Week 14 All Combined

Engineering Materials
MECH1280
Semester 2
1 POLYMERS | 1.1 Polymers Introduction
[PRE-REC]
MECH1280 | Week 14 Copyright © 2021 University of Leeds UK. All rights reserved. Dr A. Herbert
Session being recorded
The recording of this session will
be made available in the following
places:
• MINERVA/VLE (University of
Leeds Portal Login for Students)
Information about recordings at the University of Leeds
http://help.leeds.ac.uk/lectures
1.1 Polymer introduction
Medical Industry
Textile Industry
Food and catering Aero Industry
Auto Industry
1.1.2 Polymers: What are they?
Poly mer
Many repeat unit
1.1.3 Polymers: from semester 1
What sort of bonds do polymers have?
– Intra-molecular = covalent
– Inter-molecular = secondary
See Semester 1, Dr Pessu (Unit 2.9)
What sort of bonds do polymers have?
• What sort of bonds do polymers have?
• Are polymers usually crystalline or non-crystalline?

– Usually chains are randomly orientated, producing an
amorphous structure (sometimes there can by small
ordered crystalline regions)
• Read through notes from semester 1 relating to
polymers from Dr Pessu
Case study:
Polyethylene in total joint replacements
In England, Wales, N. Ireland & Isle of Man in 2018
– 99,000 total knee replacements
– 93,000 total hip replacements NJR, 2019
• What are important material properties?
Case study:
• Material properties
– Low friction
– Wear resistant
– Non-toxic, doesn’t elicit a biological response
– Stable
– Ability to manufacture to high tolerances and sterilise final implant
Case study:
HMWPE
Case study:
Thermal stabilization treatments performed after or during the irradiation process at a

temperature above melting point (i.e. >130 degrees C) have been proven to effectively
remove the free radicals generated during irradiation from UHMWPE, but their effect on
the mechanical properties of UHMWPE are not completely clear.
Case study:
Why does polyethylene fail?
1. High wear rates
Can lead to Osteolysis
2. Low mechanical properties

Component fracture
Case study:
Wear debris induced osteolysis
MECH1280
Semester 2
1 POLYMERS | 1.2 Polymer Structures – Part A
[LIVE]
Session being recorded
The recording of this session will
be made available in the following
places:
• MINERVA/ VLE (University of

Leeds Portal Login for Students)
Information about recordings at the University of Leeds
http://help.leeds.ac.uk/lectures
1.2.1 Polymer Composition
Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated hydrocarbons
– Each carbon singly – Carbon bonded to less than 4 atoms
bonded to 4 atoms – Occurence of double and triple bonds
e.g. Ethane, C2H6
Ethylene C2H4 Acetylene C2H2
1.2.1 Polymer Composition
Polymerisation
200 °C
2000 bar
Ethylene Building block: Ethylene

Polymer: Polyethylene (PE)
1.2.2 Common Polymers
PolyChloroethylene (PVC)
Propylene Polypropylene (PP) Chloroethylene
See full list in Callister

PolyFluoroethylene (PTFE) pg 539-40 (and on VLE)
– you should be familiar

Fluoroethylene
with these! –
1.2.2 Common Monomers
1.2.2 Polymers Molecular weight
Polyethylene (PE)
2,000 <n<20,000
1.2.2 Polymers Molecular weight
How to measure Molecular weight of Polymer: M
Mass of a mole of chain of Polymer : g/mole
1 mole = 6x1023
σ 𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖
σ 𝑛𝑖
σ 𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖2
𝑀𝑤 = 𝑀𝑤 = ෍ 𝑤𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖
1.2.3 Molecular Weight Distribution
How to measure Molecular weight of Polymer: M
Adapted from Fig. 14.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
𝑀𝑁 = 𝑀𝑁 = ෍ 𝑥𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖
σ 𝑛𝑖
σ 𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖2
𝑀𝑤 = 𝑀𝑤 = ෍ 𝑤𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖
xi = number fraction of chains in size range i

wi = weight fraction of chains in size range i
𝑀𝑁
𝐷𝑃 = Degree of Polymerisation
𝑀𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟
1.2.3 Molecular Weight Distribution
1.2.4 Compute Molecular Weight
Distribution and Degree of Polymerisation
Assume this is the molecular weight distribution for PVC
For this material, compute: 𝑀𝑁 , 𝑀𝑊 , DP
Degree of Polymerisation:
Degree of Polymerisation:
M (vinyl chloride)= 24.02+3.03+35.45= 62.5 g/mole
21150
𝐷𝑃 = = 338
62.5
1.2.6 Polymers Classification
Molecular
characteristics
Shape Structure
Chemistry Mol. Weight (chain twisting,
(repeat unit compo.)
Entranglement..)
Linear Branched Crosslinked Network
Isomeric state
Stereoisomers Geometrical
isomers
Isotactic Syndiotactic Atactic Cis Trans
1.2.7 Molecular Structure
Linear Branched Cross-linked Network
1.2.8 Molecular Configurations
Isomerism can be found in polymers – different atomic

compositions are possible for the same composition
• Read Callister 14.8 (p 547)

• You should be familiar with stereoisomerisms and
geometrical isomerisms
Configurations - is the arrangement of units along the axis of the chain or atom positions
that are not except by breaking and then re-forming primary bonds
MECH1280
Semester 2
1 POLYMERS | 1.2 Polymer Structures – Part B
[PRE-REC]
1.2.9 Thermosets and Thermoplastics
• Classification based on the response of a polymer to mechanical

forces at elevated temperature
• Classification is related on the dominant molecular structure
• Classification based on the response of a polymer to mechanical

forces at elevated temperature
• Classification is related on the dominant molecular structure
Why does the

wheelie-bin
melt but not
the park bin?
1.2.9 Thermosets
1.2.9 Thermoplastics
1.2.9 Elastomers
1.2.10 Crystalline state of Polymer
Case study:
Case study:
• Overtime the material processing has changed and this altered its properties ( Hylamer)
Case study:
• Clinical studies compared wear of Hylamer and
“regular” polyethylene cups (using x-rays)
• Often studies weren’t controlled…
• Hylamer patients would be younger and more active
(possibly a reason for more wear), no control groups
• Assessing 3D wear from 2D x-rays is very challenging
• Different pairings of implants (often against
manufacturer instructions)
• Trends were difficult to recognise, but
increasingly apparent that Hylamer wear was
higher…
• Related to the increased crystallinity degrades
properties such as hardness
Private study
• Effects of crosslinking on the mechanical properties and

wear performance of UHMWPE in total joint replacements
• Find out more about Hylamer joint replacements
• Look into Nylon polymerization
MECH1280: Engineering Materials
Semester 2
Learning Journey
Module information for semester 2
Module summary: This is a basic level materials module that places a large emphasis on dealing with
structure property relationships.
Objectives: Attain knowledge and a good understanding of engineering principles relating to
structure, property relationships and how these can be controlled by various manufacturing methods
including heat treatment. Students should be able to distinguish between microstructure, crystal
structure and other material aspects determined by intrinsic bonding.
Learning outcomes: A thorough knowledge of the characteristic features of metals, ceramics,
polymers and composites.
Lecturer for semester 2; Dr Anthony Herbert, a.herbert@leeds.ac.uk
Reading list
 As semester 1: “Engineering Materials 1” and “Engineering Materials 2” by M H Ashby and D. Jones,
published by Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Semester 2 will include specific references to: William D. Callister, Jr. “Materials Science and
Engineering: An Introduction”, 8th (or any) Edition, 2011, Wiley, ISBN: 978-0-470-50586-1. The 8th
Edition has limited physical copies in the library, however the 10 th edition is available online. See
reading list on Minerva for further information.
 Also, you might find Wright and Askeland; “The Science and Engineering of Materials” useful, see
module information on Minerva for a 30% discount code.
Page 1 of 2 MECH1280 | Semester 2 | Learning Journey

Content for Semester 2
Week Date Topic Content
14 24 Jan 22 Introduction 0.0 Semester 2 Introduction, content, assessment and
expectations (LIVE)
Polymers 1.1 Introduction to polymers (PRE-REC)
25 Jan 22 Polymers 1.2a Polymer structures – Part A (LIVE)
Polymers 1.2b Polymer structures Part B (PRE-REC)
26 Jan 22 Tutorial 3 Semester 1 recap
15 31 Jan 22 Polymers 1.3a Mechanical properties – Part A (PRE-REC)**
Polymers 1.3b Mechanical properties – Part B (LIVE)
01 Feb 22 Polymers 1.4a Polymer characteristics – Part A (LIVE)
Polymers 1.4b Polymer characteristics – Part B (PRE-REC)
16 07 Feb 22 Composites 4.1 Introduction to composites (LIVE)
Composites 4.2 Particle reinforced composites (PRE-REC)
08 Feb 22 Composites 4.3a Fibre reinforced composites – Part A (LIVE)
Composites 4.3b Fibre reinforced composites – Part B (PRE-REC)
Composites 4.4 Structural composites (PRE-REC)
17 14 Feb 22 Metals 3.1a Simple binary systems – Part A (LIVE)
Metals 3.1b Simple binary systems – Part B (PRE-REC)
15 Feb 22 Metals 3.2a Binary eutectic systems – Part A (LIVE)
Metals 3.2b Binary eutectic systems – Part B (PRE-REC)
18 21 Feb 22 Metals 3.3a Iron-carbon system – Part A (LIVE)
Metals 3.3b Iron-carbon system – Part B (PRE-REC)
22 Feb 22 Metals 3.4a Iron-carbon system (Microstructures) – Part A (LIVE)
Metals 3.4b Iron-carbon system (Microstructures) – Part B (PRE-REC)
24/25 Feb 22 Laboratory 2 Composites – See information in lectures and on MINERVA
19 28 Feb 22 Metals 3.4c Iron-carbon system (Microstructures) – Part C (LIVE)
Metals NO PRE-REC
01 Mar 22 Metals 3.5a Metals applications and processing – Part A (LIVE)
Metals 3.5b Metals applications and processing – Part B (LIVE)
03/04 Mar 22 Laboratory 2 Composites – See information in lectures and on MINERVA
20 07 Mar 22 Metals Guest lecture – 3D printing of metals
08 Mar 22 Review/Revision Practice test questions
21 14 Mar 22 Class test On Polymers, Composites and Metals (On Gradescope)
15 Mar 22 Class test Review Analysis of test solutions (LIVE)
16 Mar 22 Tutorial 4 Metals – Problem sheet available on Minerva
22 21 Mar 22 Ceramics 2.1a Ceramic structures – Part A (LIVE)
Ceramics 2.1b Ceramic structures – Part B (PRE-REC)
22 Mar 22 Ceramics 2.2a Ceramic properties – Part A (LIVE)
Ceramics 2.2b Ceramic properties – Part B (PRE-REC)
Easter break
23 25 Apr 22 Ceramics 2.3a Ceramic processing (Glass) – Part A (LIVE)
Ceramics 2.3b Ceramic processing (Glass) – Part B (PRE-REC)
26 Apr 22 Ceramics 2.4a Ceramic processing (Clay products) – Part A (LIVE)
Ceramics 2.4b Ceramic processing (Clay products) – Part B (PRE-REC)
24 03 May 22 Review/Revision No lecture – In class questions
25 09 May 22 Ceramics Guest Lecture – Ceramic sensors for extreme environments
10 May 22 Review/Revision No lecture – In class questions
End of semester exam for MECH1280 Semester 1 and 2
Assessment
 One class test (in week 21) (10 % of overall module).
 One lab report (lab in weeks 18/19), check Minerva for hand in date (10 % of overall module).
 MECH1280 exam (May/June 2022), questions from semester 1 and semester 2 (60 % of overall
module).
Page 2 of 2 MECH1280 | Semester 2 | Learning Journey

MECH1280 Engineering Materials | Week 14 | STUDENT QUESTION SHEET
Section A – Overview of engineering materials

Answer the following true or false questions by circling the correct answer:
1. An engineering material can be solid, liquid or gas [True/False]
2. Hydrogen bond is a type of secondary bond [True/False]
3. Engineering materials are designed to be used at their ultimate tensile strength
[True/False]
4. Van der waals forces are stronger than Covalent bonds [True/False]
5. Elastic deformation of a material is not fully reversible [True/False]
6. Young’s modulus is a ratio of energy to strain [True/False]
7. Yield stress after cold-working a metal is often higher than the initial [True/False]
8. Fatigue life of a material is the amount of strain the material can sustain [True/False]
9. Fatigue failure accounts for 90% of engineering failures [True/False]
10. Alloying is generally more protective for a metal than plating [True/False]
Multiple Choice Questions – there may be more than 1 correct answer

1. The weight of aeroplanes have significantly reduced over the decades mostly due
to development in:
A. Metallic alloys
B. Aesthetics
C. Fuel efficiency
D. Polymer composites
E. Chair-less aircrafts
2. Selecting a material for an engineering application requires six key considerations

of the material properties, which of the following are amongst them:
A. Absorbance
B. Surface
C. Economic
D. Magnetism
E. Aesthetic
3. Which of the following is a primary bond:

A. Hydrogen bond
B. Dipole bond
C. Ionic bond
D. Interatomic bond
Dr A. Herbert Page 1 of 4
E. Magnetic bond
4. Select the most effective alloying element in reducing oxidation rate in Iron based
alloys:
A. Si
B. F
C. Al
D. O
E. Cr
𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
5. The safety factor (𝑴𝒂𝒙. )of an engineering material subjected to a
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
static load for in Aerospace applications is expected to be:
A. Close to 1 – due to weight limitations
B. Much greater than 2 – due to weight limitations
C. Close to 1 – due to safety requirements
D. Much greater than 2 – due to safe requirements
E. Equal to 2 – due to no specific considerations
Section B – Research based question

1. Consider the hip replacement device (see Figure 1). The device is commonly made up
of several class of engineering materials. Using your knowledge of bulk and surface
properties and/or through research, decide the best material(s) that can be used for
the various components of the hip implant device in Table 1. Detail your reasons using
the classifications in Table 2.
Section C – Introduction to Polymers
1. The following table lists the molecular weight data for a Polypropylene material:
a. Write the name and draw the repeat unit for Polypropylene
b. Compute the number-average molecular weight
c. Compute the weight-average molecular weight
d. Determine the degree of polymerisation.

Note:
 ̅𝑛 is determined by the expression 𝑀
The number-average 𝑀 ̅𝑛 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑀𝑖
 ̅𝑤 is determined by the expression 𝑀
The number-average 𝑀 ̅𝑤 = ∑ 𝑤𝑖 𝑀𝑖
̅𝑛
𝑀
 The degree of Polymerisation DP is determined by the expression 𝑚
𝒙𝒊 is the fraction of polymer chain, 𝒘𝒊 is the fraction of the polymer weight, m is the
molecular mass of the monomer (the repeating unit) and 𝑀𝑖 is the mean average of the
molecular weight.
2. Thermoplastics
a. Thermoplastic polymers soften when heated – explain what happens to the bonding
structure of the polymer during this process.
b. Polymers such as polyethylene are known as ‘linear’ polymers because their chains
are not cross-linked. Linear polymers may have a range of molecular weights because
of their packing structure. Comment on the packing structures that polymers may
have and how this may affect their molecular weight and melting point.
c. In addition to Polyethylene, name three more commercially available thermoplastic
3. Thermosets
a. Thermosets are also known as resins; they are made by mixing two components (a resin
and a hardener). This leads to heavily cross-linking of the polymer. Comment on the
preferential packing structure of such polymers; whether amorphous or crystalline.
b. Describe briefly, the effect of heating on the bonding of thermoset polymers.

Week 14 All Combined

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Engineering Materials

Food and catering Aero Industry

• Are polymers usually crystalline or non-crystalline?

• What are important material properties?

Thermal stabilization treatments performed after or during the irradiation process at a

2. Low mechanical properties

• MINERVA/ VLE (University of

Ethylene C2H4 Acetylene C2H2

Ethylene Building block: Ethylene

Propylene Polypropylene (PP) Chloroethylene

See full list in Callister

– you should be familiar

xi = number fraction of chains in size range i

Assume this is the molecular weight distribution for PVC

For this material, compute: 𝑀𝑁 , 𝑀𝑊 , DP

M (vinyl chloride)= 24.02+3.03+35.45= 62.5 g/mole

Linear Branched Crosslinked Network

Isotactic Syndiotactic Atactic Cis Trans

Linear Branched Cross-linked Network

Isomerism can be found in polymers – different atomic

• Read Callister 14.8 (p 547)

• Classification based on the response of a polymer to mechanical

• Classification is related on the dominant molecular structure

• Classification based on the response of a polymer to mechanical

• Classification is related on the dominant molecular structure

Why does the

• Effects of crosslinking on the mechanical properties and

• Find out more about Hylamer joint replacements

• Look into Nylon polymerization

Module information for semester 2

structure property relationships.

Objectives: Attain knowledge and a good understanding of engineering principles relating to

structure and other material aspects determined by intrinsic bonding.

Learning outcomes: A thorough knowledge of the characteristic features of metals, ceramics,

polymers and composites.

Lecturer for semester 2; Dr Anthony Herbert, a.herbert@leeds.ac.uk

Page 1 of 2 MECH1280 | Semester 2 | Learning Journey

Page 2 of 2 MECH1280 | Semester 2 | Learning Journey

Section A – Overview of engineering materials

Multiple Choice Questions – there may be more than 1 correct answer

2. Selecting a material for an engineering application requires six key considerations

3. Which of the following is a primary bond:

Section B – Research based question

b. Compute the number-average molecular weight

c. Compute the weight-average molecular weight

d. Determine the degree of polymerisation.

c. In addition to Polyethylene, name three more commercially available thermoplastic

b. Describe briefly, the effect of heating on the bonding of thermoset polymers.

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