ENGLISH SEMANTICS

“GROUP 2 REFERENCE”

GROUP 3 :
NURUL AZHARA RAMADHANI
MEGAWATI
DIDI MULYADI NUR
NUR HALIZA

BAHASA DAN SASTRA INGGRIS

UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGERI ALAUDDIN MAKASSAR
 Preface

First of all, thanks to Allah SWT because of the help of Allah, writer
finished writing the paper entitled "GROUP 1 BASIC IDEAS IN SEMANTIC" right in
the calculated time.

In arranging this paper, the writer trully get lots challenges and obstructions
but with help of many indiviuals, those obstructions could passed. writer also
realized there are still many mistakes in process of writing this paper.

Because of that, the writer says thank you to all individuals who helps in the
process of writing this paper. hopefully allah replies all helps and bless you all.the
writer realized tha this paper still imperfect in arrangment and the content. then the
writer hope the criticism from the readers can help the writer in perfecting the next
paper.last but not the least hopefully.

Samata, 22 march 2022

 CHAPTER I
PRELIMINARY

A. BACKGROUND

Reference or a form of reference is a meaning that is directly related to facts.

Therefore, this meaning has a relationship with a concept as well as cognitive
meaning. The meaning of reference has a relationship with the concept of something
that has been mutually agreed upon, such as the relationship that exists between the
form of words and goods, or activities outside of language that are not direct and
there are media in between. Therefore, reference is what the speaker does, whereas
designation is a property of the word and reference is a stable relationship in a
language that does not depend on any one use of the word.

B. PROBLEM FORMULATION

a. Referring expressions
b. Predicates
c. Predicates, referring expressions, and universe of
d. Deixis and definiteness
e. Words and things: extensions and prototypes

C. PURPOSE

To fulfill the assignment of the REFERENCE group paper.

 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A.REFERRING EXPRESSIONS
A referring expression (RE), in linguistics, is any noun phrase, or surrogate for a noun
phrase, whose function in a text (spoken, signed or written on a particular occasion) is "pick
out" someone an individual person, place, object, or a set of persons, places, objects, etc. The
technical terminology for "pick out" differs a great deal from one school of linguistics to
another. The most widespread term is probably refer, and a thing "picked out" is a referent, as
for example in the work of John Lyons. In linguistics, the study of reference belongs to
pragmatics, the study of language use, though it is also a matter of great interest to
philosophers, especially those wishing to understand the nature of knowledge, perception and
cognition more generally.
The kinds of expressions which can refer (as so defined) are:
- A noun phrase of any structure, such as: the taxi in The taxi's waiting outside; the
apple on the table in Bring me the apple on the table; and those five boys in Those
five boys were off school last week. In those languages which, like English, encode
definiteness, REs are typically marked for definiteness. In the examples given, this is
done by the definite article the or the demonstrative adjective, here those.

- A noun-phrase surrogate, i.e. a pronoun, such as it in It's waiting outside and Bring
me it; and they in They were off school last week. The referent of such a pronoun may
vary according to context - e.g. the referent of me depends on who the speaker is - and
this property is technically an instance of deixis.

- A proper name, like Sarah, London, The Eiffel Tower, or The Beatles. The intimate
link between proper names and type (1) REs is shown by the definite article that
appears in many of them. In many languages this happens far more consistently than
in English. Proper names are often taken to refer, in principle, to the same referent
independently of the context in which the name is used and in all possible worlds, i.e.
they are in Saul Kripke's terminology rigid designators.

B.PREDICATE
A Predicate or the designation of a sentence is one type of sure sentence in the form
of a word used to describe the state of the subject. In English, a sentence must have a
predicate which is called a verb. What is meant by the verb (verb), is the type of word that is
done by the subject (doer).
And if there is no verb in a sentence, then we can use auxiliary verbs in nominal
sentences. Look at the examples of sentences that are included in and as a predicate.
* A glass of milk is warm
*I eat an apple
Below to find out the existence of a predicate in a sentence, we can ask questions, such as
how (why), or what?
A pure predicate is always used in verbal sentences. The use of verbs in this sentence
is usually in the form of a basic verb (infinitive), a second verb (past tense) or a third verb
(past participle). And usually use a verb (auxiliary verb) that adapts to the needs of the
sentence. Pay attention to the types of sentences that use auxiliary verbs, namely:
- Present Future Tense

In this type of sentence pattern we use auxiliary verbs, namely "will and shall" followed by
an infinitive.
*Rani and I will finish one hour's homework
*Mutmainah will make hot coffee
- Present Perfect Tense

In this type of sentence pattern we use auxiliary verbs, namely "has and have" followed by a
third verb (past participle).
*Rani and I have finished an hour's homework
*Mutmainah has made hot coffee.
- Past Perfect Tense

In this type of sentence pattern we use an auxiliary verb, namely "had" followed by a third
verb (past participle).
Rani and I have finished an hour's homework
Mutmainah has made hot coffee
- Past Future Tense

In this type of sentence pattern we use an auxiliary verb, namely "would" followed by an
infinitive verb. Example sentences:
* Rani and I will finish one hour's homework
*Mutmainah will make hot coffee
And if the sentence is in nominal form, we use "tobe" as the predicate.

C.PREDICATES,REFERRING EXPRESSIONS,AND UNIVERSE OF

 A PREDICATE is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense)
can function as the predicator of a sentence.the definition of ‘predicate’ above
contained two parenthesized conditions. The first, ‘(or sequence of words)’, is
intended to take care of examples like telah menggigit, sedang menunggu, which are
longer than one word, but which it seems sensible to analyse as single predicates.
The second parenthesized condition, ‘(in a given single sense)’, is more important,
and illustrates a degree of abstractness in the notion of a predicate. A ‘word’, as we
use the term, can be ambiguous, i.e. can have more than one sense, but we use
‘predicate’ in a way which does not allow a predicate to be ambiguous.

A predicate can have only one sense.Normally, the context in which we use a word
will make clear what sense (what predicate) we have in mind, but occasionally, we
shall resort to the use of subscripts on words to distinguish between different
predicates.
E.g.
We might distinguish between the predicates:
1. man (noun) èhuman being,
2. man (noun) èmale adult human being, and
3. man (transitive verb) as in The crew manned the lifeboats.
Notice that ‘predicate’ and ‘predicator’ are terms of quite different sorts. The term
‘predicate’ identifies elements in the language system, independently of particular
example sentences. Thus, it would make sense to envisage a list of the predicates of
English, as included, say, in a dictionary. The term ‘predicator’ identifies the semantic
role played by a particular word (or group of words) in a particular sentence.

In this way, it is similar to the grammatical term ‘subject’: one can talk of the subject
of a particular sentence, but it makes no sense to talk of a list of ‘the subjects of
English’: similarly, one can talk of the ‘predicator’ in a particular sentence, but not list
‘the predicators of English’.

A simple sentence only has one predicator, although it may well contain more than
one instance of a predicate. A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon. This
sentence has just one predicator, enter, but the sentence also contains the
words tall, handsome, stranger, and saloon, all of which are predicates, and can
function as predicators in other sentences, e.g. John is tall, He is handsome, He is a
stranger, and That ramshackle building is a saloon.

Comments
The identity relation is special because of its very basic role in the communication of
information. The verb be, as we have seen, is simply a grammatical device for linking
a predicate that is not a verb (i.e. an adjective, preposition, or noun) to its first
argument, as in John is a fool or John is foolish. The verb be is also a device for
‘carrying’ the tense (present or past) of a sentence.
Summary of Predicate

The predicates of a language have a completely different function from the referring
expressions. The roles of these two kinds of meaning-bearing element cannot be
exchanged.
Thus John is a bachelor  makes good sense, but Bachelor is a John makes no sense at
 all. Predicates include words from various parts of speech, e.g. common nouns,
adjectives, prepositions, and verbs.

 Referring Expression (RE)

RE is any expression used in an utterance to refer to something or someone (or a
clearly delimited collection of things or people), i.e. used with a particular referent in
mind.
For example, the name Budi  in an utterance such as ‘Budi hit me’, where the speaker
has a particular person in mind when he says ‘Budi’, is a referring expression.
Budi in ‘There’s no Budi at this address’ is not a referring expression, because in this
case a speaker would not have a particular person in mind in uttering the word.
Some REs are possibly used and not used in the following examples:
(1) John (Yes)
(2) My uncle (Yes)
(3) and (No)
(4) the girl sitting on the wall by the bus stop (Yes)
(5) a man (Yes)
(6) my parents (Yes)
(7) send (No)
(8) under (No)

The same expression can be a referring expression or not (or, as some would put it,
may or may not have a ‘referring interpretation’), depending on the context.
1) When a speaker says, ‘A man was in here looking for you last night’ is a man being
used to refer to a particular man? Yes
2) So, in the above example, is a man a referring expression? Yes
3) When a speaker says, ‘The first sign of the monsoon is a cloud on the horizon no
bigger than a man’s hand’, is a man being used to refer to a particular man? No
4) Is a man in this example a referring expression? No
5) Is empat puluh bis, used in ‘Empat puluh bis telah ditarik dari trayek operasinya
oleh PT. AKAS’, a referring expression? Yes
6) Is empat puluh bis, used in ‘Mesin ini memiliki tenaga seperti empat puluh bis’, a
referring expression? No.

 Universe of Discourse

The UNIVERSE OF DISCOURSE for any utterance as the particular world, real or
imaginary (or part real, part imaginary), that the speaker assumes he is talking about
at the time.
For example, when an astronomy lecturer, in a serious lecture, states that the Earth
revolves around the Sun, the universe of discourse is, we all assume, the real world
(or universe).
 When I tell my children a bedtime story and say ‘The dragon set fire to the woods
with his hot breath’, the universe of discourse is not the real world but a fictitious
world.

Comments
We have interaction between fact and fiction, between real and imaginary worlds.
When two people are ‘arguing at cross-purposes’, they could be said to be working
within partially different universes of discourse.

E.g.
è Theist: ‘Diseases must serve some good purpose, or God would not allow them’
è Atheist: ‘I cannot accept your premisses (assumption)’

Here the theist is operating with a universe of discourse which is a world in which
God exists. The atheist’s assumed universe of discourse is a world in which God does
not exist.

Summary of Universe of Discourse

In the course of a sequence of utterances, speakers use referring expressions to refer
to entities which may be concrete or abstract, real or fictitious. The predicates
embedded in a referring expression help the hearer to identify its referent.
Semantics is not concerned with the factual status of things in the world but with
meaning in language.The notion of universe of discourse is introduced to account for
the way in which language allows us to refer to non-existent things.

D.DEIXIS AND DEFINITENESS

 DEIXIS

Definition Deictic word One which takes some element of its meaning from the
situation ( the speaker, the addressee, the time and the place) of the utterance in which it is
used. The general phenomenon of its occurrence is called Deixis.
If Mary is preparing to travel to the USA , her mother says: “ you should bring warm
clothes, the weather is cold there .“ Deictic word If a visitor coming back from Halong Bay
says: “ I took many beautiful pictures there .”
Some types of deixis
Personal deixis: I, you, he, …
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Spatial deixis: here, there, etc
Temporal deixis: yesterday, today, tomorrow, etc
Some verbs have deictic ingredient
Come, take, bring, go, etc
Ex : “Go to the school “ (speaker is not at the school)
Tenses are also regarded as deictic Ex: “ I graduated from high school in 2004.” This
utterance can be made in or after the year 2004 In reported speech, deictic words in original
utterance have to be changed to preserve the original reference
Ex: John said “I won lottery yesterday.” John said he had won lottery the day before
Can you point out which words are deictic? “ I was there yesterday ” personal spatial
temporal

Deixis Examples. "I wish you'd been here yesterday." In this sentence the words 'I,'
'you', 'here', and 'yesterday' all function as deixis - they reference a speaker and an addressee,
a location and a time.
 DEFINITENESS

In linguistics, definiteness is a semantic feature of noun phrases, distinguishing between

referents or senses that are identifiable in a given context (definite noun phrases) and those
which are not (indefinite noun phrases). The prototypical definite noun phrase picks out a
unique, familiar, specific referent.
There is considerable variation in the expression of definiteness across languages, and
some languages such as Japanese do not generally mark it. In others, such as English, it is
usually marked by the selection of determiner.[3] In still other languages, such as Danish,
definiteness is marked morphologically.
"The theoretical distinction between grammatical definiteness and cognitive
identifiability has the advantage of enabling us to distinguish between a discrete
(grammatical) and a non-discrete (cognitive) category."
In English, definiteness is usually marked by the selection of determiner. Certain
determiners, such as a, an, many, and some, along with numbers (e.g., four items), typically
mark a noun phrase as indefinite. Others, including the, that, and genitive noun phrases (e.g.,
my brother) typically mark the noun phrase as definite.
A number of tests have been proposed to distinguish definite from indefinite noun
phrases. "Each has a foundation in intuition, as well as some degree of grammatical effect.
However, it is not clear that any of them corresponds cleanly to formal categories."
1. If a noun phrase can be put into an existential clause such as there is noun phrase at the
door (e.g., there are two wolves at the door), it is likely indefinite.
2. "The concept of identifiability expressed by the definite article is best understood in terms
of pre-empting a question with which?"
An example of definite is when you have a specific idea about what you want your house to
look like. An example of definite is when you have a plan that you are absolutely going to
carry out. An example of definite is when someone clearly has an advantage on another
person. Certain; positive.

E.WORDS AND THINGS : EXTENSIONS AND PROTOTYPES

 Extension

The EXTENSION of a one-place predicate is the set of all individuals to which that
predicate can truthfully be applied. It is the set of things which can POTENTIALLY be
referred to by using an expression whose main element is that predicate.
The extension of window is the set of all windows in the universe.
The extension of dog is the set of all dogs in the universe.
The extension of house is the set of all houses.
The extension of red is the set of all red things.
Extensions are relative to all times, past, present, and future. Thus, the extension of
window, for example, includes all past windows, all present windows, and all future
windows.
Similarly, the extension of dead includes all things which have been dead in the past
(and presumably still are, if they still exist), which are dead now, and which will be dead in
the future.
Predicates are tenseless, i.e. unspecified for past, present, or future.
In actual use, predicates are almost always accompanied in sentences by a marker of
tense (past or present) or a future marker, such as will. These have the effect of restricting the
extensions of the predicates they modify, so that, for example, the extension of the phrase is
dead could be said to be the set of all things which are dead at the time of utterance.
Correspondingly, the extension of the phrase is alive could be said to be the set of all
things alive at the time of utterance. Thus the extensions of is dead and is alive are different
in the appropriate way at any particular time of utterance.
Everything that is called 'has four legs' is they are like animals e.g. cat, horse etc. and
objects e.g. chairs, tables.
 PROTOTYPES

A prototype is a cognitive reference point, i.e the proto-image of all representatives of

the meaning of a word or of a category. Thus, a robin or a sparrow can be regarded as a
prototype or a "good example" of the category bird, whereas a penguin or an ostrich is a
rather "bad example" of this category.
Prototype theory is a theory of categorization in cognitive science, particularly in
psychology and cognitive linguistics, in which there is a graded degree of belonging to a
conceptual category, and some members are more central than others. It emerged in 1971
with the work of psychologist Eleanor Rosch, and it has been described as a "Copernican
revolution" in the theory of categorization for its departure from the traditional Aristotelian
categories. It has been criticized by those that still endorse the traditional theory of categories,
like linguist Eugenio Coseriu and other proponents of the structural semantics paradigm.
The term prototype, as defined in psychologist Eleanor Rosch's study "Natural
Categories",was initially defined as denoting a stimulus, which takes a salient position in the
formation of a category, due to the fact that it is the first stimulus to be associated with that
category. Rosch later defined it as the most central member of a category.
Rosch and others developed prototype theory as a response to, and radical departure
from, the classical theory of concepts, which defines concepts by necessary and sufficient
conditions. Necessary conditions refers to the set of features every instance of a concept must
present, and sufficient conditions are those that no other entity possesses. Rather than
defining concepts by features, the prototype theory defines categories based on either a
specific artifact of that category or by a set of entities within the category that represent a
prototypical member. The prototype of a category can be understood in lay terms by the
object or member of a class most often associated with that class. The prototype is the center
of the class, with all other members moving progressively further from the prototype, which
leads to the gradation of categories. Every member of the class is not equally central in
human cognition. As in the example of furniture above, couch is more central than wardrobe.
Contrary to the classical view, prototypes and gradations lead to an understanding of category
membership not as an all-or-nothing approach, but as more of a web of interlocking
categories which overlap.
What are the Types of Prototyping
- Sketches and diagrams.
- 3D printing or rapid model.
- Physical model.
- Wireframe.
- Role-play through virtual or augmented reality.
- Feasibility.
- Working Model.
- Video Prototype.
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
Reference is a meaning that states things in the world (including people) that are
discussed. For example “My mom is in the operating room”, this identifies a person and a
thing. There are two terms in identifying a word or an action in a sentence, namely
"reference" and "pointer". References are used by speakers to select shapes or forms that exist
in the world, while pointers are used for relationships between linguistic expressions in the
world. For example, I say "Owl perches on a tree" in this sentence there are two noun
phrases: an owl and the tree for describe something, while the nouns owl and tree denote a
specific thing. Therefore, reference is what the speaker does, while designation is a property
of the word. Reference is a stable relationship in a language that does not depend on any one
use of the word.