady state error.
R(s)
C(s)
E(s) = R(s) −C(s).H(s)
E(s) G(s)
+-
+ But
C(s) = G(s).E(s)
B(s) H(s)
E(s) = R(s) −G(s).E(s).H(s)
R(s) = E(s) +G(s).E(s).H(s)

For given figure,
E(s) = R(s) −B(s) R(s) = E(s){1 +G(s).H(s)}
But R(s)
E(s) =
B(s) = C(s).H(s) 1 G(s).H(s)
49
Derivation of Steady State Error
In time domain, Steady state error,

e(t) = L −1 E(s)
and is the expression of error ess(t) = l i m s E ( s )
s→ 0
valid for all time. Steady state
error is defined as,
sR (s)
e ss (t) = lim e(t) e ss (t) = lim
t→  s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
From the final value theorem in

Laplace transform,
e ss (t) = lim sE(s)

s→ 0
50
Steady state error and Standard Signals
Steady state error for step input:
A step input of magnitude A is applied,

r(t) = A. u(t) t>0
=0 t<0
Taking Laplace transform,

A
R(s) = L{r(t)} = L { A } =
s
Steady state error,

sR (s)
e ss (t) = lim
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
51

A
s
e ss (t) = lim s
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
e ss (t) = lim
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
e ss (t) =
1 + lim G(s) H(s)
s→ 0
A
e ss (t) =
1 + Kp 52

The position error constant Kp of a system is defined as,
K p = limG(s).H(s)
s→ 0
When a step input of magnitude A is given, in response to

A
this gives e ss (t) = steady state error
1 + Kp
*Kp depends
on type of
system
53
Steady state error for ramp input:
A ramp input of slope A is applied,

r(t) = A.t t>0
=0 t<0
A
R(s) = L{r(t)} = L{At} =
s2
Steady state error,
sR (s)
e ss (t) = lim
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
54
A
s 2
e ss (t) = lim s
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
e ss (t) = lim s
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
e ss (t) = lim
s → 0 s + sG(s) H(s)
A A
e ss (t) = e ss (t) =
0 + lim sG(s) H(s) Kv
s→ 0
55

The velocity error constant Kv of a system is defined as,
K v = lim sG(s).H(s)
s→ 0
56
Steady state error for parabolic input:

A parabolic input of slope coefficient A/2 is applied,
At 2
r(t) = 2 t>0
=0 t<0
A 2 A
R(s) = L{r(t)} = L { t } =
2 s3
Steady state error,
sR (s)
e ss (t) = lim
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
57
A
s 3
e ss (t) = lim s
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
2
e ss (t) = lim s
s → 0 1 + G(s) H(s)
A
e ss (t) = lim 2
s → 0 s + s 2 G(s) H(s)
A A
e ss (t) = e ss (t) =
0 + lim s 2 G(s) H(s) Ka
s→0
58

The acceleration error constant Ka of a system is defined as,
K a = lim s 2 G(s).H(s)
s→ 0
59
Summary:
Sr. Input Steady State

Constant Constant Expression
No. Signal Error
A Position
1
Step ess(t) = Error K p = limG(s).H(s)
s→0
Input 1 +Kp Constant
Velocity
2
Ramp e ss (t) =
A
Error K v = lim sG(s).H(s)
Input s→0
Kv Constant
A Acceleration
3
Parabolic e ss (t) = Error K a = lim s 2 G(s).H(s)
Input Ka s→0
Constant
60
Relation between steady state error and Type of
system
The type of system means the number of poles G(s)H(s) at

s=0. Consider the general form,
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s n (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
Here there are n poles at s=0. Hence the type of system is n.
61
Steady state error for Step input for Type 0 system
For type zero system, n=0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
The position error constant is given by,
K p = limG(s).H(s)
s→0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K p = lim
s→ 0 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 0)(1 + T 2 0)................(1+ T m 0)
Kp =
(1 + T a 0)(1 + T b 0)................(1+ T n 0)
62
K (1)(1)................(1)
Kp =
(1)(1)................(1)
Kp = K
The steady state error is given by,
A
e ss (t) =
1 + Kp
A
e ss (t) =
1+ K
63
A
e ss (t) =
1+ K
A type zero system has a finite steady state error to a step
input ,
64
For type one system, n=1
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1+ T n s)
K p = limG(s).H(s)
s→0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K p = lim
s→ 0 s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 0)(1 + T 2 0)................(1+ T m 0)
Kp =
0(1 + T a 0)(1 + T b 0)................(1 + T n 0)
65
K (1)(1)................(1)
Kp =
0
Kp = 

A
e ss (t) =
1 + Kp
A
e ss (t) =
1+ 
e ss (t) = 0
66
e ss (t) = 0
A type one system has a zero steady state error to a step

input ,
67
For type two system, n=2
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s 2 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K p = limG(s).H(s)
s→0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K p = lim
s→0 s 2 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 0)(1 + T 2 0)................(1+ T m 0)
Kp =
0(1 + T a 0)(1 + T b 0)................(1 + T n 0)
68
K (1)(1)................(1)
Kp =
0
Kp = 
A
e ss (t) =
1 + Kp
A
e ss (t) =
1+ 
e ss (t) = 0
69
e ss (t) = 0
A type two system has a zero steady state error to a step
input ,
It is clear that all higher type systems except type zero have zero
steady state error.
70
Steady state error for Ramp input for Type 0 system

K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
The velocity error constant is given by,
s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K v = lim s{ }
s→ 0 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
Kv = 0  { }
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
71
Kv = 0
A
e ss (t) =
Kv
A
e ss (t) =
0
e ss (t) = 
72
e ss (t) = 
The error increase continuously hence type zero system fails
to track a ramp input successfully.
73

K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1+ T n s)
s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K v = lim s{ }
s→ 0 s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 0)(1 + T 2 0)................(1 + T m 0)
Kv =
(1 + T a 0)(1 + T b 0)................(1 + T n 0)
74
Kv = K

A
e ss (t) =
Kv
A
e ss (t) =
K
75
A
e ss (t) =
K
This indicates finite steady state error for type one system
for ramp input
76

K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s 2 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)

s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K v = lim s{ }
s→ 0 s (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
2
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
Kv =
s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
77
Kv = 

A
e ss (t) =
Kv
A
e ss (t) =

e ss (t) = 0
78
e ss (t) = 0
There is no steady state error for a ramp input for type two
system
79
Steady state error for Parabolic input for Type 0 system

K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
The acceleration error constant is given by,

s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K a = lim s { 2
}
s→ 0 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
Ka = 0  { }
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
80
Ka = 0

A
e ss (t) =
Ka
A
e ss (t) =
0
e ss (t) = 
81
e ss (t) = 
There is infinite steady state error indicating failure to track

a parabolic input in type zero system
82

K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1+ T n s)
s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K a = lim s { 2
}
s→ 0 s(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
Ka = 0  { }
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
83
Ka = 0
A
e ss (t) =
Ka
A
e ss (t) =
0
e ss (t) = 
84
e ss (t) = 
There is infinite steady state error indicating failure to track

a parabolic input in type one system
85
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
G(s).H(s) =
s 2 (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
s→ 0
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
K a = lim s 2 { }
s→ 0 s (1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
2
K (1 + T 1 s)(1 + T 2 s)................(1 + T m s)
Ka = { }
(1 + T a s)(1 + T b s)................(1 + T n s)
86
Ka = K
A
e ss (t) =
Ka
A
e ss (t) =
K
87
A
e ss (t) =
K
There is finite steady state error for type two system
88
Relation between steady state error and Type of
system
Summary:
Step Input Ramp Input Parabolic Input

Sr. Type of
No. System
KP ess KV ess Ka ess
1 Zero K
A
1+ K
0  0 
2 One  0 K
A
K 0 
3 Two  0  0 K
A
K
89
Example 5
The control system having unity feedback has,
20
G(s) =
s ( 1 + 4 s ) ( 1 + s)
Determine
1. Different static error coefficients.
2
r(t) = 2 + 4t + t
2. Steady State error if input
2
90
Solution:
Position error constant,
K p = lim G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20
K p = lim
s→ 0 s(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
20
K p =
0(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
K p = 
91
Velocity error constant,
K v = lim s G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20
K v = l i m s[ ]
s→ 0 s(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
20
K v =
(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
K v = 20
92
Acceleration error constant,
K a = lim s 2
G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20
K a = lim s2[ ]
s→ 0 s(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
20
K a = 0[ ]
s(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
K a = 0
93
2
Steady state error, for + t

r ( t ) = 2 + 4t
2
2 4 1
R ( s ) = L { r (t ) } = + 2
+ 3
s s s
Steady state error is given by,
sR (s)
e SS = li m
s→ 0 1 + G ( s ) H (s)
2 4 1
s[ + 2
+ 3
]
e SS = lsi→m0 s s s
20
1 +
s(1 + 4s)(1 + s)
e SS = 
94
Example 6
The control system having,
20 10
G(s) = H (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2 s + 5) ( s + 4)
Determine
1. Different static error coefficients.
2
t
2. Steady State error if input r(t) = 5 +10t +
2
95
Solution:
Position error constant,
K p = lim G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20 10
K p = lim 
s→ 0 s(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 4)
K p = 
96
Velocity error constant,
K v = lim s G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20 10
K v = l i m s[  ]
s→ 0 s(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 4)
200
K v =
20
K v = 10
97
Acceleration error constant,
K a = lim s 2
G ( s ) H (s)
s→ 0
20 10
K a = lim s2[  ]
s→ 0 s(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 4)
20 10
K a = 0[  ]
(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 4)
K a = 0
98
2
Steady state error, for + t

r(t) = 5 +10t
2
5 10 1
R ( s ) = L { r (t ) } = + 2
+
s s s3
Steady state error is given by,
sR (s)
e SS = li m
s→ 0 1 + G ( s ) H (s)
5 10 1
s[ + 2
+ 3
]
e S S = lsi→m0 s s s
20 10
1 + [  ]
s(s2 + 2s + 5) (s + 4)
e SS = 
99
Block Diagram of Process Control System
100
Classification of Control Actions
Discontinuous Continuous
On-Off Controller
Composite
Two Position P I D
Controllers
Controller
Multi Position PI
Controller
PD
Floating Mode
Controller PID
101
Related Terms
✓ Continuous Controller: Controller that responds to continuous input variables are called continuous
controller.
✓ Discrete Controller: Controller that responds to discrete signal are called discrete controllers.
✓ Process Equation: A process equation describes the mathematical relationship among the input and
output variables.
✓ Process Load: The term process load refers to a set of parameters that influences or bring changes
in the process excluding the controlled variable.
✓ Nominal Load: All the parameters have their normal or nominal value
✓ Transient : A temporary or sudden change or the variation of one of the variable is called
transient.
✓ Process Lag : A process control loop responds to ensure that some finite time later, the variable
returns to the set point value. Part of this time is consumed by the process itself and that time is
called process lag.
✓ Control Lag : Control lag refers to the time for the process control loop to make necessary
adjustment to the final control element.
✓ Dead Time : Another time variable associated with process control is a function of both process
control system and the process. This is the elapsed time between the instant of deviation (error)
occurs and when the corrective action first occurs.
✓ Cycling : Oscillation of error about the zero value. This means the dynamic variable cycling above
and below the set point. For cycling we are interested in amplitude and period of oscillation.
102
ON-OFF Controller- 2 Position Controller
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
e = error =
set point – measured variable
Controller output has two possible values.
103
Neutral Zone
Practical case (dead band)
δ = tolerance
system never reaches steady-state

104
ON-OFF Controller-Multi position Controller
Multimode/ Multi-position Controller: Multimode controller is a logical

extension of On/Off controller. It is used to provide several intermediate, rather
than two, setting of the controller output. This discontinuous control is used in an
attempt to reduce the cycling behavior and overshoot and undershoot inherent in
the On/Off controller.
105
Floating Control Mode
✓ In a floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely determined by
the error. If the error is zero the output does not change but remains (floats) at whatever
setting it was when the error went to zero. When the error moves off zero, the controller
output again begins to change
➢ Floating mode controller is of two types:
✓ Single Speed: In the single-speed floating mode, the output of the control element
changes at a fixed rate when the error exceeds the neutral zone.
✓ Multi Speed: In the multi-speed floating mode, not one but several possible speeds
(rates) are changed by controller output. Usually, the rate increases as the deviation
exceeds certain rate.
106
Electronic ON-OFF Controller
107
Advantages of ON-OFF Controller
✓ Only two output states i.e. ON and OFF.
✓ Simple construction
✓ Low cost
Disadvantages of ON-OFF Controller

✓ Response of ON-OFF controller is slow.
✓ Not suitable for complex system
108
Proportional- Integral- Derivative
Output Response for Step Input Signal for:
Proportional Integral Derivative
10
9
Proportional Control Action
✓ In the case of the proportional controller, the actuation signal is proportional to the
system deviation.
✓ If the system deviation is large, the value of the manipulated variable is large.
✓ If the system deviation is small, the value of the manipulated variable is small.
✓ The time response of the P controller in the ideal state is exactly the same as the input
variable
11
0
Proportional Control Action
✓ In a proportional control mode, a smooth linear relationship exists between the
controller output and the error. The range of error to cover the 0% to 100% controller
output is called the proportional band, because the one-to-one correspondence exists
only for errors in this range.
➢ The output can be expressed as:
Where,
Kp = proportional gain between error and controller output
p0 = controller output with no error.
➢ In a proportional control mode, the proportional band is dependent on the gain and
can be expressed as :
11
1
The proportional band of a proportional controller depends on the inverse of
the gain.
11
2
Characteristics of P Control mode
✓ If error is zero, the output is a constant equal to p0.
✓ If there is an error, for every 1% of error, a correction of Kp percent is added to or
subtracted from p0 depending the sign of the error.
✓ There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB with which the output is not
saturated at 0% or 100%.
Why not “Proportional”?

Offset:
➢ An important characteristics of proportional controller mode is that it produces a
permanent residual error in the operating point of the controlled variable, when a
change in load occurs. This error is referred to as offset. It can be minimized by a
larger constant Kp which will also reduce the proportion band.
11
3
An offset error must occur if a proportional controller requires a new zero-error
output following a load change
11
4
Example: # Electronic Proportional Controller
Vout = GpVe + V o
Where, Vout= output voltage
R2
Gp = = gain
R1
Ve = error voltage
Vo = output with zero error
11
5
Advantages of Proportional Controller
✓ Construction is simple
✓ These controllers has high loop gain
✓ It has steady state tracking accuracy
✓ It improves the disturbances signal reduction
✓ It stabilizes the gain and makes the system more stable
Disadvantages of Proportional Controller

✓ It cannot accommodate load change without sustained deviation.
✓ It produces the constant steady state error.
✓ For very large gain it leads to instability of the system
✓ It has a sluggish i.e. slow response for wide proportional band.
✓ It makes the system less sensitive to parameter variation 11

6
Integral Control Action
✓ The I controller adds the system deviation over time. It integrates the system deviation.
✓ As a result, the rate of change (and not the value) of the manipulated variable is
proportional to the system deviation.
✓ This is demonstrated by the step response of the I controller: if the system deviation
suddenly increases, the manipulated variable increases continuously.
11
7
Integral Control Action
✓ The greater the system deviation, the steeper the increase in the manipulated variable
✓ For this reason the I controller is not suitable for totally compensating remaining
system deviation.
✓ If the system deviation is large, the manipulated variable changes quickly.
✓ As a result, the system deviation becomes smaller and the manipulated variable
changes more slowly until equilibrium is reached.
✓ A pure I controller is unsuitable for most controlled systems, as it either causes
oscillation of the closed loop or it responds too slowly to system deviation in systems
with a long-time response.
✓ In practice there are hardly any pure I controllers.
✓ In a integral control mode, the rate of change of controller output is proportional to the
error. So the output can be expressed as:
11
8
Characteristics Integral Control Action
✓ If error is zero, the output is a constant equal to p0.

✓ If there is an error, for every 1% of error, a correction of KI percent is added to or
subtracted from p0 depending the sign of the error.
Integral mode controller action: (a) The rate of output change depends on
error, and (b) an illustration of integral mode output and error.
11
9
Why not “Integral”?
Integral Windup:
➢ The problem for integral controller is that, if there is a zero change in slope, the
controller output holds to a constant value. This is called integral windup. The only
way to cut the wind up is to put a negative error
Integration of a curve → area under the curve
Integrated input signal is multiplied by a factor, Ki

12
0
Integral Controller
Setpoint
Car steering analogy:

Look out through the back window and keep track of
•how long the car has been out of desired position and
•by how much.
How long (sec) * how much (m) is the integral (sec*m).
The longer the car was positioned away from the set point the stronger
the signal Good to correct for long term and only slight deviation from set
point.
12
1
Integral Controller
✓ A purely integrating controller is slow and
✓ Error takes long time to build up
✓ Action can become too strong → overshooting
✓ Int controller is unaware of current position → Generally

used combined with P control (looking at current position)
– PI control
12
2
Electronic Integral Controller
V o u t = G I  V e d t + V o u t (0 )
0
Where, Vout= output voltage
1
GI = =integration gain
RC
Ve = error voltage
Vout(0) = initial output voltage
12
3
Advantages of Integral Controller
✓ It reduces steady state error i.e. effect of offset.
✓ It provides high controlled output at a particular time after the error generated is for
high value of KI.
✓ It responds to the continued existence of deviation.
Disadvantages of Integral Controller

✓ It is never used alone.
✓ It makes the system unstable for oscillatory response.
✓ It introduces hunting in the system response about its steady state condition.
12
4
Derivative Control Action
➢ In a derivative control mode, the controller output is proportional to the derivative of
the error. So the output can be expressed as:
Derivative mode controller action changes depending on the rate of error.
12
5
Characteristics Derivative Control Action
✓ If error is zero or the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
✓ If there is an error, for every 1% -per-second rate of change of error, the mode
contributes an output of KD percent.
✓ For direct action, a positive rate of change of error produces a positive derivative mode
output.
Why not “Derivative”?
Derivative Overrun:
➢ A step change in set point causes a false step error for the derivative controller. This
step change causes the derivative part of the controller to saturate the overall
controller output. This ultimately forces the final control element to go to hard Off
mode. This is called derivative overrun. The solution to this problem is to feed the
derivative controller with process variable (PV) instead of error
12
6
Derivative Controller
✓ Examines the rate of change of the output of the process
✓ The faster the change, the stronger the action
✓ The derivative of the output (slope) is multiplied by a constant, Kd
Setpoint
12
7
✓ Differential control is insensitive to slow changes
✓ If the variable is parallel to the setpoint, no change is made (slope = 0)
✓ Differential control is very useful when combined with P and I control → PID
control
Electronic Derivative Controller
dVout dVe
Vout + R1C = −R2C
dt dt 12
8
Advantages of Derivative Controller
✓ It can overcome the overshoot and severe cycling.
✓ It has a rapid response to counter the effect of rapidly changing errors.
✓ It responds to the changes of the speed and direction to the deviation.
✓ It does not affect the steady state error directly, but anticipates the error.
✓ It increases the stability of the system by initiating an early corrective action
Disadvantages of Derivative Controller

✓ It cannot be used alone, since it cannot give any output for zero or constant error.
✓ It is ineffective for slowly changing error and hence causes the drift.
✓ It amplifies the noise signal and causes a saturation effect on the system.
✓ It does not eliminate the steady state error (offset)
12
9
PI-Controller
✓ The PI controller combines the behaviour of the I controller and P controller.
✓ This allows the advantages of both controller types to be combined: fast reaction and
compensation of remaining system deviation.
✓ For this reason, the PI controller can be used for a large number of controlled systems.
✓ In addition to proportional gain, the PI controller has a further characteristic value that
indicates the behaviour of the I component: the reset time (integral- action time).
13
0
PI-Controller
➢ This control mode results from a combination of the proportional mode and the integral
mode. The output can be expressed as:
✓ Proportional-integral (PI) action showing the reset action of the integral

contribution
13
1
Characteristics of PI-Controller
✓ When error is zero, the controller output is fixed at PI(0).

✓ If there is an error, the proportional term contributes a correction, and the integral term
begins to increase/decrease the accumulated value [ initially, pI (0)], depending on the
sign of the error and the direct or reverse action.
Electronic PI Controller
13
2
Advantages of PI Controller
✓ It provides better stability to the system.
✓ It provides simplicity and directness.
✓ It fully eliminates the steady state error i.e. offset.
✓ It has good transient response.
✓ It stabilizes the controller gain.
Disadvantages of PI Controller
✓ It takes the longer time to stabilize the controller gain than proportional controller
action.
✓ It suffers from only oscillation induced by the integral overshoot.
✓ It requires excessive stabilization, when the process has many energy elements or
dead time.
13
3
PD Controller
✓ This control mode results from a combination of the proportional mode and the
derivative mode. The output can be expressed as:
✓ The PD controller consists of a combination of proportional action and differential

action.
✓ The differential action describes the rate of change of the system deviation.
✓ The greater this rate of change – that is the size of the system deviation over a certain
period – the greater the differential component.
✓ In addition to the control response of the pure P controller, large system deviations are
met with very short but large responses.
✓ This is expressed by the derivative-action time (rate time).
13
4
Proportional-derivative (PD) action showing the offset error from the proportional
mode
Electronic PD Controller
13
5
Advantages of PD Controller
✓ It allows the rise of narrower proportional band with its lesser offset.
✓ It increases the controller gain during the error change.
✓ It can compensate the rapidly changing error.
✓ It can handle the fast process load change.
✓ It can compensate some of the lag in a process.
Disadvantages of PD Controller
✓ It cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controller.
13
6
PID- Controller
✓ In addition to the properties of the PI controller, the PID controller is complemented by
the D component.
✓ This takes the rate of change of the system deviation into account.
✓ If the system deviation is large, the D component ensures a momentary extremely high
change in the manipulated variable.
✓ While the influence of the D component falls of immediately, the influence of the I
component increases slowly.
✓ If the change in system deviation is slight, the behaviour of the D component is

negligible
✓ This behavior has the advantage of faster response and quicker compensation of system
deviation in the event of changes or disturbance variables.
✓ The disadvantage is that the control loop is much more prone to oscillation and that
setting is therefore more difficult.
13
7
PID- Controller
✓ This is one of the most powerful but complex controller mode operations combines the
proportional, integral and derivative modes. The output for this mode can be expressed
as:
13
8
The three-mode controller action exhibits proportional, integral, and
derivative action.
13
9
Time Analogy of PID Controller
✓ P: Present time. Only considers current position. Not aware of current direction and of
error history
✓ I: Past time. Only compiles an error sum of the past. Not aware of current distance of
signal from setpoint and of current direction.
✓ D: Future time. Only considers current direction (trend). Now aware of current
distance of signal from setpoint and of error history.
14
0
PID Response
1. Output without
control Positive 1
deviation
2. Proportional
action
Controlled
3. Integral action variable 2
4. Proportional + Set-point 4
integral action
5, 6
5. Proportional + 3
derivative action Negative
deviation
6. Proportional +
integral +
derivative action Time
14
1
Electronic PID Controller
14
2
Advantages of PID Controller
✓ It reduces the overshoot which often occurs when integral control action is added to
proportional control action.
✓ It counteracts the lag characteristics introduced by the integral control action.
✓ It approaches the tendencies towards oscillations.
✓ It senses the rate of movement away from the set point and gives corrective action
earlier than only with P or PI
Disadvantages of PID Controller

✓ It is more effective for control process with many energy storage element than P+I
control action used alone.
✓ It eliminates the offset i.e. steady state error introduced by proportional control action.
✓ It stabilizes the gain of the controller

14
3
UNIT-III
The End
Thank You
144

BEC-26 Control Systems UNIT-II

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BEC-26 Control Systems UNIT-II

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BEC-26 Control Systems UNIT-II

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Control Systems

Subject Code: BEC-26 Third Year ECE

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,

✓ Time Response of a Continuous data systems/ Time Domain Analysis

➢ Definition: The response of a system to an applied excitation is called “Time

➢ Time Response - Example

(i) Transient Response

➢ From the transient response we can know;

✓ When system begins to respond after an input is given.

➢ From the steady state we can know;

✓ How long it took before steady state was reached.

Need of Standard Test Signal

K(s− b1)(s− b 2)(s− b 3)............(s− bm)

Find: (i) Poles (ii)Zeros

s(s+ 2)(s+ 5)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0

(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = (s+ 3)(s+ 4)

(iii) Pole-zero plot: j

(iv) Characteristics Equation:

s(s 2 + 7 s+ 10)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0

(s 3 + 7 s 2 + 10s)(s2 + 7 s+ 12) = 0

s 5 + 7s 4 +12s 3 + 7s 4 + 49s 3 + 84s 2 +10s 3 + 70s 2 +120s = 0

s 5 +14s 4 + 71s3 +154s 2 +120s = 0

Find: (i) Poles (ii)Zeros

s(s+ 4)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0

(iv) Characteristics Equation:

(s2 + 4s)(s2 + 6 s+ 25) = 0

s 4 + 6 s3 + 25s 2 + 4 s3 + 24s 2 +100s = 0

s 4 +10 s3 + 49s 2 +100s = 0

For step input;

Taking Laplace transform;

Using partial fraction;

 c(t) = L−1{C (s)} = L−1{ 1 } − L−1{ 1

Sr. No. t C(t)

✓ The value of c(t) = 1 only at t = ∞.

✓ In practice t = 3T or 4T may be taken as steady state.

✓ Hence smaller T indicates quicker response.

ratio. It is denoted by (Zeta)

Consider a second order system as shown;

Here G(s) = and H(s) = 1

This is the standard form of the closed loop transfer function

−2n  ( 2n) 2 − 4 (n ) 2

The poles are;

(i) Real and Unequal if 2 − 1  0

(ii) Real and equal if 2 − 1 = 0

Pole Location Step Response c(t)

(ii)  = 1 Critically damped

Pole Location Step Response c(t)

Pole Location Step Response c(t)

Pole Location Step Response c(t) 32

Pole Location Step Response c(t)

Pole Location Step Response c(t) 33

Pole Location Step Response c(t)

Time Response Specifications:

A unity feedback system has

Compare closed loop TF with standard form of second order system

The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is,

Compare closed loop TF with standard form of second order system