UNIT II: COLOUR & DESIGN

By the end of this unit, I will be able to: TARGET OUTPUT

 identify different parts of a lecture At the end of this unit, I will be asked to:
 listen for repeated information/clarification
 summarise ideas from a text ‘explain the importance of colour in our
 use evidence to support ideas lives.’
 report ideas orally
 analyse a writing question

Part A: DISCUSSION
1. Look at the pictures and decide which one you like best. Give your reasons.

20
2. Read the quotes below, choose the one that is closest to your idea and share it with the
class.

The importance of colour is nothing

compared with that of form,
chiaroscuro and arrangement. They
are the true and enduring bases of
Amy Grant 2017 pictorial art.
Walter Phillips 2016

Colors play a very important role

in our lives, whether we realize it
or not. They have the ability to
affect our emotions and moods in
a way that few other things can.
Jacob Olesen 2016
Wassily Kandinsky

3. Read the questions below and try to answer them using your own knowledge.
a) What is your favourite colour and how does it make you feel?
___________________________________________________________________________
b) What is the first colour babies see?
___________________________________________________________________________
c) Do men and women see colour the same way?
___________________________________________________________________________
d) What is the safest colour for cars?
___________________________________________________________________________
e) How do colours affect advertising?
___________________________________________________________________________

4. Briefly explain all the ways colours can influence our lives.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

21
Part B: PRE-LISTENING
1. Read the sentences below and try to find a synonym or definition for the words in bold.
a) Basically, colours can define, bring together, balance, equalise or differentiate a space.
define:______________________________________________________________________
differentiate:_________________________________________________________________

b) Research shows that our brains do react to colours without us being aware of it.
research:____________________________________________________________________
react:_______________________________________________________________________
aware:______________________________________________________________________

c) Colour choice in the design of educational places is such an important topic because
colours do not only affect surroundings, they also affect the people in the surroundings.
design:_____________________________________________________________________
topic:_______________________________________________________________________
affect:______________________________________________________________________

d) The right choice of colour can help to make a classroom more welcoming and more
comfortable. This can then even reduce stress levels of learners, reduce boredom and
encourage more participation in classroom activities.
stress:______________________________________________________________________
participation:________________________________________________________________

2. Complete the chart below with appropriate forms of the words you defined above.

Word Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

define

differentiate

research

react

aware

design

topic

affect

stress

participation

22
3. Use the appropriate form of words contained in the previous chart to complete the
sentences below.
a) Fashion ________________ prefer to use different colours in their summer and winter
collections.
b) Babies are more _____________ to bright colours such as red, yellow and green.
c) Many ____________ in the field of design carry out studies in relation to the use of
colours.
d) If a person is colour blind, he or she will have difficulties to ______________ between red
and green.
e) The __________ of my presentation is the use of colour in the workplace.
f) If colours are used ______________, they can increase motivation and interest, and make
people ____________ more.
g) Colours can reduce boredom, make people less ___________ and situations less
________________.
h) The green colour ___________ the doorframe against the black building.
i) In general, people have a low level of _____________ of the colours around them.

Part C: LISTENING
1. Try to answer the following questions in pairs.
a) Why is it important to take notes in lectures?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
b) Do you have a specific note-taking system? Explain your answer.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
c) How is a lecture organised?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
d) How do you know that one part finishes and another part starts?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
e) What kind of words or phrases can your lecturer use to help you understand this?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

23
 2. Compare your answers with the information given in the Academic Hint box below.
ACADEMIC HINT: SIGNAL WORDS

You are going to listen to many lectures at university. To get the most out of them, you must
listen carefully to what your lecturers say and take notes if/when necessary. In lectures, signal
words are used by lecturers to help the students follow what is being said. It is important to
know these phrases and their functions to best follow and understand your lessons.

These phrases can be used in:

 the introduction - to explain the aim and organisation of a lecture

(e.g. Today, I would like to..., The aim of my talk is to...
I will deal with three main topics today, ...)
 the body – to show main points and what information is most important
(e.g. The first point I’d like to make is... Now, I will move on to... Now, I will turn to…
It is crucial to know that... what is important is... I want to emphasise...)
 the conclusion – to restate the main topics and points covered in lecture
(e.g. In conclusion, ... To sum up, ... Let me now conclude my presentation.)

3. Listen to the introduction of a lecture on colours by Professor Stevens (2016) and take
notes on the slide below.

4. Using your notes, answer the following questions.

24
a) What are the two points the instructor will cover in the lecture?

Point 1: ____________________________________________________________________

Point 2: ____________________________________________________________________

b) What effect do cool and warm colours have on a space?

Cool colours: _______________________________________________________________

Warm colours: ______________________________________________________________

c) Colours affect both the ____________________ and the ____________________ in them.

d) In a learning environment, you want to make students _____________________________.

5. Listen to the main part of the lecture and take notes on the slides.

25
26
6. Using your notes, answer the questions below.

1. According to the lecturer,…

a) everyone openly sees the colours around them.
b) some people notice colours more easily than others.
c) no one can explain why they have favourite colours.
d) people’s brains react to the colours around them.

2. The lecturer states that...

a) he bought furniture to cheer him up.
b) the furniture’s colour positively affected him.
c) he hated having white coloured walls.
d) research might help people to design their rooms.

3. Which one is not mentioned as an effect of colour choice for a classroom?

a) reduction of stress levels
b) change in class atmosphere
c) higher levels of enjoyment
d) better concentration

27
4. Blues and violets are good choices for general lecture halls because they make students
a) thoughtful.
b) emotional.
c) helpful.
d) more intelligent.

5. A good choice of colour for a language class would be

a) green.
b) yellow.
c) purple.
d) dark red.

6. Which group of students like patterns of colour?

a) early primary school students
b) later grades of primary school students
c) high school students
d) all of the above

7. Listen to the next part of the talk and answer the following questions.

a) What topic does the student need clarification on?

__________________________________________________________________________________

b) What is the instructor’s answer?

__________________________________________________________________________________

c) What words or phrases does the instructor use to clarify the information?

___________________________________________________________________________

ACADEMIC HINT: CLARIFICATION

Your lecturers will try to explain the meaning of complex ideas, complicated concepts, etc. To
do this, they may repeat information using different words, i.e. paraphrase what has already
been said. It is important for you to recognise that this is the same information expressed
differently and is not new information. In addition to the actual words they use, they change
their intonation; it goes up on the words that show restatement or clarification.

This re-telling, or clarification, may be introduced using phrases such as:

In other words... That’s to say... To put it another way... What I mean is...

28
8. Listen to the extract again and complete the missing phrases. Pay attention to the
intonation of the speaker for these phrases.

‘Well, (1)________________________ when I said it will depend on their age, is that

different age groups of learners like different strengths of colour. (2)__________________
___________ as students grow up, they prefer different intensities of colour. As I said,
babies like strong bright colours, but as they grow to school age, they like softer colours.
Then as they again get older, the colours they like become medium strength. Later, at high
school, darker colours are preferred. (3)____________________________________,
babies like bright yellow, primary school children prefer a soft yellow, middle school
learners like medium yellow and high school students would like a darker yellow.
(4)________________, the colour can be made stronger or weaker depending on the age
of your learners. Does that help?’

9. Listen to the last part of the lecture and take notes on the slide.

29
10. Using your notes, answer the following questions.

a) What is the purpose of this part of the lecture?

___________________________________________________________________________

b) Is any new information given here?

___________________________________________________________________________

ACADEMIC HINT: SUMMARIZING (1) SPOKEN TEXTS & LECTURES

Your aim in taking notes in lectures is to create a record of the information presented and
remember it for future activities, such as exams and projects. However, the problem with notes
is, if you leave them as they are, you will not be able to make sense of them and will be unable
to use them after a few days. Therefore, the best thing to do is to turn them into meaningful
summaries.

To write an effective summary of the notes you have taken, you must identify the main points
of each part of the lecture and write them in your own words in the shortest way possible. Do
not include unnecessary information like long explanation or examples. You should only write
the ideas that were mentioned in the lecture. Do not add your own ideas to the summary.

If you want to use this summary to help support ideas in your own work, remember that you
must acknowledge the original speaker.

Example: In her lecture, Elliot states that …

CHECKLIST FOR SUMMARY

____ 1. Does it include all the main points?
____ 2. Is any unnecessary information included?
____ 3. Is the information written in your own words?
____ 4. Are any personal opinions included?
____ 5. Has the speaker’s information been included?

11. Using all of the notes that you have taken and the Academic Hint box above, write a
summary of the lecture.

30
Part D: READING

1. Read the texts below and answer the questions that follow.
A
Authors:
Brooker, Alice; Franklin, Anna
Source:
British Journal of Educational Psychology, v86 n2 p241-255 Jun 2016. 15 pp.

Background: The presence of red appears to hamper adults' cognitive performance when
completing tasks relative to other colours.

Aims and sample: Here, we investigate whether colour affects cognitive performance in 8-
and 9-year-olds.

Method: Children completed a battery of read aloud tasks once in the presence of a
coloured screen that was one of eight colours and once in the presence of a grey screen.
Participants were asked to read a series of words aloud and their reaction times were
calculated. Performance was assessed for each colour relative to the grey screen, and
differences across colours were compared.

Results: We find a significant difference in performance across colours, with significantly

worse performance in the presence of red than grey.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that colour can affect children's cognitive performance
and that there is a detrimental effect of red. Findings are related to the adult literature and
implications for educational contexts are discussed.

B
By Kazak, Magrur. In Physiology & Behavior. May 2016
Language: English. DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.11.023, Database: ScienceDirect

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Dental setting plays an important role in child’s behaviour and cooperation
to the planned dental treatment. Adding attractive colours to the dental environment and
Incorporating colourful equipment can make the child feel relaxed and at ease. This study
tries to convey the relationship between colours and dental anxiety among children.

Aim: To evaluate the relationship between colour preference and emotions in relation to
children’s age, gender and anxiety level.

Materials and Methods: A total of 382 children aged 6-12 years were randomly selected
to take part in the study. Participants were given a dental anxiety scale comprising a series
of questions. Each question asked the children about how they felt about seeing the dentist
and was scored from one (not anxious) to five (extremely anxious); such that the total score
ranges from 5 to 25. A total score of 15 or more was considered to be anxious. Based on
this, children were divided into anxious and non-anxious groups. All the children were
provided with eight different coloured crayon pencils and were asked to shade two cartoon
emoticons indicating happiness and sadness with their preferred colour. Values were

31
 tabulated and statistically analysed.

Results: Among 382 children, 77% (294) were graded as anxious and 23% (88) as non-
anxious. For positive emotions (happiness), 31.2% (119) children preferred blue followed
By pink 29.3% (112). For negative emotions (sadness), 52.1% (199) of children preferred
black and 46.9% (179) preferred red. Association between colour and emotion was highly
significant (p= 0.005).

Conclusion: From the colours preferred by the children in our study, it can be concluded
that colours like blue and pink in the dental set-up could enhance a positive attitude while
black and red could develop a negative outlook in their mind. Dental surgeries should
therefore avoid the use of black and red.

C
Does Children’s Colour Use Reflect the Emotional Content of their Drawings?

Emily Crawford, Julien Gross, Tess Patterson

and Harlene Hayne, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand, Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand

When children draw in clinical contexts, clinicians sometimes rely on children’s colour use
to make inferences about their emotional reaction to the subject of the drawing. Here, we
examined whether children use colour to portray emotion in their drawings. In Experiment
1, children indicated their colour preferences and then coloured in outlines of cartoon
figures characterized as nasty or nice. Children also drew complex, multi-coloured pictures
about their own happy or sad experiences. In Experiment 2, hospitalized children drew
pictures about being worried or scared in hospital and about their positive experiences. In
both experiments, we examined the relation between children’s colour use and their colour
preferences. The results show that children used more preferred colours to colour in the
nice characters. Although they were more likely to use non-preferred colours to colour in
the nasty characters, they tended to use a mix of preferred and non-preferred colours. The
relationship between colour choice and the way children viewed the characters was
therefore not completely clear. These findings suggest that clinicians should exercise
extreme caution when interpreting the meaning of colour in children’s drawings.

Infant and Child Development

Inf. Child Dev.21: 198–215 (2012)

1. Where would you find these texts?

a) in a textbook
b) in a newspaper
c) in an academic journal
d) on a personal blog on the internet

2. What is the purpose of them?

32
a) to entertain
b) to summarize a study
c) to get feedback on a study
d) none of the above

3. Which texts support the idea that colour is important?

a) A & B
b) A & C
c) B & C
d) all of the above

4. Which text mentions the importance of the colour blue?

a) A
b) B
c) C
d) none

5. Which colour is better for children’s cognitive performance?

a) red
b) grey
c) pink
d) blue

6. Which colour should be avoided in dental settings?

a) blue
b) grey
c) pink
d) black

7. Which of the following statements is true?

a) Children always use preferred colours when colouring nice characters.
b) Children always use non-preferred colours to colour nasty characters.
c) Children use a mixture of preferred and non-preferred colours to colour characters.
d) None of the above

8. Which of the following phrases cannot be used instead of ‘Based on this’?

a) Considering this
b) Ignoring this
c) Taking this into account
d) Depending on this 

9. The term ‘therefore’ is closest in meaning to

a) in addition

33
b) as a result
c) due to
d) in other words 

10. The term ‘although’ is closest in meaning to

a) despite the fact
b) without a doubt
c) on the other hand
d) in the same way 

2. Complete the table below with specific information from the texts?
A B C
Author(s) & Brooker & Franklin
Year of (2016)
Publication
Participants 6-12 year old children

Aim to see the link between

children’s use of
colour in drawings and
their emotions

Results / The relationship

Conclusion between children’s
colour choice and their
emotions is not clear.
Clinicians should be
careful when
examining the colours
children use in their
drawings.

ACADEMIC HINT: SUMMARISING (2) RESEARCH TEXTS

At university, when you are asked to do assignments or projects, you need to show that you

34
have a strong background knowledge of the subject. To do this, it is a requirement to do
research and use that information to strengthen your own ideas on the topic. This must be done
in a way that is academically acceptable. There are different ways of doing this and one of the
most common ways is summarising.

A summary should be written in your own words and it should include the source information;
that is, the surname of the author (s) and the year of publication. When acknowledging the
author(s), you can use the following formats:

For single author:

According to Kazak (2016), …

Kazak (2016) states that….
As Kazak (2016) points out, …
…………….…..(Kazak, 2016).

For two authors:

According to Brooker & Franklin (2016)

Brooker & Franklin (2016) state that….
As Brooker & Franklin (2016) point out, …
…………….….. (Brooker & Franklin (2016).

For three or more authors:

According to Crawford et al. (2012), …

Crawford et al. (2012) state that….
As Crawford et al. (2012) point out, …
…………….….. (Crawford et al. , 2012).

A summary of research is a general restatement of the aim and findings of the study. It
highlights the major points and tries to give the essence of somebody’s work in as few words
as possible. As research contains results, usually in the form of statistics, these must be
included in the summary. When using statistics, some useful phrases are:

 In a recent study by surname (year), it was found that ...

 Out of the study’s participants, X% of them stated that ...
 The majority of the participants/people asked/group claimed that ...
 According to a recent survey, most people would ...
 These figures clearly show the connection between X and Y.

NOTE: Remember to link all the ideas together so that there is a clear connection between the
topic and the statistics.

CHECKLIST FOR RESEARCH SUMMARY

____ 1. Does it include the aim and findings/conclusions?
____ 2. Does it include only necessary information?

35
____ 3. Is the information paraphrased (written in your own words)?
____ 4. Is the information written in an objective way(with no personal opinions)?
____ 5. Has the researcher’s information been included correctly?

3. Using the information from Exercise 2 and the Academic Hint box “Summarising (2)
Research Texts”, write a summary of texts A & B. Text C is given as an example.

In a study by Crawford et al. (2012), the link between children’s use of colour in drawings
and their emotions was analysed. It was found that the relationship between children’s colour
choice and their emotions was not clear. Thus, they suggested that clinicians should be careful
when examining the colours children use in their drawings.

4. Exchange books with a partner and check your partner’s summaries using the checklist
in the Academic Hint box provided.

Part E: LANGUAGE FOCUS

1. Group the ideas below into two categories. Be ready to explain your reasons.

36
 1 2

The importance of colour is nothing

compared with that of form,
chiaroscuro and arrangement. They
are the true and enduring bases of
pictorial art.
Walter Phillips 2016

Colors play a very important

role in our lives, whether we
realize it or not. They have the
ability to affect our emotions
and moods in a way that few
other things can.
3 4
Jacob Olesen 2016

2. Compare the verbs used in 1 and 4 above and decide which one is more appropriate.
Explain your reasons.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. List some alternative verbs that could be used instead of them.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Use of Reporting Verbs:

When you are using other people’s research or ideas in your work, you need to use reporting
verbs which accurately reflect the information given. For example, they can show that the
information is definite, suspected, questioned, or not accepted. In addition, using a variety of
reporting verbs helps you to avoid repetition and makes your writing seem more academic.

There are several different ways to use reporting verbs:

 Surname (date of publication) reporting verb + that + SENTENCE

This places the researcher at the beginning of the message and emphasizes the importance of

37
the name. The sentence is generally a summary of the writer’s argument or finding. Another
possibility is seen in C, in which the researcher is located at the end of the sentence. When this
method is used it is clear that the writer does not regard the researcher as importantly as A and
B.

state, claim, demonstrate, show, argue, suggest, add, conclude, find, emphasize, point out,
assert, prove, recommend

A. Crawford et al. (2012) suggested that children’s use of colour may not accurately
reflect their feelings about the subject they are drawing. Thus, when analysing these
colours, clinicians should be cautious.
B. Kazak (2016) demonstrates that there is a significant connection between colour and
emotion.
C. It has been argued that compared to other colours, red interferes with people’s level of
understanding (Brooker & Franklin, 2016).

 It + reporting verb and passive + that + SENTENCE

Note the difference between the use of the past tense in A and the present in B. The present
tense tends to make events more relevant and thus important to the current time.

 Followed by noun:

investigate, interpret, describe, question, consider, support, dispute, challenge

Crawford et al. (2012) questioned the importance of colour use in children’s drawings.

Kazak (2016) investigates the connection between colour and emotion.

Brooker and Franklin (2016) describes the effect of red on people’s level of understanding.

4. Using the verbs given in the box, answer the following questions.

state claim demonstrate show argue suggest add interpret conclude

find question discuss consider analyse emphasize describe point out
assert recommend prove investigate define report explain research
dispute indicate stress document evaluate challenge highlight
mention examine support warn

a) Which words could be used instead of emphasise?

__________________________________________________________________________

b) What are the possible synonyms of show?

___________________________________________________________________________

c) Find three verbs that can have a negative connotation (meaning).

38
 ___________________________________________________________________________

d) Which verbs could be used when talking about the aim of a study?
___________________________________________________________________________

e) Which verbs would generally be used when discussing the results of a study?
___________________________________________________________________________

5. Using your knowledge of reporting verbs, fill in the missing verbs in the following
summary.

Crawford et al (2011) __________ the use of colour in children’s drawings as a way to

analyse their emotions. Their research _________ that the link between colour usage
and emotion was unclear, and they __________ doctors to be extremely careful when
analysing emotions from colour usage in drawing.

Part F: WRITING

ACADEMIC HINT: ANSWERING WRITING QUESTIONS

To answer a question properly, four steps are required.

1. The writer must analyse the question.
Explain the importance of colour in the design of primary schools.
instruction topic focus

In this step, rephrase the question into a thesis as in the following example.

e.g. Colour choice is vital in primary school design for two main reasons: for its effects on the
environment and on the people.

NOTE: Parallel structure should be used when listing the main points you would like to focus
on in your writing.

2. The writer must take time to plan the best answer.

Once the thesis is complete, notes can be made on each main point and how best each one can
be supported. In this stage, it is of utmost importance to also include examples and ideas from
lecture content, course books and any other research done. At the end of this stage,
organisation should be checked to make sure that ideas are logically presented.

3. Then the answer can be written.

When writing your answer, make sure that you start each of your main points with a linker
such as ‘First of all’, ‘Another reason is...’, ‘The last step of the process is...’

39
In addition, when using examples/details/sources to support your ideas, make sure that you
explain the link between these and your ideas.

Also, before you finish, use another linker such as ‘In conclusion’, ‘To sum up’ to begin your
conclusion, and then restate your thesis, and make a final comment about the topic.

4. After writing the whole answer, the text should be proofread for any mistakes.
When doing this, pay attention to the structures used, spelling, punctuation and use of
vocabulary.

1. Read the text below, and using the information in the Academic Hint above, identify the
function of the different colours used.

Red: ______________________________________________________________________
Purple: ____________________________________________________________________
Black: _____________________________________________________________________
Blue: ______________________________________________________________________
Orange: ____________________________________________________________________
Pink: ______________________________________________________________________
Green: _____________________________________________________________________

The Right Colour can Change a Child’s World

1. Colour choice is vital in primary school design for two main

reasons: for its effects on the environment and on the people. 2. First
of all, colours have a dramatic effect on the environment in which
they are used. 3. Colours can make any building stand out from its
setting and make it look like something special. 4. According to
Stevens (2016), colours have the ability to distinguish a place from
its surroundings. 5. The correct colour choice can give a school a
sense of importance in the area. 6. Thus, when people enter, they feel
respect and act accordingly. 7. This is of greatest importance at
primary school level. 8. If these students respect their school, this

40
 feeling will continue throughout their education. 9. The second reason
is that colours produce certain positive and negative emotional
reactions in people. 10. This is not something people usually think
about. 11. As Stevens (2016) points out, even though a person is not
aware of colour, his or her brain responds to it. 12. Therefore, to
produce optimistic reactions, the correct colours must be used. 13.
This will help to make the school as efficient as possible in its lessons.
14. Stevens (2016) explains that correct colours can make
classrooms friendlier, more interactive places where people
experience less stress and boredom. 15. If students feel positive and
calm, they will feel better about school and will be more willing to
learn. 16. To sum up, because colours have the ability to make
buildings seem extraordinary and people more positive, they are an
essential part of primary school design. 17. Without colours, a
child’s world remains dull and ordinary.

2. Read the writing question of this unit and analyse it.

‘Are colours important in our lives? Why/Why not?’

3. Turn the writing question into a thesis.

4. Plan your answer by referring to information and research given in this unit.

(i.e. Lecture by Professor Stevens & Research Abstracts)

41
5. Write your answer.

6. Using the checklist below proofread it.

√ or X
1. Is there a clear thesis?
2. Are the main points clearly stated?
3. Does each main idea start with a transition?
4. Are there adequate details and examples to explain each main point?
5. Are sources used to support ideas?
6. Are all details, examples and sources adequately linked to the main ideas?
7. Is there a conclusion?
8. Does it start with a linker?
9. Is there a final comment?
10. Are all sentences relevant to the thesis?
11. Is the organisation logical?
12. Are there sufficient transitions in the answer?
13. Is the language clear?
14. Is the vocabulary appropriate?
15. Does the writing engage the reader?
Part G: ORAL REPORTS
1. You are going to give an oral report of your ideas on the same topic:
‘The importance of colour in our lives’

Use the table provided to plan your introduction, body and conclusion. Check the Academic
Hint Box on Signal Words for suitable phrases to include. Make sure that you refer to the
lecture and research provided in this unit.

Introduction

42
 Body

Conclusion

2. Report your ideas to the class.

3. While watching your friends, make notes on their reports in the first column.

Other students’ reports Your own report

Organisation:

Content:

43
 Body language:

Fluency:

Questions:

4. Watch your own report on Panopto, and make notes on it in the second column.

BLACKBOARD ASSIGNMENT: Complete the vocabulary and reporting verb exercises

for unit 2.

EVIDENCE OF LEARNING
Using what you learned in this unit, answer the questions below.

How is a lecture organised?

44
 What is clarification?

What is summarising and how is it done?

How do people decide on the reporting verbs to use in a summary?

What is the most important thing when reporting your ideas orally?

End of Unit Test

Part 1: Reading
Read the extract from a research article below and answer the questions that follow.

A study on brand personality: consumers’ perceptions of colours used in

fashion brand logos

Introduction

1. With more brands on the market than ever before, it is increasingly necessary and at
the same time challenging for firms to differentiate their brands from competitors
(Keller& Richey, 2006). Fashion brands in particular need to pay special attention to this
matter because often there is little difference among many brands’ apparel products on the

45
market. In addition, fashion brands are highly symbolic and self-expressive, reflecting a
consumer's lifestyle and values. Fashion brand managers consistently rely on a variety of
marketing tactics, including emotional appeal and use of imagery to achieve their goal of
ultimately forming a relationship between the consumer and the brand (Ismail & Spinelli,
2012). One way to differentiate the fashion brand from competitors, extend self-expression
for consumers and create a bond between the consumer and the brand is through
establishing a likeable, relatable, brand personality (Olsen & Allen, 1995).

2. Brand personality is defined as assigning human characteristics to brands (Aaker, 1997).

Having a brand personality that consumers relate to is important because brand personality
strengthens brand loyalty, can enhance perceptions of product quality and appearance
(Erdoğmuş & Büdeyri-Turan, 2012) and can even increase brand equity (Valette-Florence,
Guizani, & Merunka, 2009). Therefore, understanding how consumers attribute brand
personality to brands is vital in creating and managing successful brands.

3. Brand personality is a multifaceted concept which makes it very difficult to understand.

Marketers present the brand to the consumer in an attempt to create a personality for the
brand through the various brand elements, such as packaging, brand logo, characters, etc.
(Batra, Lehmann, & Singh, 1993). In turn, consumers interpret these brand elements
through the lens of their own experiences, perceptions, and associations (Plummer, 1984).
Although brand logo may play a significant role in the formation of brand personality, there
are few studies that investigate this phenomenon.

4. One element of the brand logo that may be of particular importance in influencing
consumers’ responses to brands is the logo colour. Colour is a very powerful marketing
tool. Brand managers use colour to attract new customers and to facilitate identification
with the brand (Grossman & Wisenblit, 1999; Silayoi & Speece, 2007). Colour
communicates product information and brand image to consumers and plays a substantial
role in consumer decision-making when shopping time is limited (Bottomley & Doyle,
2006). Studies have found that consumers’ perceptions of logo colour appropriateness vary
by product category (Bottomley & Doyle, 2006). Type font characteristics, including type
font colour of a brand name used in the logo or packaging influence brand personality
perceptions.

5. Yet, further research is needed to more fully understand the role of brand logo colour in
consumers’ perceptions of brand personality. Through previous literature and the theories
of anthropomorphism (applying human attributes to inanimate objects) and associative
learning, we propose that brand logo colour will elicit conventional colour associations,
which consumers will attribute to brand personality. Therefore, the purpose of this study is
to investigate whether, upon exposure to a brand logo, consumers will assign personality
traits to the brand that correspond to commonly held colour associations.

Discussion

6. This study investigated whether, upon seeing a brand's logo, consumers assigned
personality traits to the brand that aligned with commonly held colour associations.
Findings in this study offer valuable insight into choosing logo colours to communicate

46
brand personality.

7. First, this study revealed that when consumers saw a blue logo they believed that it
represented a brand that was competent. This study's findings, that a brand with a blue logo
was perceived as confident, corporate, successful, and reliable are in line with previous
findings about consumers’ associations for the colour blue. Fashion brands that sell career
apparel or those that want to communicate that they are an established company with a rich
heritage may choose to use blue in their logo.

8. The finding that consumers associated ruggedness personality traits with a green logo is
also consistent with previous studies and indicate that fashion brands wanting to
communicate a commitment to the environment should use a green logo. Firms that make
tough, durable apparel should also use a green logo, but apparel companies that make
clothing for women should be aware that ‘masculine’ was a frequently chosen trait for a
brand with a green logo. Therefore, they may want to find ways to make their logo more
feminine by incorporating feminine design elements into the logo.

9. One surprising finding from this study was that for the red logo, participants more
frequently chose traits from the competence dimension than that from the excitement
dimension. This may have been because while red is associated with daring passion and
spirited emotions, it is also associated with strength and confidence (Mahnke, 1996).
Furthermore, long-established, successful brands such as Kellogg's, Coca-Cola and
McDonald's use red in their logos, which may influence consumers’ associations for the
colour when they see it in branding situations. Fashion brands that want to communicate
self-assurance and expertise would want to use red in their logos.

10. Another surprising finding from this study was that participants associated a yellow
logo with traits from the excitement dimension more than that with the sincerity dimension.
Yellow may have been exciting to participants because it was a popular colour at the time
the survey was conducted, showing up on the runway and in spring trends (Wasserman,
2010). This finding suggests that marketers should be aware that although colours have
long-held associations, current popular culture influences consumer's perceptions of colours
as well (Clarke & Costall, 2008). Firms offering fun, contemporary styles could use yellow
in their logo. Yellow is also a good logo colour for brands selling apparel related to school
spirit, sports teams, or even active wear.

11. While participants responded that many of the traits in the sophistication dimension
were suitable for a pink logo, a greater proportion of the traits in the excitement dimension
were actually chosen to describe the pink logo. Consumers viewed a pink logo as young,
trendy, and imaginative. These results indicate that fashion brands looking to create a
youthful, fashionable personality for their brands should use pink in their logo. Pink should
also be used for fashion brands that sell unique, contemporary, fashion forward styles.

12. This study's findings that a brand with a purple logo was sophisticated are in line with
previous findings about consumers’ associations for purple. Consumers viewed a purple
logo as feminine, glamorous, and charming, and therefore it would be appropriate for
luxury apparel, formalwear, or intimates.

Adapted from a study by Jessica Ridgway & Beth Myers

47
 Published online: 21 Jan 2014
https://doi.org/10.1080/17543266.2013.877987

1. Which paraphrase is closest in meaning to “With more brands on the market than
ever before, it is increasingly necessary and at the same time challenging
for firms to differentiate their brands from competitors.”?
a. Nowadays, a lot of brands compete in the market and it is essential to produce
more to win this competition.
b. It is challenging to create brands and market them for companies as most of the
products are the same.
c. Due to an increase in the number of brands, businesses need to make an effort
to make their products different from the others in the same market.
d. It is essential for businesses to produce a variety of brands to prevent their
competitors from taking their place in the market.

2. According to paragraph 2, it is crucial to create brand personality because it…

a. increases product quality
b. makes the product trustworthy
c. improves the appearance
d. helps to understand consumers

3. In paragraph 3, “multifaceted” is closest in meaning to

a. large
b. layered
c. complex
d. more than one

4. According to paragraph 4, what advantage does colour give to consumers?

a. It helps to save customer’s time.
b. It makes consumers attractive.
c. It is interesting for consumers.
d. It makes communication easier.

5. In paragraph 5, the term “Yet” can best be replaced by

a. Moreover
b. Similarly
c. In contrast
d. However

6. In paragraph 6, “insight” is closest in meaning to

a. money
b. understanding
c. complexity
d. eye-sight
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7. In paragraph 7, “revealed” is closest in meaning to
a. questioned
b. challenged
c. showed
d. suggested

8. In paragraph 8, “they” refers to

a. traits
b. brands
c. elements
d. companies

9. In paragraph 11, the term “actually” can best be replaced by

a. in fact
b. so far
c. yet
d. initially

10. Which one of the following statements would the author agree with?
a. If you want to create a new brand, you have to pay attention to the brand
image.
b. People’s perceptions of colour are not affected by outside influences and can
never change.
c. There is a huge amount of research into the importance of colour in a
company’s logo.
d. The colour green should not be used in the logo of companies that produce
women’s clothing.

Part 2: Vocabulary

Rewrite the following sentences using the exact form of the words provided.

1. He studied the effects of colour in the design of open offices for his graduation project.
(research-noun)

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. The children involved in the study responded positively in dental settings where pink and
blue colours were used. (reaction-noun)

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

49
3. Nearly 1000 people took part in the study which made the results reliable. (participants-
noun)

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. As it is difficult to understand statistical results, researchers explain the meaning of them

to us. (interpretation-noun)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. In his study, he highlighted the importance of using light colours such as yellow in
educational places. (emphasis-noun)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

6. The designer used two very similar colours on the walls, so it was very difficult to see the
difference between the areas. (differentiation-noun)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Part 3: Language Use

Complete the exercises below with the reporting verbs given. You may need to change word
forms.

stress claim topic affect dispute

The ___________ of colour is being discussed frequently these days. Some people may
____________ the fact that colour is important. In fact, they ___________ that colours have
little or no effect on us. However, many others ___________ that colours have a significant
influence on us; in other words, we are dramatically ___________ by them.

aware react design demonstrate

Research _____________ that people show ________________ to the colours around them
without being ______________ of it. Because of this, when planning the look of a place, it is
important that ___________________ choose the best colours for a positive impact.
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 participate document research

To help them, ______________ has been done in the area of colours, and many interesting
results have been ___________. For example, yellow has been shown to make people act in a
friendlier way, and other colours can encourage people to ________________ more in
activities.

stress assert define emphasise

highlight interpret differentiate

The box above contains a set of synonyms. List them underneath. Explain any slight
differences in meaning.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

For the remaining words, explain their meanings.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Part 4: Writing

Write a summary of the abstract given below.

Abstract

Creating a likeable, relatable brand personality is one way that fashion brands can connect
with consumers and increase profits. However, few studies have investigated how
consumers perceive personality traits from a fashion brand's marketing communications.
The colour used in marketing communications is a powerful tool that helps consumers to
make inferences about fashion brands. The purpose of this study was to investigate
whether, upon exposure to a brand logo, consumers will assign personality traits to the
brand that correspond with commonly held colour associations. An online survey was
conducted with a national sample to test the hypotheses of the study. Findings indicated that
consumers attributed brand personality traits to brand logo colours according to commonly
held colour associations for some of the colours in the study. Knowing how consumers
perceive the colours used in brand logos will help marketers to convey the appropriate
brand personality traits of their brand.

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Keywords: brand personality, brand logo, colour

Jessica Ridgway & Beth Myers

Pages 50-57, Published online: 21 Jan 2014

Summary:

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