PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 2

Learning involves new ways of doing things and attempts to adjust to new
situations. Its show progressive change in behaviour as the individual reacts to a
situation.

Learning may be both vertical and horizontal. It is vertical when precision is

increased or information is added to what is already learnt. It is horizontal when
what is learnt is integrated and organised as a part of a functioning unit of
expanding experience.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF LEARNING

Learning is modification of behaviour through experience and training. It is
defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential
produced by practice or experience. For example, a child who burns his hand
using a match-stick learns to handle the match-box more carefully in future.

According to Skinner, ―Learning is the process of progressive behaviour

adaptation.‖

According to Kranbek, ― Learning is shown by a change in behaviour as a result

of experience.‖

NATURE OF LEARNING
 learning is growth

 learning is adjustment

 all kinds of learning are Goal-oriented

 Learning is experience

 learning is intelligent

 learning is active

 learning is both Individual and social

 learning is the product of the environment

 learning affects the conduct of the learner

DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Education is development of body mind and spirit. If we try to correlate
physical, intellectual emotional and spiritual development , with the domains of
learning , we find that development of intellect falls in the cognitive domain,
while emotional and spiritual development is concerned with effective domain
and physical development is through skills which comprise of the psychomotor
domain.

COGNITIVE DOMAINS OF LEARNING

The cognitive domain focuses on six intellectual skills that educational
psychologist Benjamin Bloom organized based on the sequence in which
students develop them. This concept is known as Bloom's Taxonomy. For each
skill, Bloom refers to active verbs that describe how students apply what they've
learned. The original Bloom's Taxonomy includes the following skills that build
from the most basic to the most complex:

 Knowledge: Recalling or recognizing information previously

learned. Instructional verbs that represent this foundational level of
the cognitive domain include write, list, label, name and state.

 Comprehension: Comprehending or interpreting information based

on material previously learned. Instructional verbs include explain,
summarize, describe and illustrate.

 Application: Selecting and using data principles to fix a problem

independently. Instructional verbs include use, solve, demonstrate
and apply.

 Analysis: Understanding or breaking down assumptions made by a

statement or question to make conclusions. Instructional verbs
include compare, contrast and analyze.

 Synthesis: Combining ideas to build a new concept or plan.

Instructional verbs include create, design, invent and develop.

 Evaluation: Making assessments based on established criteria.

Instructional verbs include judge, critique and justify.
 In 2001, one of Bloom‘s former students and colleagues revised the taxonomy
to reflect its use in modern school settings. Most elements remained the same
but received new names. They also swapped the position of the last two
components. This is the newest version of the cognitive domain:

 Remembering (formerly knowledge)

 Understanding (formerly comprehension)

 Applying (formerly application)

 Analyzing (formerly analysis)

 Evaluating (formerly evaluation)

 Creating (formerly synthesis)

The affective domain

The affective domain of learning represents skills that foster appropriate
emotional responses. In this domain identified by Bloom‘s colleague, David
Krathwohl, students understand and develop their feelings, attitudes and values.
Like the cognitive domain, the five areas of emotional response from simple to
complex include:

Receiving: Receiving involves a passive awareness of emotions and feelings

and a student must succeed at this level to learn at later stages. For example, a
student at this stage waits to speak until someone else finishes speaking.
Instructional verbs include ask, choose, identify and use.

Responding: A student actively engages in the learning process by receiving it

and reacting to it. For example, a student participates in a class discussion of a
book they read. Instructional verbs include assist, discuss, read and write.

Valuing: A student values a concept when they express its worth or what it
means to them. For example, a student may write an opinion article about a
social topic they feel strongly about, discussing and defending their stance.
Instructional verbs include complete, explain, propose and study.

Organizing: A student develops a value system by arranging their values or

beliefs in order of priority. For example, a student trying to make honor roll
realizes they should prioritize studying for an upcoming test over going to the
movies with friends. Instructional verbs include arrange, complete, modify and
prepare.

Characterizing: A student acts according to the values they have developed

and internalized as a personal philosophy. For example, a student accepts that
cheating is unethical and completes a difficult assignment independently even
though a friend offers to let them copy their answers. Instructional verbs include
display, perform, question and solve.

The psychomotor domain

Bloom identified the psychomotor skills domain and educators like Elizabeth
Simpson expanded them into a simple-to-complex order in the 1970s. The
psychomotor domain focuses on physical skills such as the development of
hand-eye coordination and the use of motor skills. Psychomotor skills help
people perform physical tasks in daily life and at work. The areas of this domain
include:

Perception: Students use sensory cues to guide their motor activities. For
example, a student may listen to a teacher's lesson and write down
corresponding notes. Instructional verbs include distinguish, identify and select.

Set: Students feel ready to act upon challenges and resolve them. For example,
a student who wants to improve their grade is motivated to study for their next
test. Instructional verbs include assume a position, demonstrate and show.

Guided response: Students begin learning complex skills often through trial
and error or following instructions. For example, a student learns how to build a
simple circuit by watching an instructional video. Instructional verbs include
attempt, imitate and try.

Mechanism: Students develop basic proficiency when performing particular

tasks often through practice. For example, a piano student feels confident
playing a song assigned by their teacher after weeks of practicing. Instructional
verbs include perform, complete and duplicate.

Complex overt response: Students learn to perform a task with advanced

proficiency. For example, a piano student knows how to play a song without
needing to look at the keys. Instructional verbs include carry out, operate and
perform.
Adaptation: Students have developed their skills and can change them to meet
specific requirements. For example, a culinary student knows how to adjust
their recipe to meet particular dietary restrictions. Instructional verbs include
adapt, change, modify and revise.

Origination: Students learn how to develop a new skill using principles learned
while gaining the original skill. For example, a student who has taken ballet
classes choreographs a dance for a recital. Instructional verbs include create,
design and originate.

Factors influencing learning:

Learning is a comprehensive process. This process is influenced by a variety of
factors related to the learner, the teacher, the process and the content. Thorough
knowledge of these factors will prove very helpful for the teachers and parents
in understanding and guiding their children‘s learning.

1. Personal factors

2. Environmental factors

 Teacher related factors and

 Content Related factors

 Process related factors

Personal Factors

Learner related factors:

Learner physical and mental health:

The basic potential of the learner

Level of aspiration and achievement motivation

The goal of life:

Readiness and willpower

Environmental Factors

1. Teacher related factors

The teacher is the most prominent factor in the teaching-learning process and is
responsible for the children‘s learning activities

 Knowledge of the subject:

 Teacher behaviour:

 Personality:

 Class management and control

2. Content related factors

The following are the content-related factors:-

 Effect of previous experience:

 Meaningfulness of material:

 Difficult of material:

 Multi-Sensory Approach

 Nature of content:

 Selection of contents:

 Organization of contents:

3. Process related factors

The methodology adopted for teaching-learning experiences

 Linking new learning with the previous learning

 Co-relating the learning with subjects such as Social science-history,

geography, civics. Biology-Botany, Zoology, Microbiology

 Utilization of maximum number of sense

 Provision of drill work. Eg. Revision and practice

 Provision of proper reinforcement and feedback. Ex- Smiling, excellent,

answer is correct.

 Selection of suitable teaching-learning method. Ex- Discussion method,

heuristic method, laboratory method etc.
 Pavlov- Classical Conditioning (1849 – 1936)
Classical conditioning is a term used to describe learning which has been
acquired through experience. One of the best-known examples of classical
conditioning can be found with the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his
experiments on dogs.

In these experiments, Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard a bell
ring. In order to do this he first showed them food, the sight of which caused
them to salivate.

Later Pavlov would ring a bell every time he would bring the food out, until
eventually, he could get the dogs to salivate just by ringing the bell and without
giving the dogs any food.

In this simple but ingenious experiment, Pavlov showed how a reflex

(salivation, a natural bodily response) could become conditioned (modified) to
an external stimulus (the bell) thereby creating a conditioned reflex/response.

Components Involved In Classical Conditioning

We can gain a better understanding of classical conditioning by looking at the
various components involved in his experiment.

 The unconditioned stimulus.(UCS).

 The conditioned stimulus.(CS).

 The unconditioned reflex/response.(UCR).

 The conditioned reflex/response. (CR).

So let’s look at each of these classical conditioning components in more
detail now

Note: In its strictest definition classical conditioning is described as a previously

neutral stimulus which causes a reflex (stimulus means something which causes
a physical response).

The Unconditioned Stimulus (food): (UCS) An unconditioned stimulus is

anything, which can evoke a response without prior learning or conditioning.

For example, when a dog eats some food it causes his mouth to salivate.
Therefore the food is an unconditioned stimulus, because it causes a reflex
response (salivation) automatically and without the dog having to learn how to
salivate.

Unconditioned Stimulus – This causes an automatic reflex response.

Conditioned Stimulus (bell): (CS) The conditioned stimulus is created

by learning, and therefore does not create a response without prior conditioning.

For example, when Pavlov rang a bell and caused the dogs to salivate, this was
a conditioned stimulus because the dogs learnt to associate the bell with food. If
they had not learnt to associate the bell with food, they would not have salivated
when the bell was rung.

Conditioned Stimulus – You need to learn first before it creates a response. It

is an acquired power to change something.

Unconditioned Reflex/Response (salivation): (UCR) An unconditioned reflex

is anything that happens automatically without you having to think about it,
such as your mouth salivating when you eat. Unconditioned Reflex – Reflex
that happens automatically and you did not have to learn how to do it.

Conditioned Reflex (salivation in response to bell): (CR) A conditioned reflex

is a response which you have learnt to associate with something.

For example, the dogs salivated when Pavlov rang a bell, when previously
(without conditioning) the bell would not cause the dogs to salivate.

Conditioned Reflex – A reflex that can be evoked in response to a conditioned

stimulus (a previously neutral stimulus).

There are several principles that are associated with classical

conditioning, some of these are:.
 Extinction: a conditioned response will disappear over time when the
conditioned stimulus is no longer presented.

 Spontaneous recovery: sometimes there is the weak appearance of a

previously extinguished response.

 Stimulus generalization: this is when individuals respond in this same

way to experience stimuli. For example, all fuzzy animals scaring a
young child instead of just a fuzzy cat.

 Stimulus discrimination: organisms can learn to discriminate between

various stimuli.

 Higher order conditioning: this is when a neutral stimulus can cause the
conditioned response sense if it had been associated with the conditioned
stimulus.
Types of classical conditioning
Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in forward conditioning.

During forward conditioning the onset of the conditioned stimulus (CS)

precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace

conditioning

Delay conditioning: In delay, conditioning the conditioned stimulus (CS) is

presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus
(US).

Trace conditioning: During trace conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS)

and unconditioned stimulus (US) do not overlap.

Instead, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented, a period is allowed to elapse

during which no stimuli are presented, and then the unconditioned stimulus
(US) is presented.

The stimulus-free period is called the trace interval.

It may also be called the conditioning interval.

Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the

conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented and
terminated at the same time.

Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditional

stimulus (CS) immediately follows an unconditional stimulus (US).

Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the conditional stimulus (CS)

precedes the unconditional stimulus (US), the conditional response (CR) tends
to be inhibitory.

This is because the conditional stimulus (CS) serves as a signal that the
unconditional stimulus (US) has ended, rather than a reliable method of
predicting the future occurrence of the unconditional stimulus (US).

Temporal conditioning: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented at

regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing
of the interval between unconditioned stimulus (US) presentations.
The background, or context, can serve as the conditioned stimulus (CS) in this
example.

Unpaired conditioning: The conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned

stimulus (US) are not presented together.

Usually they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable,
or pseudo-random, interval.

This procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as

sensitization.

CS-alone extinction: The conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented in the absence

of the unconditioned stimulus (US).

This procedure is usually done after the conditional response (CR) has been
acquired through ―forward conditioning‖ training. Eventually, the conditional
response (CR) frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.

Essentially, the stimulus is presented until habituation occurs.

Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations

 The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task
effectively before embarking on another one.
 Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn.
 They should be versatile with various strategies that can enhance
effective participation of the students in the teaching learning activities.
 Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical
conditioning.
 A negative or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired
with.

What is Operant Conditioning?

It is B.F. Skinner, who had proposed the operant conditioning or instrumental
conditioning theory of learning. Here, the behavior is learned through
punishment and reward. The negative behavior leads to punishment and the
positive one leads to rewards. And, the punished behaviors are likely to be
reduced and rewarded ones likely to be repeated.
 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), the pioneer of operant conditioning, began his
experiments in the 1930s. He has been described as the most famous
psychologist who has ever lived (Fowler, 1990). Skinner was deeply influenced
by John B. Watson‘s behavioral view of psychology and Edward L.
Thorndike‘s ―Law of Effect‖ which states that rewarded behavior is likely to
happen again. Using Thorndike‘s law of effect as the starting point, Skinner
developed a ―behavioral technology‖ that enabled him to teach pigeons,
animals, and humans the desired behavior, mitigating maladjusted behaviors.

Operant conditioning is a term derived from the word ―operate‖. When our
behavior operates in the outside world, it produces some kind of effect for us
and these effects determine whether we continue to engage in that behavior. If
the consequences are rewarding, the response will be repeated and will grow in
strength. This relationship between response and reward is the essence of
operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is also called instrumental
conditioning because the organism is instrumental in bringing about the change
in the environment that makes the action more or less likely to occur again in
the future. If the behavior pays off, it is likely to be repeated.
 Skinner’s Experiment
During his studies around the 1930s, Skinner developed a special testing
environment called an ―operant conditioning chamber‖ which is usually popular
as the ―Skinner Box‖. The box was a typically soundproof chamber with a bar
or keys inside, that an animal if presses or pecks release food or water as a
reward. The chamber was large enough to allow the animal to move within the
confined area and equipped with a device to reward the animal‘s responses.

In his experiment, a hungry rat was placed in the Skinner box. At first, the rat
moves in an exploratory manner and by chance presses the bar or lever which
delivers food or drops of water. After receiving this reward, the animal
continues its activity, sniffing, stretching, and dining itself, but sooner or later it
presses the bar again. The rat receives the reward again, and as time passes, the
bar is pressed more frequently. Eventually, a point is reached where the rat
presses the bar consistently to receive the reward. When the rat learned this
response and is placed in Skinner‘s box, it again being pressing the bar
immediately to get the reward. The rat continued the activity until satisfied.

Key Elements in Operant Conditioning

The major key elements of operant conditioning are as follows:

Behavior Shaping

At the initial stage of learning, a rat does not press the level of the bar as soon as
it enters the Skinner box. The rat is helped to press the lever to receive food.
This technique used in operant conditioning is called behavior shaping. Shaping
is a procedure in which rewards such as food, gradually guide an animal‘s
behavior toward the desired behavior. For example, in SKinner‘s technique, the
rat receives food as a reward as it approaches the bar. Once the rat developed
the behavior of approaching the bar regularly, it is required to move towards the
bar closer before it receives a reward.

Operant conditioning techniques are also applied in shaping human behavior.

For example, a student answers a question and the professor says ―excellent‖
the behavior of responding to questions tends to increase the future. If the
teacher finds the students are not providing correct answers, the teacher still
partially praises the student‘s answers and effort. Teachers can raise the
expectations so students have to give a more complete response to earn praise.
Reinforcement

Reinforcement in classical conditioning is the paired presentation of the

conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning,
reinforcement refers to the occurrence of an event, like the reward of food, or
water following the desired response. In other words, reinforcement is known as
a reward. A reinforcer is an event or stimulus that increases the frequency of the
response that follows. The types of reinforcers are:

 Positive reinforcer – Positive reinforcement is the process in which a

stimulus makes a behavior more likely to occur again. A positive
reinforcer is an event or object or stimulus, that when presented, increases
the probability that the response will take place again.

 Negative reinforcer – Negative reinforcer is an event or stimuli that

strengthen a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus.

 Primary reinforcer – A primary reinforcer is an event or stimulus that

has biological properties, which are not acquired from learning. For a
hungry person, food is the primary reinforcer. Water, warmth, novel
stimulation, physical activity, and sexual gratification are examples of
primary reinforces.

 Secondary reinforcer – A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that

acquires reinforcing properties in the course of association with the
primary reinforcers.

 Immediate and delayed reinforcer – Immediate and delayed reinforcers

are concerned with the duration or gap between the desired activity and
reinforcement. The greater the short delay between the response and the
reinforcer, it is called the immediate response. And, the greater the delay
between the response and reinforcer known as delay in reinforcement.

Punishment

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. A punishment has an opposite

effect, decreasing the likelihood, or rate of responding to a target response.
Punishment can be negative or positive.
  Positive punishment – A positive punishment simply means something
is presented, such as spanking, scolding, and exposure to an aversive
event following a behavior reduces the likelihood of recurring.

 Negative punishment – Negative punishment involves losing, or not

obtaining a reinforcer as a consequence of behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement
The plan, pattern, or strategy for delivering the reinforcement is known as a
schedule of reinforcement. In other words, it is a time duration that determines
when and after how much time the reward would be given after the occurrence
of the event. Reinforcement schedules are of various types:

 Continuous reinforcement schedule – A continuous reinforcement is a

schedule when the participant is given reinforcement after every desired
response.

 Partial reinforcement schedule – When the behavior is reinforced

occasionally the reinforcement schedule is called partial reinforcement
schedule.

 Fixed-ratio schedule – Fixed ratio schedule is a kind of continuous

reinforcement schedule, in which reinforcement is provided to the
organism after a specified number of correct responses is accomplished.

 Variable ratio schedule – In a variable ratio schedule, the exact number

of responses required in order to receive the reinforcement, and is not
specified.

 Fixed interval schedule – Under a fixed interval schedule, a certain fixed

lapse of time must be spent by the subject performing the positive
targeted behavior before a response is rewarded to the subject.

 Variable interval schedule – Variable interval schedule is also based on

passes of time, but the animal can not predict how long the time interval
is, which will bring it a reward.

The Usefulness of Operant Conditioning

Application for operant conditioning is numerous. Its principles can be applied
to problems ranging from high blood pressure to social withdrawal.
Reinforcement techniques also work in education, businesses, and homes, and
clinics.

Operant Conditioning In Education

Skinner and his colleagues advocated teaching machines and textbooks that
would shape learning in small steps and provide immediate reinforcement for
correct responses. These machines and texts concentrate on a students‘ special
needs and weaknesses. One of the most influencing operant-based teaching
techniques is Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).

In CAI students interact with sophisticated computer programs that provide

immediate reinforcement for correct responses. CAI also enhances lecture-
based distance education, desktop video conferencing, and web-based training
in which instructors and learners of the world who are separated geographically
can meet anytime, brought together through the high-speed communication
system.

E.L Thorndike- Trial and Error Theory of

Learning
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was the first American psychologist who
put forward the Trial and Error Theory of learning.

According to Thorndike

―All learning takes place because of formation of bond or connection between

stimulus and response.‖.

He further says that learning takes place through a process of approximation and
correction.

A person makes a number of trials, some responses do not give satisfaction to

the individual but he goes on making further trials until he gets satisfactory
responses.

Thorndike conducted a number of experiments on animals to explain the

process of learning.

His most widely quoted experiment is with a cat placed in a puzzle box.
Thorndike put a hungry cat in a puzzle box. The box had one door, which could
be opened by manipulating a latch of the door. A fish was placed outside the
box. The cat being hungry had the motivation of eating fish outside the box.

However, the obstacle was the latch on the door. The cat made random
movements inside the box indicating trial and error type of behavior biting at
the box, scratching the box, walking around, pulling and jumping etc. to come
out to get the food.

Now in the course of her movements, the latch was manipulated accidently and
the cat came out to get the food. Over a series of successive trials, the cat took
shorter and shorter time, committed less number of errors, and was in a position
to manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box and learnt the art of
opening the door.

Thorndike concluded that it was only after many random trials that the cat was
able to hit upon the solutions. He named it as Trial and Error Learning.

An analysis of the learning behavior of the cat in the box shows that besides
trial and error the principles of goal, motivation, explanation and reinforcement
are involved in the process of learning by Trial and Error.

Laws of Learning
Based on Trial and Error Learning Theory, Thorndike gave certain laws of
Learning. We shall discuss three fundamental Laws of Learning in this section.
These laws are:.

1. Law of Readiness
This law refers to the fact that learning takes place only when the learner is
prepared to learn.

No amount of efforts can make the child learn if the child is not ready to learn.

The saying that ‗you can lead a horse to the pond but you can‘t make it drink
water unless it feels thirsty‘ goes very well with this law.

In other words, if the child is ready to learn, he/she learns more quickly,
effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he/she is not ready to learn.

In the words of Thorndike the three stages of this Law of Readiness are

(i) For a conduction unit ready to conduct, to conduct is satisfying.

(ii) For a conduction unit ready to conduct, not to conduct is annoying.

(iii) For a conduction unit not ready to conduct, to conduct is annoying.

Thus, the Law of Readiness means mental preparation for action.

It is not to force the child to learn if he is not ready.

Learning failures are the result of forcing the learner to learn when he is not
ready to learn something.

Educational implications of Law of Readiness

The law draws the attention of teacher to the motivation of the child.

The teacher must consider the psycho-biological readiness of the students to

ensure successful learning experiences.

Curriculum / Learning experiences should be according to the mental level of

maturity of the child.

If this is not so, there will be poor comprehension and readiness may vanish.

2. Law of Exercise

This law explains the role of practice in learning.

According to this law, learning becomes efficient through practice or exercise.

The dictum ‗Practice makes a man perfect‘ goes very well with this law.

This law is further split into two parts — Law of use and Law of disuse.
The law of use means that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened by its occurrence, its exercise or its use. In other words, the use of
any response strengthens it, and makes it more prompt, easy and certain.

Regarding the law of disuse, it is said that when a modifiable connection is not
made between a stimulus and a response over a length of time, the strength of
that connection is decreased.

This means that any act that is not practiced for some time gradually decays.

Anything that is not used exercised or practiced for a certain period tends to be
forgotten or becomes weak in strength, efficiency and promptness.

Educational implications

Exercise occupies an important place in learning.

Teacher must repeat, give sufficient drill in some subjects like mathematics,
drawing, music or vocabulary for fixing material in the minds of the students.

Thorndike later revised this law of exercise and accordingly it is accepted that
practice does bring improvement in learning but it in itself is not sufficient.

Always practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner.

The learner must be motivated to learn.

3. Law of Effect

This is most important of Thorndike‘s laws, which state that when a connection
between stimulus and response is accompanied by satisfying state, its strength is
increased.

On the other hand, when a connection is accompanied by an annoying state of

affairs, its strength is reduced or weakened.

The saying ‗nothing succeeds like success‘ goes very well with this law.

In other words, the responses that produce satisfaction or comfort for the learner
are strengthened and responses that produce annoyance or discomfort for the
learner are weakened.

Thorndike revised this law in 1930 and according to this revision, he stated that
reward strengthened the response but punishment did not always weaken the
response.
Then he placed more emphasis on the reward aspect than on the punishment
aspect of Law of Effect.

Educational Implications.
This law signifies the use of reinforcement or feedback in learning.

This implies that learning trials must be associated with satisfying

consequences.

The teacher can use rewards to strengthen certain responses and punishment to
weaken others.

However, the use of reward is more desirable than the use of punishment in
school learning.

The teacher for motivating the students for learning situations can exploit the
use of reward.

COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES OF
LEARNING
Cognitive psychology is the theoretical perspective that focuses on learning
based on how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and problem solve. The
Cognitive perspective differs from the behaviorist perspective into two distinct
ways. First Cognitive psychology acknowledges the existence of internal mental
stales discharged by behaviorist. Examples of these states are belief, desire
ideas and motivation (non-observable states).second cognitive psychologist
claim memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed,
stored, retrieved and forgotten. Cognitive psychology encompasses perception,
categorization, memory knowledge representation, language and thinking
process.

Gestalt Insight Theory

Cognitive Field or Gestalt theory was formulated by a group of German
Psychologists. The theory emphasizes insightful learning rather than mechanical
conditioning. It is believed that meaningful learning can only take place through
a sequence of problem-solving approach. In this theory you will learn how
learning takes place through the application of logical principles and previous
experience.

The word Gestalt in German literally means “shape” or “figure”. Gestaltists

performed many researches on perception and human learning. They believed
learning is the result from good perception, which enable an individual to form
correct concept in their mind

The views of many theorists were collected by Gestalt to formulate a cognitive

field theory. Notable among them were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and
Wolfgang Kohler. Gestalt in German language means ―organization or fusion‖.
This theory rejected the views that consider the learning process in an isolated
form rather than in a total or holistic form. The theory does not support
associating bits of experiences as postulated in the stimulus-response theories.
This theory is of the opinion that parts are configured or organized to make
complete or meaningful experiences or impressions. The emphasis here is on
the importance of experience, meaning, problem solving and the development
of insights (Burns 1995). The Gestalt therefore placed more credence on
insightful learning rather than trial and error like that of Thorndike or
mechanical conditioning as performed by Ivan Pavlov in his classical
conditioning theory.

Insightful learning is hinged on the fact that animals undergo a series of

problem-solving approach following a sequence of principles or logic and
previous experience before arriving at a solution. In this theory, the cognitive or
mental processes of the animals are regarded as the yardstick in the
development of insightful learning.

To establish this fact, Gestalt Psychologists performed several experiments

using apes as subjects. In one of the experiments, an ape (Sultan) was put in a
cage. This sultan was very intelligent. In the cage

was a stool and banana, hung on the top of the box. Initially, several
unsuccessful attempts were made by the apes to get the banana. Suddenly,
sultan decided to pull out the stool and climbed it to pluck the banana from
where it was hung. This type of learning is called insightful, because it involves
problem-solving approach.
Another experiment was performed with several apes including sultan, put in
the box with a banana and a stick lying outside the cage. Several experimental
apes stretched their hands to pick the banana from outside but were
unsuccessful. The brilliant one among them (sultan) devised a solution by
picking the stick outside first and using it to draw the banana closer until its
hand touched the banana.

The last experiment performed by Kohler on this insightful learning, was an

extension of the second experiment. In this case, the apes were put in the cage;
banana and two sticks (long and short) were lying outside. None of these two
sticks could get to the banana unless by joining them together. The apes in the
box made series of attempts to rake in the banana with the two sticks separately
without succeeding. It was sultan who later manipulated and fixed the two
sticks together before it could finally collect the banana. All these experiments
indicated that learning cannot take place in a segregated way but in a complete
form.

Insightful learning therefore adopts the following strategies in

learning:
(a) identify and define the problem or task;
(b) formulate the hypotheses;

(c) come out with different solutions;

(d) select /implement the viable solution; and

(e) evaluate / appraise the selected solution or revisit the problem.

Classroom Implications of Gestalt Theory

1. This theory has developed the concept that learners have different needs and
concerns at different times, and that they have subjective interpretations in
different contexts (Burns, 1995).

2. The teacher should realize the importance of instructional aids during

teaching–learning activities, hence he/she should make use of teaching aids for
a meaningful learning in the classroom.

3. The teacher should make his/her teaching more participatory to the students.
It is on this basis that the teacher will be able to discover the hidden talents in
his/her students.

4. If the classroom experiences of the students are related, students will be able
to transfer the gained experience into future learning. This will then promote
inter relatedness.

5. The teacher should not neglect the use of motivational strategies in teaching –
learning activities. This reinforcement will stimulate the efforts of the students
in the classroom.

What is Discovery-Based Learning?

Definition: Discovery-Based Learning is a method of Inquiry-Based
Instruction that was introduced by Jerome Bruner. This popular theory
motivates the students to build on past experiences and knowledge, make use of
their intuition, imagination, and creativity, as well as search for new information
to find out facts, correlations, and new truths. Learning does not equally absorb
what was said or read but actively seeks answers and solutions.

His research on children‘s cognitive development proposed three ‗modes of

representation‘:

 Enactive representation (based on action)

  Iconic representation (based on images)
 Symbolic representation (based on language)

Modes of representation are ways humans store and encode knowledge or

information in the memory. Bruner‘s modes are only loosely sequential.

Enactive (0 – 1 years)

This mode involves encoding action-based information for storage in our

memory – e. g. an infant recalls shaking a rattle by developing a ‗muscular
memory‘ of the task.

Infants, and adults, recall tasks via muscular memory. For instance, miming
operating a lawn mower is much quicker and easier than a complex verbal
explanation.

Iconic (1 – 6 years)

This is the ability to store a mental picture ‗in the mind‘s eye‘. When learning a
new topic, it can be helpful to use pictures and diagrams to support verbal
explanations.

Symbolic (7 years and above)

This more-sophisticated mode is the last to develop and is more flexible than
the previous two modes. Mostly via the medium of language, information is
stored using codes and symbols. For example, ‗dog‘ is a symbolic
representation of a certain class of animals.

Principles of Discovery-Based Learning Model

Every teaching method has its characteristics and principles to follow in order
to reach the best possible outcome. Here are the most common principles of the
discovery learning model. Let‘s go on!

Principle #1 Problem Solving

Following the discovery-based learning theory, the instructors guide, encourage

and motivate learners to look for solutions by considering their existing and
newly acquired information and clarifying the background knowledge. In this
way, students are considered to be the driving force behind the learning process,
taking an active role and establishing broader applications for skills through
activities that encourage risks, problem-solving, and investigating.
Principle #2 Learner Management

Trainers allow the participants (learners) to work either on their own or with
other groupmates, and learn at their own pace. Such freedom and flexibility
make learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing of training lessons and
activities, relieve the learners from unnecessary stress, and make them feel their
own learning.

These days there are various LMS (Learning Management System) software
solutions that make the process even easier ad more comfortable. This may be
considered to be one of the essential benefits of distance learning.

Principle #3 Integrating and Connecting

Educational trainers teach and help the learners to combine prior knowledge
with newly acquired material and motivate them to connect to the real world.
Familiar scenarios become the basis of new information, encouraging learners
to extend what they know and invent something new. This approach increases
the creative and analytical thinking of the participants.

Principle #4 Information Analysis and Interpretation

Discovery learning is not content-oriented but process-oriented. It is said that

this is based on the assumption that learning is not an absolute set of facts.
Students, in fact, learn to analyze and interpret the acquired knowledge and
information, rather than memorize the correct answers.

Principle #5 Failure and Feedback

Not only does learning occur when we find the right answers but it also does
occur through failure. In spite of focusing on finding the right end result,
discovery-based learning emphasizes the new things, we discover during the
process. As a result, it is the trainers‘ responsibility to provide feedback as
learning is incomplete without it.

The Discovery Learning Model Techniques

The discovery-based learning educational sessions should be well-designed,
highly experiential, and interactive. As an instructor, you should use various
formats of educational content - stories, games, visual aids (for instance, video
courses), and similar attention-grabbing and eye-catching techniques that will
 build curiosity and interest, and guide the learners in new ways of thinking,
acting, as well as reflecting.

All the techniques and methodologies utilized in discovery-based learning may

differ, but the final goal always stays the same, and it is for the learners to reach
the end result on their own. By exploring and manipulating situations,
struggling with questions and controversies, or by performing experiments,
learners are more likely to remember concepts and newly acquired knowledge.

Advantages of Discovery-Based Learning

 Discovery-based learning offers an active engagement of the student in
the learning process; when taking part, you tend to pay more attention;

 This theory of learning fosters curiosity;

 Discovery-based learning enables the development of lifelong learning

skills;

 Discovery learning tends to personalize the learning experience;

 Discovery-based learning is highly motivational thanks to the feature to

allow individuals the opportunity to experiment and discover something
for themselves;

 Following the discovery-based learning theory, trainers build on learners‘

background knowledge and understanding;

 The discovery-based learning method enables the students to get early

feedback on their knowledge, understanding, skills, and acquired results;

Disadvantages of Discovery-Based Learning

 In many cases, discovery-based learning confuses the students with no kind of
initial framework available;

 Discovery-based learning offers limitations in practice, for instance, when

educational institutions choose to make it the primary way students learn
academic lessons;
 They say discovery learning theory is inefficient as it is too time-consuming for
any kind of academic activities, there is not enough time in a school year for
students to dig up everything on their own;

 Discovery learning requires that the teacher be ready for too many corrections, a
lot of things one discovers for themselves turn out to be wrong (the process of
trial and error);

Gagne’s hierarchy of learning

In 1956, the American educational psychologist Robert M. Gagné proposed a
system of classifying different types of learning in terms of the degree of
complexity of the mental processes involved. He identified eight basic types,
and arranged these in the hierarchy shown in Figure 1. According to Gagné, the
higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build upon the lower levels, requiring
progressively greater amounts of previous learning for their success. The lowest
four orders tend to focus on the more behavioral aspects of learning, while the
highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects.
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in a behavioral
tendency, the result of reinforced practice. Learning, an inferred state of
organism, should be distinguished from performance, an observed state of the
organism, should be distinguished from performance, an observed state of the
organism. Learning events consist of stimuli, learner and responses.

The most complete description of Gagne‘s classes of behavior appears his ‗The
conditions of learning‘. Here he distinguishes eight types of learning, beginning
with the simple forms and ending with the complex. Although he refers to these
classes as learning types, he is primarily interested in the observable behavior
and performance which ware the products of each such class.

1. Signal learning- the simplest form of learning known as classical

conditioning. The learner is conditioned to produce a desired (involuntary)
response as a result of a stimulus that would not normally produce that response
i.e a salivation (condition) at the sound of a bell (stimulus).

2. Stimulus-response learning- this is a voluntary response to learning

that may be used in acquiring verbal skills as well as physical movements . This
type of learning can occur when the instructor praises the learner for deeper
thinking or provides constructive criticism during reflection or debriefing.

3. Chain learning- occurs when the learner is able to connect two or more
previously learned stimulus-response bond into a linked order; more complexed
psychomotor skills are learned, but they tend to occur naturally i.e. learning
how to tie shoestrings or buttoning a shirt.

4. Verbal association- occurs when the learner makes associations using

verbal connections ; it is the key process in language skill development . For
example a student nurse being able to define medical terminology and apply it
to clinical situation.

5. Discrimination learning- is seen when the learner is able to perform

different responses to a series of similar stimuli that may differ in a systematic
way. Discrimination learning is made more difficult when the learner comes
across road blocks or interference that inhibits continual learning . For example
a patient complaining of abdominal pain after abdominal surgery. The student
must learn how to differentiate this pain from that of gas, intrabdominal
bleeding, incisional pain or infection. Interference may present itself when the
student can not see other key factors that may contribute to the pain; therefore
not allowing the student to fully address or manage the patient‘s pain
appropriately.

6. Concept learning- involves the ability to make consistent responses to

different stimuli ; it is the process in which the learner learns how to organize
learning in a systematic structure and foster deeper learning. The student‘s
behavior is controlled by the abstract properties of each stimulus. The student
nurse must realize interventions, or behaviors, appropriate for one patient, or
stimulus, may not be appropriate for the next patient.

7. Rule learning- this involves being able to learn relationships between two
or more concepts and apply them in different situations, new or old; it is the
basis of learning general rules or procedures . This can be seen when the student
can apply advocacy and confidentiality to a patient situation.

8. Problem solving- involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule

or procedure for the purpose of solving one particular problem and other
problems of a similar nature ; this can be accomplished through case studies and
reflection. Nursing students can improve on problem solving through the
nursing process: assessing, formulating a nursing diagnosis, analyzing data
specific to the problem, formulating a plan of action, implementing the plan,
and evaluating the effectiveness of the plan.

Gagne’s learning hierarchy is useful in teaching

Applications in teaching Gagne are learning hierarchy helps the teacher identify
suitable learning types for the learners.
1. It helps the teacher select appropriate teaching technique.
2. It helps the teacher select suitable content or unit for teaching for teaching
3. It helps the teacher decide what lower behaviors or subordinate skills should
be taught before teaching higher learning types.
4. It helps the teacher to break a complex task into component skills and teach
those skills only that the students are lacking.
5. Textbooks can be produced on the basis of the task analysis of learning
objectives.
 Transfer Of Learning
Transfer of learning or transfer of knowledge or transfer refers to learning in
one context and applying it to another i.e., the capacity to apply acquired
knowledge and skills to new situations.

The word transfer is used to describe the effects to past learning upon present
acquisition. In the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how
rapidly we learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and amount
of things we learned previously.

According to simons

There are three kinds of transfer; from prior knowledge to learning, from
learning to new learning, and from learning to application.

TYPES OF TRANSFER
The levels of transfer are often referred to as positive and negative. In addition,
there are both subtle and marked differences in type of transfer.

POSITIVE TRANSFER

Eg the previous experience of learning algebra facilitates learning statistics

NEGATIVE TRANSFER

eg a person for whom schooling was an unpleasant experience may avoid

CLASSROOM situations.

NEUTRAL TRANSFER

eg knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a scooter

LATERAL TRANSFER

when learning in one context is employed at the same level in a new context.

being able to apply the concept of averages in mathematics to find the mean of a
set of data in social studies

VERTICAL TRANSFER
It is said to take place when learning at one level facilitate learning at a higher
level. eg learning music help in composing a song

LOW-ROAD TRANSFER

It supposedly happens spontaneously and automatically, after a task has been

practiced extensively in different environments similar to the expected transfer
context.

HIGH-ROAD TRANSFER

It is most likely to happen when students consciously and deliberately abstract

ideas or principles and mindfully search for connections and situations in which
those principles can be applied.

THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Theory Of Mental Discipline Or Faculty Theory

it tells that education is a matter of training in the mind or disciplining the mind.
These trainings or disciplines are the vigorous mental exercise in the field of
classic, in the field of logic, in the field of grammer,science and
mathematics.This theory assumes that those training can make an individual
effective in all area where a given faculty is employed.

Theory Of Identical Elements

This theory explains that carrying over from one situation to another is roughly
proportional to the degree of resemblance in situation, in other words, ‗more the
similarity,more the transfer.‘

Theory Of Generalisation Of Experience

Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to

which they can be generalised and applied to another situation. Generalisation
consists of perceiving and understanding what is common to a number of
situations. The ability of individuals to generalise knowledge varies with the
degree of their intelligence.
 ROLE OF TEACHER IN ENSURING POSITIVE TRANSFER
OF LEARNING
 Increase Intrinsic Motivation
 Promote for Depth Study
 Provide Positive Opportunity for Reflection and Self-Explanation
 Enhance Social Learning At Work

IMPLICATIONS OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING TO

TEACHING AND LEARNING
 DEPTH OF TEACHING VERSUS SCOPE

the common approach to teaching is an attempt to cover as many topics in the

syllabus as possible in order to prepare students for exams, while sacrificing
students understanding and depth of knowledge in the process.

 PLANNING AND ASSESSMENT

teaching for transfer will also have implications for unit planning and
assessment. Teachers would need to pay more attentions to the selection of
content, and to focus mainly on the more significant and pertinent aspects of the
syllabus

 CREATING A SPIRIT AND CULTURE OF TRANSFER

 HELPING STUDENTS TO MAKE CONNECTIONS
 EMPHASISE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IDEAS
 THE USE OF APPROPRIATE TEACHING STRATEGIES
 TRANSFER OF VALUES AND ATTITUDE
 SCAFFOLDING

students are given tasks which are slightly more challenging than what they can
manage alone. The teacher provides just enough guidance to help the students
use their prior knowledge in accomplishing the task. The assistance or scaffolds
are gradually removed as the student‘s ability and confidence increases.