Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jece

Purification of glycerol from transesterification using activated carbon T

prepared from Jatropha Shell for biodiesel production
⁎
Hiroaki Habakia, Tomoki Hayashib, Patima Sinthupinyob, Ryuichi Egashiraa,
a
Department of Transdisciplinary Science and Engineering, School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Address: 12-1, O-okayama-2-chome,
Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
b
Department of International Development Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Address: 12-1, O-okayama-2-chome,
Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To improve biodiesel production from jatropha, its shell, a waste material, was thermally treated to produce
Biodiesel fuel production activated carbon (AC) and the AC was applied to purification of glycerol from transesterification. The AC was
Inedible plant oil prepared by chemical activation method using H3PO4 as the activation agent. The yield of the chemically ac-
Glycerol purification tivated carbon was better than the physically activated carbon in the higher range of thermal treatment tem-
Activated carbon from waste
perature, and the prepared AC had a sufficient specific surface area. For purification of the glycerol obtained
from transesterification to remove impurities such as methanol and monoolein, the AC was also used for mea-
suring the adsorption equilibria with the model glycerol solutions containing impurities, and adsorption iso-
therms of these compounds were prepared. The AC could absorb and remove the impurities in the model glycerol
phase. The adsorption of the impurities was enhanced by chemical activation because of a larger specific surface
area, and the effects of surface modification by the activation were inefficient for the adsorption. A rough process
assessment suggested that the amount of AC prepared from the shell was sufficient to purify glycerol.

1. Introduction methods to improve the entire process of biodiesel production. Another

Biodiesel is gaining popularity as a renewable energy source.
Although biodiesel is generally produced from edible plant oils, the
production has been of great concern because of the competition from
production of food materials from such plants. As a result, utilization of
these plant oils as fuels has become more expensive. Therefore, in-
creasing attention has been focused on the production of fuel from in-
edible plant oils such as jatropha [1–4], castor [5,6], and pongamia oil
[7,8]. They are generally cultivated in marginal places with low irri-
gation requirements and places not competing with the cultivation of
general food plants. Jatropha is the most attractive plant among these
[9], and considerable research has been conducted to develop an ef-
fective method for the production of oil from this plant [1–4,10–16]. On
the other hand, these plants should be newly cultivated and it is ne-
cessary to exploit not only the effective production of biodiesel from
these plants, but also the utilization of their residues. In the case of
jatropha, residues such as the shell and hull were thermally treated to
prepare activated carbon (AC) [17,18], which was further used for the
separation of some organic and inorganic compounds from aqueous
solutions via adsorption [19]. Utilization of the residues is one of the
approach to enhance the process efficiency is the purification of crude
glycerol obtained from transesterification [20–22]. Generally, the crude
glycerol contains water, organic and inorganic salts, soap, alcohol, and
unreacted glycerides. Although the separation and recovery of me-
thanol as alcohol was commercially conducted by vacuum distillation,
some concerns regarding trace amount of residual methanol and de-
composition of glycerol were reported [22].
In this study, we aimed to purify glycerol from transesterification
using AC prepared from the waste material, i.e., shell of jatropha. The
jatropha shell was thermally treated to prepare the AC, and the removal
of impurities from the crude glycerol obtained after transesterification
was studied. The adsorption equilibria of methanol and monoolein
impurities in the glycerol with the AC and purification of the glycerol
were also studied.
2. Purification of crude glycerol using activated carbon from
jatropha shell
Fig. 1 shows the conceptual diagram of biodiesel production in-
corporating glycerol purification using the AC prepared from jatropha

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: regashir@tse.ens.titech.ac.jp (R. Egashira).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103303
Received 7 May 2019; Received in revised form 2 July 2019; Accepted 18 July 2019
Available online 12 August 2019
2213-3437/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Habaki, et al.
Nomenclature
ABET BET surface area of AC [m2 (kg–AC)–1]
Fj mass of material i in experiment [kg], mass flow rate of
material i in Figure 1 [kg hr−1]
Ki Langmuir parameter of componenti [–]
qi adsorption amount of componenti per unit mass of AC [kg
(kg–AC)–1]
q*i saturated adsorption amount of componenti per unit mass
of AC [kg (kg–AC)–1]
Tt thermal treatment temperature [K]
xi mass fraction of componenti in glycerol solution [–]
xPG1,i mass fraction of componenti in FPG1 [–]
YAC yield of AC based on jatropha fruit [–],
yAC yield of AC based on jatropha shell [–]
YPG1,i yield of componenti in FPG1 based on jatropha fruit [–]
shell. The treatment of the crude glycerol obtained by transesterifica-
tion was assessed using the simple mass balance relation and adsorption
equilibrium.
First, jatropha fruit, FJF, is processed to obtain crude jatropha oil
(FJO) and shell (FJS) at Oil Extraction. Based on the work by Singh et al.
[23], the mass ratios of FJO and FJS relative to feed FJF, i.e., FJO/FJF and
FJS/FJF, were determined to be 0.318 and 0.682, respectively. FJO is sent
to Oil Pretreatment, where impurities such as phospholipid, water, and
free fatty acids (FFAs) are removed. While phospholipid and water are
removed, FFA is esterified to fatty acid methyl ester. The detailed
procedures and conditions are given in Appendix A and our previous
study [4,13]. The pretreated oil is transesterified with methanol to
obtain the fatty acid methyl ester and crude glycerol phases. Then, the
crude glycerol is treated to remove the catalyst, methanol, and water to
obtain purified glycerol1, FPG1. Table 1 shows the composition of FPG1.
FPG1 contains trace amounts of methanol and monoolein impurities that
can be treated with the AC prepared from jatropha shell. Based on the
mass balances of AC from jatropha shell, impurities in FPG1, and ad-
sorption of the impurities, the treatment of FPG1 by AC are discussed.
2.1. Experimental
The jatropha shell, collected from a jatropha plantation in
Suphanburi, Thailand, was used as the precursor of AC. It was washed
with deionized water and dried at 333 K in an oven for 24 h. H3PO4 was
used as the activating agent for chemical activation. Methanol and
monoolein were used as model impurities in the pretreated glycerol
obtained by transesterification. All the chemicals used in this study
Fig. 1. Conceptual diagram of biodiesel production incorporating glycerol
purification.
2
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303
Subscript
AC activated carbon from jatropha shell
BDF biodiesel fuel
CG crude glycerol
i componenti
j materialj
JF jatropha fruit
JO crude jatropha oil
JS jatropha shell
MeOH methanol
MO monoolein
PO pretreated jatropha oil
PG1 purified glycerol 1
PG2 purified glycerol 2
were of analytical grade and purchased from FUJIFILM Wako Chemical
Corp.
Table 2 shows the experimental conditions for chemical impregna-
tion. The shell was crushed and sieved into the desired range of sizes,
and the sieved particles of the shell were impregnated with H3PO4 for
24 h. Following this, they were dried at 333 K in the oven for another
24 h. The impregnated shell was kept in a desiccator for thermal
treatment. Table 3 lists the principal conditions of thermal treatment,
and Fig. 2 shows the schematic diagram of the thermal treatment re-
actor. The reactor consisted of a horizontal tubular reactor inserted into
an electrically heated furnace (KTF-040 N from KOYO Thermo Systems
Co., Ltd.) equipped with temperature control and thermocouple. An
average of 0.020 kg sample was filled into the sample holder, which
was placed at the center of the reactor. Nitrogen gas was purged into
the reactor for 10 min before the heating began. In the case of steam
thermal treatment, preheated deionized water was supplied using a
micro-plunger pump (LC10-ADVP, Shimadzu Corp.). The gas flow from
the reactor outlet was collected in a condenser, and the condensate
drum was immersed into an isothermal bath at 273 K. After holding the
system isothermally at the desired temperature for 30 min, the heater
was turned off, and the reactor was cooled down. The masses of the
residue left in the holder, AC, and condensate in the drum were mea-
sured. The AC was boiled for 2 h to remove the tar inside the particles.
Following this, it was dried for 24 h and kept in a desiccator. The
specific surface area, SAC, total pore volume, VAC, and micro pore vo-
lume of the obtained AC were analyzed using the nitrogen adsorption
isotherm obtained from a surface area and pore volume analyzer
(BELSORP-max: BEL JAPAN Co.).
The trace amounts of methanol and monoolein remaining in gly-
cerol after Catalyst Removal and Methanol Recovery were subsequently
removed using AC as the adsorbent. The principal conditions of ad-
sorption equilibrium measurements are listed in Table 4 . The batch
adsorption studies with the model glycerol solutions and prepared ACs
were carried out in a 100 × 10−6 m3 Erlenmeyer flask with a screw
cap, in which a mixture of 1 × 10−3 kg AC and 100 × 10−6 m3 me-
thanol or monoolein in glycerol were kept at 303 K. The mixture was
continuously shaken at a constant temperature in a thermostated rotary
shaker for 72 h, within which the equilibrium was reached. The com-
mercial activated carbon, purchased from FUJIFILM Wako Chemical
Corp. and abbreviated as CAC, was used as the reference activated
Table 1
Composition of FPG1 (mass fraction).
Methanol Monoolein Glycerol
0.00102 0.0188 0.976
H. Habaki, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303

Table 2 Table 4
Experimental conditions for chemical impregnation. Experimental conditions for adsorption equilibrium.
System System

Feed biomass jatropha shell Adsorbent activated carbon prepared from jatropha
Chemical for impregnation H3PO4 shell,
Conditions commercial activated carbon (CAC)
Mass of feed [kg] 0.03 Adsorbate monoolein, methanol
Mass fraction of KOH or H3PO4 in Conditions
aqueous solution [–] 0.1 Mass of adsorbent [kg] 2.0 × 10−4
Mass ratio of feed to solution [–] 1.0 Volume of feed [m3] 2.0 × 10−5
Particle size [m] 1.7 × 10−3–0.425 Mass fraction of adsorbate [–] 1.0 × 10−4–1.0 × 10−1
Temperature [K] 303 Contact time [h] 72
Contact Time [h] 24 Temperature, Ta [K] 303

Table 3
Experimental conditions for thermal treatment.
System

Feed biomass jatropha shell with/without impregnation

Atmospheric gas nitrogen, steam
Conditions
Mass of feed [kg] 0.03
Temperature, Tt [K] 423–1073
Pressure [Pa] 1.01 × 105
Time at specified Tt [h] 0.5
Gas flow rate [m3 h−1] 2.0 × 10−3 (nitrogen), 3.0 × 10−3 (steam)

carbon, and the adsorption of methanol or monoolein was compared

with that with the AC from the jatropha shell. Following this, the
mixture was filtered, and the obtained solution was analyzed by gas
chromatography to determine the mass fraction of methanol or mono-
olein remaining in the glycerol solution. The amount of methanol or Fig. 3. Effects of impregnation and thermal treatment on the yield of activated
monoolein adsorbed was calculated using a mass balance. carbon.

2.2. Results and discussion compound i, Langmuir constant of compound i, and mass fraction of
compound i, respectively, in the glycerol phase.
The yields of AC from FJF and FJS, denoted as yAC and YAC, respec- The effects of impregnation and thermal treatment on yAC are de-
tively, are given by monstrated in Fig. 3. For all the cases, yAC decreased continuously with
increase in the thermal treatment temperature. yAC under steam at-
FAC
yAC = mosphere was similar to that under nitrogen atmosphere up to 773 K.
FJS (1)
At this temperature, char gasification under steam would become the
FAC dominant reaction, as evident from the sharper decrease in yAC beyond
YAC = , this temperature. Generally, hemicellulose and cellulose should be
FJF (2)
thermally decomposed in relatively low and higher temperature ranges,
where FAC, FJS, and FJF represent the masses of AC, feed jatropha shell, respectively. On the other hand, the decomposition of lignin should
and feed jatropha fruit, respectively. The yield of impurity component i happen under wide temperature range from ambient to around 1100K
in FPG1 relative to FJF is given by [24]. During chemical activation around 800 K or above, H3PO4 pro-
x i,PG FPG1 moted the cleavage of aliphatic and ether linkages between cyclic
YPG,i = , structural units, and the recombination reactions forming larger and
FJF (3)
more rigid crosslinked units. Moreover H3PO4 facilitated the bonding of
where xi,PG represents the mass fraction of component i in FPG1. The volatile materials into the fixed carbon content [25]. The cross-linked
Langmuir isotherm of component i can be expressed as complexes could retard the tar formation and char gasification, leading
to an increment of yAC compared with that under steam activation.
qi* Ki x i
qi = , SAC, VAC, and micropore volume of the ACs are listed in Table 5. SAC
1 + Ki x i (4) and VAC were compared with those under thermal treatment at 923 and
where q*i, Ki, and xi represent the saturated adsorbed amount of 1073 K. At 923 K, both these parameters were higher with steam as the

Fig. 2. Apparatus for thermal treatment of jatropha shell.

(1) Tubular reactor, (2) Feed/solid product (activated carbon), (3)
Sample holder, (4) Electric tubular furnace, (5) Thermocouple, (6)
Micro-plunger pump, (7) Valves, (8) Condensers, (9) Liquid pro-
duct trap, (10) Iced bath. F.I.: Flow rate indicator, T.I: Temperature
indicator.

3
H. Habaki, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303

Table 5
List of BET surface area and pore volume of activated carbon.
Conditions

Condition No. 1 2 3 4
Tt [K] 923 1073 923 1073
Atmospheric gas Steam Steam N2 N2
Impregnation no no H3PO4 H3PO4
Results
BET surface area [m2 kg−1] 516 × 103 590 × 103 158 × 103 813 × 103
Pore volume [m2 kg−1] 2.65 × 10−4 3.22 × 10−4 1.12 × 10−4 4 .34 × 10−4
Micropore volume [m2 kg−1] 1.99 × 10−4 1.51 × 10−4 3.30 × 10−5 1.97 × 10−4

Fig. 4. Adsorption isotherms of methanol (a) and monoolein (b) with the pre- Fig. 5. Relationship between saturated adsorbed amounts of methanol or
pared and commercial activated carbons. monoolein and specific surface area of the prepared activated and commercial
carbons.
Table 6
List of saturated adsorbed amount, q*i, and Langmuir parameter, Ki.
Condition No. 1 2 3 4 CAC*

Adsorption of MeOH
q*MeOH [kg (kg-AC)−1] 0.141 0.144 0.103 0.157 0.228
KMeOH [–] 447 747 461 527 309
Adsorption of MO
q*MO [kg (kg-AC) −1] 0.127 0.138 0.0842 0.165 0.233
KMO [–] 348 304 206 215 304

* CMC: commercial activated carbon.

atmospheric gas, as compared with that under chemical activation. The

activating agent should promote the incorporation of volatile com-
pounds into the fix carbon but hinder the development of pore struc-
ture, resulting in higher yA and lower SAC and VAC. At 1073 K, these two
parameters were higher under H3PO4 activation than under steam ac-
tivation, and SAC was found to be 813 × 103 m2 kg−1. Although the Fig. 6. Relationship between mass ratio of each impurity (methanol or mono-
steam activation could increase SAC and VAC with increasing activation olein) in FPG1 relative to FJF and adsorption capacity of each impurity relative to
temperature, the reaction between steam and shell at 1073 K was so fast FJF.

4
H. Habaki, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303

Table 7
Mass flow ratio around operations in biodiesel production.
Oil Extraction
FJO/FJF: 0.318, FJS/FJF: 0.682
Oil Pretreatment
FPO/FJF: 0.316
Transesterification
FBDF/FJF: 0.297, FCG/FJF: 0.166
Glycerol Treatment (Catalyst Removal and MeOH Recovery)
FPG1/FJF: 0.0909
that the steam was unable to diffuse deeply into the shell particles and
activate them homogenously [26]. It was perhaps due to this that the
micropore volume was reduced at elevated temperatures. Although it
was reported that dehydrogenation with H3PO4 activated the shell
particles effectively in the temperature range around 773–973 K [24],
the activation at 923 K might have been insufficient to develop the pore
structure because of the short operation time, while SAC and VAC in-
creased at higher temperature. The SAC of the commercial activated
carbon was 1577 × 103 m2 kg−1, almost twice as large as that of AC
prepared at 1073 K with chemical activation, and the activated carbon
with higher performance was unable to prepare under the conditions in
this study.
Fig. 4 shows the adsorption isotherms of methanol and monoolein in
glycerol solution, and the q*is and Kis of the respective compounds
determined using Langmuir isotherm equation (Eq. (4)) are listed in
Table 6. The AC prepared from jatropha shell could adsorb both me-
thanol and monoolein from glycerol. Fig. 5 shows the relationship be-
tween q*i and SAC. The saturated adsorbed amount of methanol and
monoolein, q*MeOH and q*MO, respectively increased with SAC. Then, q*i
of the CAC was the largest, followed by the activated carbon with
chemical activation at 1073 K. As shown in this figure, q*i increased
linearly as SAC increased since the surface properties of the activated
carbon were less effective to the adsorption of methanol or monoolein.
Although some specific functional groups on the activated carbon sur-
face should generally have been generated during the chemical acti-
vation to show the specific adsorption, these functional groups gener-
ated might have been ineffectual to the adsorption and the activation
was effective to simply enhance the specific surface area in this study.
Then, it was found that the AC prepared from jatropha shell with larger
SAC might be effective for the purification of glycerol produced as a
byproduct of the transesterification reaction.
The mass flow rates of methanol or monoolein that can be removed
using the AC from jatropha shell per unit mass flow rate of the fruit
jatropha, YACq*i, were plotted against the mass flow rate ratio of me-
thanol or monoolein in FPG1 per unit mass flow rate of the fruit ja-
tropha, YPG1,i= ((xPG1,iFPG1) / FJF) (Fig. 6). The crucial flow rates were
decided based on the experimental results shown in this paper and
those reported in our previous studies [13] (Table 7). In any case, YAC
q*i was much higher than YPG1,i, and the treatment of glycerol with the
AC suggested here might be one of the promising methods to purify
glycerol. As mentioned above, although the adsorbability of the AC
prepared in this study was lower than that of the CAC, we could prepare
the AC whose adsorption performance and yield were sufficient to treat
with the crude glycerol in the biodiesel production process. However
thermal treatment of all the jatropha shells for the production of AC was
found to be unnecessary and the necessary amount of jatropha shell
required to treat FPG1 should be decided. It is important to study the
effective utilization of the residual jatropha shell.
3. Conclusions
To improve the biodiesel production from jatropha fruit, the shell
was thermally treated to produce AC, which was used to purify glycerol.
The AC from jatropha shell was chemically activated with H3PO4 as the
activating agent. Although the prepared AC was effective in removing
the impurities in pretreated glycerol obtained by transesterification, the
chemical activation was less effective to modify the surface property of
the AC for better adsorption. It was found that the amount of AC pre-
pared from the shell was enough to purify the glycerol. A more detailed
study of the purification of glycerol is necessary for further develop-
ment of biodiesel production from the inedible plant, jatropha.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
15K00601.

Appendix A

To determine the composition of FPG1 (Fig. 1) and the mass flow ratio (FPG1/FJF), the following operations were conducted. The crude jatropha
feed oil was first pretreated in three steps, namely, dephosphorization, deacidification, and dehydration. The dephosphorization was carried out with
aqueous H3PO4, to remove the phospholipids. The deacidification would convert the FFA in the feed oil to esters using methanol and sulfuric acid
catalyst. The dehydration was carried out using magnesium sulfate crystals. The detailed procedure is reported in our previous work [4,13], and the
conditions are listed in Table A1 . After the pretreatment, the obtained feed oil was transesterified with methanol and sodium hydroxide catalyst. The
detailed procedure is given in the previous work, and the conditions are listed in Table A2. Then, methyl ester, biodiesel (FBDF), and crude glycerol

Table A1
Experimental conditions for pretreatment of crude jatropha oil.
Dephosphorization

Mass fraction of H3PO4 in

aqueous solution [–] 0.85
Mass ratio of H3PO4 solution to
crude jatropha oil [–] 0.0001
Reaction temperature [K] 343
Reaction time [h] 0.25
Deacidification (Esterification)
Mass fraction of H2SO4 in
aqueous solution [–] 0.98
Mass ratio of H2SO4 solution to
feed oil [–] 0.03
Molar ratio of methanol to feed oil [–] 7.5
Reaction time [h] 1.5
Temperature [K] 333

5
H. Habaki, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 103303

Table A2
Experimental conditions for transesterification.
System

Feed pretreated jatropha oil

Alcohol methanol
Catalyst NaOH
Conditions
Molar ratio of methanol to
feed oil [–] 0.98
Mass ratio of NaOH to feed oil [–] 0.03
Reaction time [h] 1
Temperature [K] 333

Table A3
Experimental conditions for catalyst removal.
System

Feed crude glycerol

Acid aqueous H3PO4
Conditions
Mass fraction of H3PO4 [–] 0.85
Volume ratio of feed to acid solution [–] 26.7
Reaction time [h] 0.5
Temperature [K] 333

(FCG) were obtained. FCG was treated in two steps to remove the catalyst and methanol at Catalyst Removal and Methanol Recovery (Fig. 1),
respectively. At Catalyst Removal, H3PO4 was added to generate sodium phosphate to remove sodium salt; the conditions are listed in Table A3. For
methanol recovery, the glycerol phase was heated at 378 K to vaporize and recover methanol. Then, the obtained FPG1 was analyzed by HPLC. The
ratios of the respective mass flows and the compositions of the glycerol phases are listed in Table 1. In FPG1, methanol, monoolein, and glycerol were
detected by HPLC. The biodiesel phase should mainly contain methyl esters and trace amounts of FFA, triglycerides, diglycerides, and mono-
glycerides. Among these, monoglycerides are the most hydrophilic. The other compounds with high hydrophobicity are difficult to dissolve in
glycerol. The FFAs should be converted to the neutral form upon contact with H3PO4 at Catalyst Removal and be removed with the salt. The jatropha
oil contained the glycerides of oleic acid most, and then only monoolein might have been detected.

References
[1] N. Foidl, D. Fiodl, M. Sanchez, M. Mittelbach, S. Hackel, Jatropha Curcas l. As a
source for the production of biofuel in Nicaragua, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 58
(1996) 77–82.
[2] A.K. Tiwari, A. Kumar, H. Raheman, Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
(Jatropha curcas) with high free fatty acids: an optimized process, Biomass
Bioenerg. 31 (2005) 569–575.
[3] W.M.J. Achten, L. Verchot, Y.J. Franken, E. Mathijs, V.P. Singh, R. Aerts, B. Muys,
Jatropha bio-diesel production and use, Biomass Bioenerg. 32 (2008) 1063–1084.
[4] P. Sinthupinyo, H. Habaki, R. Egashira, Factors influencing the use of various low-
value oils in biodiesel production, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 43 (2013) 214–223.
[5] G.T. Jeong, D.H. Park, Optimization of biodiesel production from Castor oil using
response surface methodology, Appl. Biochem. Biotech. 156 (1-3) (2009) 1–11.
[6] M. Asmare, N. Gabbiye, Synthesis and characterization of biodiesel from castor
bean as alternative fuel for diesel engine, Am. J. Energy Eng. 2 (1) (2014) 1–15.
[7] S.K. Karmee, A. Chadha, Preparation of biodiesel from crude oil of Pongamia pin-
nata, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 96 (2005) 1425–1429.
[8] L.C. Meher, V.S.S. Dharmagadda, S.N. Naik, Optimization of alkali-catalyzed
transesterification of Pongamia pinnata oil for production of biodiesel, Bioresour.
Technol. Rep. 97 (2006) 1392–1397.
[9] M.M. Gui, K.T. Lee, S. Bhatia, Feasibility of edible oil vs. Non-edible oil vs. Waste
edible oil as biodiesel feedstock, Energy 33 (2008) 1646–1653.
[10] Y. Wang, S. Ou, P. Liu, Z. Zhang, Preparation of biodiesel from waste cooking oil via
two-step catalyzed process, Energ. Convers. Manage. 26 (2006) 184–188.
[11] H.J. Berchmans, S. Hirata, Biodiesel production from crude Jatropha curcas L. Seed
oil with a high content of free fatty acids, Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 99 (2008)
1716–1721.
[12] H. Lu, Y. Liu, H. Zhou, Y. Yang, M. Chen, B. Liang, Production of biodiesel from
Jatropha curcas L. Oil, Comput. Chem. Eng. 33 (2009) 1091–1096.
[13] H. Habaki, T. Hayashi, P. Sinthupinyo, R. Egashira, Effects of deacidification of low-
value plant oils on biodiesel fuel production, J. JPN Petrol. Inst. 56 (2013) 344–348.
[14] T. Hayashi, H. Habaki, R. Egashira, A simple engineering technique to improve
transesterification for biodiesel fuel production, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 46 (2013)
461–466.
[15] H. Habaki, T. Hayashi, R. Egashira, Transesterification rate of model vegetable oil
in heterogeneous system with a stirred vessel, JECE 2 (2014) 1543–1550.
[16] H. Habaki, T. Hayashi, R. Egashira, Deacidification process of crude inedible plant
oil by esterification for biodiesel production, JECE 6 (2) (2018) 3054–3060.
[17] V. Sricharoenchaikul, C. Pechyen, D. Ahtong, D. Atong, Preparation and char-
acterization of activated carbon from the pyrolysis of physic nut (Jatropha curcas
L.), Waste. Energ. Fuel 22 (2008) 31–37.
[18] D. Xin-hui, C. Srinivasakannan, P. Jin-hui, Z. Li-bo, Comparison of activated carbon
prepared from Jatropha hull by conventional heating and microwave heating,
Biomass Bionerg. 35 (2011) 3920–3926.
[19] C. Namasivayam, D. Sangeetha, R. Gunasekaran, Removal of Anions, Heavy Metals,
Organics and Dyes from Water by Adsorption onto a New Activated Carbon from
Jatropha Husk, an Agro-Industrial Solid Waste, Process Saf. Environ. 85 (B2) (2007)
181–184.
[20] K.C. Yong, T.L. Ooi, K. Dzulkefly, Y.W.M.Z. Wan, A.H. Hazimah, Characterization of
glycerol residue from Palm Kernel Oil Methyl Ester Plant, J. Oil Palm Res. 13 (2)
(2001) 1–6.
[21] T.L. Ooi, K.C. Yong, K. Dzulkefly, Y.W.M.Z. Wan, A.H. Hazimah, Crude glycerine
recovery from glycerol residue waste from a Palm Kernel Oil Methyl Ester Plant, J.
Oil Palm Res. 13 (2) (2001) 16–22.
[22] Y. Xiao, G. Xiao, A. Varma, A universal procedure for crude glycerol purification
from different feedstockes in biodiesel production: experimental and simulation
study, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 52 (2013) 14291–14296.
[23] R.N. Singh, D.K. Vyas, N.S.L. Srivastava, M. Narra, SPRERI experience on holistic
approach to utilize all parts of Jatropha Curcas fruit for energy, Renew. Energy 33
(2008) 1868–1873.
[24] H. Yang, R. Yan, H. Chen, D.H. Lee, C. Zheng, Characteristics of Hemicellulose,
cellulose and lignin pyrolysis, Fuel 86 (2007) 1781–1788.
[25] M. Jagtoyen, F. Derbyshire, Some Consideration of the Origins of Porosity in
Carbons from Chemically Activated Wood, Carbon 31 (7) (1993) 1185–1192.
[26] H. Kitagawa, Report of the National Research Institute for Pollution and Resources
vol. 12, (1979).