UNIT 4 PSYCHOLOGY

Meaning of Personality:

The term ‘personality’ has been derived from the Latin term ‘persona’ OF
which means to ‘speak through’. The Latin word denotes the masks worn by
ancient Greece and Rome. Therefore a very common meaning of the term
personality is the role which the person (actor) displays to the public.

According to Floyd L. Ruch, “Personality includes external appearance and

behaviour, inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and the
particular pattern or organisation of measurable traits, both inner and outer.”

“The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique”

(Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

In Psychology, personality is interpreted in different ways by different

theorists. For example Carl Rogers views personality in terms of self, an
organised, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at the heart of all
our experiences. Freud describes the structure of personality as composed of
three elements the id, ego and super ego. In addition the social learning
aspects of personality are also emphasized by some theorists.

Taking all the aspects together, personality represents the sum total of several
attributes which manifest themselves in an individual, the ability of the
individual to organize and integrate all the qualities so as to give meaning to
life, and the uniqueness of the situation which influences behaviour of an
individual.

Determinants of Personality
The determinants of personality can be grouped in five broad categories:

1. Biological Factors

2. Cultural Factors

3. Family Factors

4. Social Factors
 5. Situational Factors

Biological Factors
The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three
heads:
Heredity

Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical

stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and
reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are
considered to be inherent from one’s parents.

Brain

The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain
plays in personality. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the
contribution of the human brain in influencing personality.

Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research
give an indication that a better understanding of human personality and
behaviour might come from the study of the brain.

Physical Features

A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is

biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny,
black or white will influence the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will
affect the self-concept.

Cultural Factors
Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in
which we are raised, early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family,
friends and social groups and other miscellaneous experiences that impact us.

The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression,

competition, cooperation and a host of other human responses.

Family Factors
Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be
taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and
dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably has the most significant
impact on early personality development.

A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home

environment created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence,
is critical to personality development.

Social Factors
There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons,
groups and especially organisations, which greatly influence an individual’s
personality. This is commonly called the socialization process.

Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the

enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or
her, those that are ultimately synthesized and absorbed.

Situational Factors
Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the
environment is quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously
acquired and represent important modifications of behavior.

An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change

in different situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth
different aspects of one’s personality.

Nature of Personality
Personality is the psychological growth and development within the ambit of
change.

Hubert Bonner underlines six propositions to clarify the nature of personality.

These propositions are relevant to decision making by an administrator.

1. Totality of acts

2. Personality and Environment

 3. Personality Depicts consistency

4. Personality is goal-oriented behavior

5. Time Integrating structure

6. Personality Structure

Totality of Acts
In an organisation, human behaviour is the point of culmination which is preceded
by a number of acts. It is the totality of these acts in the form of responded
behaviour which is relevant to both individual and the organisation. The isolated
psychological or physiological aspect of individual in personality is of no use for
administrative decision or action.

Personality and Environment

Personality and environment are two interdependent variables of human behaviour.
Personality gets molded according to the environment, it is also a fact that it is the
environment which stimulates personality to action.

Personality Depicts consistency

Normal personality is dynamic due to the environmental setting around him.
Personality can be flexible to the point of consistency in a different environmental
setting.

Personality is goal-oriented behavior

Every individual seeks to achieve the desired goal through his personality. The
process of goal selection is in itself a dynamic quality of personality which also
forges unity between personality and goal-directed behaviour.

Time Integrating structure

Personality provides a synthesis of the retrospect and the prospect because the
future is as much related to past as the past is to future.

Personality Structure
Personality structure consists of three dimensions – determinants, stages and traits.
 Type Theories:
Type theorists have explained personality on the basis of physique and
temperament. Temperament refers to emotional aspect of the personality like
changes in mood, tensions, excitement, etc. A ‘type’ is simply a class of
individuals said to share a common collection of characteristics.

Type Theories of Personality

One of the earliest Type theory of Personality was proposed in 5th Century B.C
by greek physician Hippocrates. He had proposed a typology of personality
based on fluid or humour. He classified people into four types:

Fluid Temperament Personality

Blod Sanguine Cheerful and active

Phelgm Phlegmatic Apathetic and Sluggish

Black bile Melancholy Sad and brooding

Yellow Bile Chloeric Irritable and excitable

The dominance of any one fluid led to a particular personality temperament.

For example, dominance of blood produced Sanguine temperament (cheerful
and active)

In India also, Charak Samhita, classifies people into the categories of vata,
pitta and kapha on the basis of three humoural elements called tridosha. Each
refers to a type of temperament, called prakriti (basic nature) of a person.

Apart from this, there is also a typology of personality based on the trigunas,
i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas.

Three important ‘Type theories’ of personality are explained here:

CG Jung’s Classification:
CG Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability character as
Introverts and Extraverts.

Introverts are described as people who share characteristics such as shyness,

social withdrawal, and tendency to talk less. Because of these characteristics
these people appear to be self-centered, unable to adjust easily in social
situations. They are not easily suggestible. They are future oriented, very
sensible and rigid in ideas.

Extraverts share a tendency to be outgoing, friendly, talkative, and social in

nature. They prefer social contacts, generous, sportive, and courageous.

They are happy-go-lucky persons and show interest in present reality than
future. They express their feelings openly. Take decisions quickly and act upon
quickly. They are not affected easily by difficulties.

Ambiverts:

There are only few people who are pure introverts or pure extraverts. The
remaining majority of people possess both the qualities of introverts and
extraverts.

Such people are called as Ambiverts. This classification was made by

psychologists who came after Jung.

Ernest Kretschmer’s Classification:

German psychologist Kretschmer has attempted to correlate physique and
character. From his studies on mental patients, he found that certain body
types are associated with particular types of mental disorders. He has classified
personalities into four types:

a. Pyknic type:

These are people who are short and having round body. They will have
personality traits of extraverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a
mental disorder called Manic Depressive Psychosis (MDP).
b. Asthenic type:

These people will have a slender or slim body. They will have the personality
traits of introverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a serious
mental disorder called Schizophrenia.

c. Athletic type:

These people will have strong body. They are more energetic and aggressive.
They will be strong enough, determined, adventurous and balanced. They are
comparable with ambiverts. They are more prone to suffer from MDP.

d. Dysplastic type:

These people will have unproportionate body and do not belong to any of the
three types mentioned above. This disproportion is due to hormonal
imbalancement. Their behaviour and personality are also imbalanced.

William Sheldon’s Classification:

Sheldon has proposed a theory of personality correlating temperament and
body type. He has divided people into three types:

a. Endomorph:

These people will have soft, fat and round body, having predominance of
abdominal region. They are sociable and relaxed (can be compared to pyknic
type).

b. Ectomorph:

These are the people who are tall, thin and flat chested, having the skin, bones
and neural structure predominantly. They are shy, reserved and self-conscious
(can be compared with asthenic type).

c. Mesomorph:

These people are well built with heavy and strong muscles appear
predominantly. They are physically active, noisy, adventurous by nature (can
be compared to athletic type).
 What Is a Trait?
A trait is a personality characteristic that has met three criteria: it must be
consistent, stable, and vary from person to person. Based on this definition, a
trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes
individuals to behave in certain ways.

The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the
study of personality. Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are
composed of broad dispositions.

Unlike many other theories of personality, such

as psychoanalytic or humanistic theories, the trait approach to personality is
focused on differences between individuals. The combination and interaction
of various traits form a personality that is unique to each person. Trait theory is
focused on identifying and measuring these individual personality
characteristics.

Allport’s Trait Theory

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport found that one English-language
dictionary contained more than 4,000 words describing different personality
traits. He categorized these traits into three levels:

 Cardinal traits: Allport suggested that cardinal traits are rare and
dominate, usually developing later in life. They tend to define a person
to such an extent that their names become synonymous with their
personality. Examples of this include the following descriptive terms:
Machiavellian, narcissistic, Don Juan, and Christ-like.

 Central traits: These general characteristics form basic personality

foundations. While central traits are not as dominating as cardinal traits,
they describe the major characteristics you might use to describe
another person. Terms such as "intelligent," "honest," "shy," and
"anxious" are considered central traits.

 Secondary traits: Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or

preferences. They often appear only in certain situations or under
 specific circumstances. Some examples include public speaking anxiety
or impatience while waiting in line.

Raymond Cattell’s Trait Theory

Unlike Eysenck, Cattell based his theory on various sources rather than just self
reporting. Cattell’s trait theory has been built around the use of factor analysis,
a mathematical technique devised by Charles Spearman. With the use of factor
analysis, Cattell reviewed and categorized a large number of traits, seeking the
most basic and useful ones, and developed a scheme for classifying them.

This brought down the Allport’s initial list of over 4000 words to 171 different
traits. He further identified the closely related terms and the final list was
prepared of 16 basic source traits. According to him, these are the base of all
human personality.

Cattell discovered that some traits are surface traits, easily visible to any
observer, and others are source traits, the underlying structures responsible
for the surface traits.

 Surface Traits – clusters of related behaviors observed in a given

situation.
 Source Traits – Sixteen basic dimensions of personality which are the
roots of all behavior.
Sixteen factors of Personality, all bipolar.

reserved outgoing
less intelligent more intelligent
affected by feelings emotionally stable
submissive dominant
serious happy-go-lucky
expedient conscientious
timid venturesome
tough-minded sensitive
trusting suspicious
practical imaginative
forthright shrewd
self-assured apprehensive
conservative experimenting
group dependent self-sufficient
uncontrolled controlled
relaxed tense

Five-Factor Model of Personality

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of considerable
research. This has led some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too
many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory
often referred to as the "Big Five" theory emerged.

This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to
form human personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact
labels for each dimension, the following are described most commonly:

 Agreeableness: level of cooperation and caring for others

 Conscientiousness: level of thoughtfulness and structure

 Extraversion: level of socialness and emotional expressiveness

 Neuroticism: level of mood stability and emotional resilience

 Openness: level of adventure and creativity

Critical Evaluation of Trait Approach to Personality

No theory is full proof, and everything has a loophole. While the trait theories
of personality does cover some grounds that other personality theories lack,
such as Psychoanalytic Theory of Freud, there are weaknesses to this
approach.

1. Trait theory approach fails to predict individual’s behavior. Even though

an individual might score high on a particular trait, he/she might
differently.
2. Another major weakness of these theories is their inability to explain the
emergence of differences between individual personalities.
 Hans Eysenck’S Type-cum-Trait Theory
Eysenck is the most famous British psychologist. He considered that there are
two major dimensions of personality which account for the many different
types of person we encounter. They are:

 Extroversion

 Introversion

He proposed a model of personality based on these two universal traits, and

the third dimension later added by the psychologist himself.

 Introversion/extraversion: Introversion involves directing attention to

inner experiences, while extroversion relates to focusing attention
outward, onto other people and the environment. A person high in
introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in
extroversion might be sociable and outgoing.

 Neuroticism/emotional stability: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait

theory is related to moodiness versus even-temperateness. Neuroticism
refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while
stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

 Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental

illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to
his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have
difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-
empathetic, and manipulative.

Criticisms of Eysenck’s Theory

 The model was initially developed from a very small sample, which has
led to oversimplification.

 The testing is entirely based on self-reports, and therefore, it is likely to

be heavily influenced by the respondent’s mood at the time.
What is the difference between Trait Theory and Type Theory?

Definitions of Trait Theory and Type Theory:

Trait Theory: Trait theory emphasizes the significance of human traits in the
study of human personality.

Type Theory: Type theory emphasizes the significance of a distinct type of

personality.

Focus:

Trait Theory: Trait theory focuses on human traits.

Type Theory: Type theory focuses on different types of personality.

Popularity:

Trait Theory: Over the years, psychologists favor trait theory over type theory.

Type Theory: Type theory is now considered as an oversimplification of human

personality.

Diversity in characteristics:

Trait Theory: Trait theory is open to the diversity of characteristics.

Type Theory: Type theory ignores the diversity and tries to categorize under a
single label.

Assessment of personality
Observation
Since psychological assessment is a combination of empirical and non-
empirical measures to quantify behavior, it is important for a clinician or
practitioner to include behavioral observations in the psychological report.
 Behavioral observation is one of the informal ways in which the personality of
a person is described and evaluated. For instance, you are studying pre-school
children’s interaction skills. The setting is like a classroom full of toys, writing
materials, crayons, clays and other things which children can manipulate and
share with one another.

After some time, you might see that some children prefer to simply sit in a
corner, some like to move from one toy to another, some like to share things
with other children, and others like to keep toys to themselves. In this
particular example, the role of the observer is very essential because it is very
important to take note of the children’s different behaviours during this group
activity.

These observations will be more meaningful if they are used to relate

behaviours with the results of standardized tests which will also be
administered to this group of children. It is also important to take note that
behavioural observations may not always coincide with what standardized
tests predict. More so, standardization measures should be maintained while
doing a behavioral assessment or observation.

It is important to keep instructions, procedures and room setting as natural as

possible. Lastly, to ensure accuracy of such behavioral observations, there
should be 3 or more observers to avoid bias.

Types of observation
 Participant observation: observer become the part of the group which he wants to
observe.
 Non- Participant observation: without actual participation
 Controlled observation: observation made under the controlled conditions.
 Uncontrolled observation: observation is done in natural settings as they occur
spontaneously.
Behavioural Tests or Situational Tests:
The most direct way to predict an individual’s behaviour in a natural situation
is to place him in a test situation that closely resembles a natural one. In
behavioural tests the examiner actually observes the person’s behaviour in
atypical situation subject is unaware that he is being watched the subject
behaves as he normally does; for example, to test the honesty of an individual
some situations can be created and his reactions can be evaluated in terms of
honesty or dishonesty.

Some other tests of this kind are Brook test, putting real or imaginary fine,
saving somebody from welfare. Brook test is designed to test the group
participating in problem- solving and reveals nature leaders.

Questionnaire:
It refers to a drive for securing answers to questions by using a form which
respondent fills in. In collecting information from the subject himself about his
personality characteristics, a form consists of a series of printed or written
questions is used and the subject responds to these questions in the space
provided in columns of Yes, No or Cannot say, e.g.

1. Do you enjoy being alone? Yes, No, cannot say.

2. Do you enjoy seeing others succeed? Yes, No, Cannot say.

Projective Methods:
These techniques enable a subject to project his internal feelings, attitudes,
needs, values or wishes to an external object. In the projective test situation,
the individual responds freely to relatively unstructured yet standard situation
to which he is asked to respond.

Some of the major projective techniques are:

(a) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

The TAT was developed by Morgan and Murray in 1935. It requires the subject
to look at the picture and to interpret it by telling a story. He is invited to say
what led up to the scene in the picture. Why such events occurred, and what
the consequences will be?

(b) Children’s Apperception Test (CAT):

It was developed by Leopold Bellak. The test consists of ten pictures meant for
children of the age group 3 to 10. Pictures are shown one after another and
reactions (responses) are noted and interpreted.
(c) Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Test:

This test was developed by Hermann Rorschach in 1921. It uses ten irregular-
ink-blots standing against a white background. Each inkblot is shown in a fixed
number of ways and the testee is asked to report what he sees.

(d) Projective Questionnaires:

In this technique the subject is given a series of questions to answer in his own
way. Through such questionnaires it is possible to obtain information regarding
the subject’s emotional life, his values, his attitudes and sentiments.

(e) Sentence Completion Test:

These tests present a series of incomplete sentences to be completed by the

testee in one or more words.

Some sample items are given below:

I am worried over………….

I feel proud when………….

My hope is…………….

I am afraid of………………

(f) Psychodrama:

It requires the subject to play spontaneously a role assigned to him in a specific

situation. Psychodrama deals with interpersonal relationships and
maladjustment problem within the individual.

(g) Drawing, Painting and Sculpture:

Artistic productions can also be used as projective techniques.

Psycho-Analytic Methods or Personality test

(a) Word Association Test:

In such test the subject is presented a list of words, one at a time and is asked
to give the first word that comes to his mind. The responses given by the
subject and the time taken by him are recorded by the tester for
interpretation.

(b) Free Association Test:

In this test the subject is allowed to talk for hours together and from it certain
traits and behavioural problems are noted.

(c) Dream Analysis:

In this technique the dream of the subject is analysed and unconscious

behaviour is interpreted. Since ‘Dream is the royal road to unconscious’, the
dream analysis is an effective psychoanalytic method to locate unconscious
behaviour of the individual.

Mental hygiene and Health

Mental health includes our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It
affects how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle
stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is important at every
stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.
Over the course of your life, if you experience mental health problems, your
thinking, mood, and behavior could be affected. Many factors contribute to
mental health problems, including:

 Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry

 Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse
 Family history of mental health problems

mental hygiene, Science of maintaining mental health and preventing

disorders to help people function at their full mental potential. It includes
all measures taken to promote and preserve mental health: rehabilitation of
the mentally disturbed, prevention of mental illness, and aid in coping in a
stressful world.

1. Kolesnik:
“Menial hygiene is a set of conditions which enables a person to live at peace
with himself and others”.

4. Crow & Crow:

“Mental Hygiene is a science that deals with human welfare and pervades all
fields of human relationship”.

5. Drever:

“Mental Hygiene means investigation of the laws of mental health and the
taking or advocacy of measures for its preservation”.

The three purposes of mental hygiene are:

(a) Prevented Function : The main function of mental hygiene is the
prevention of mental illness, personality disorders and the problems of
adjustment. Mental hygiene helps us to understand the causes of mental
illness, personality disorders and the problems of adjustments of the human
child.

(b) Curativs function : Curative function of mental hygiene emphasises on the

treatment techniques. Mental hygiene not only helps to know the problems of
mental illness, problem of personality disorder and the adjustment problem of
the human individual. It also helps to know the techniques of treatment to get
relief from the problems.

(c) Preservative Function : Preservation of mental health has a special

importance of individuals and society as well. Without sound mental health the
prosperity of individual and social life both are not possible. The preservative
function of mental hygiene specially helps us to know the importance of
mental health and the measures, techniques, procedures that are to be
followed for its preservation. This function is especially concerned with the
welfare of human life and society as well.

Of these three approaches, preventive, preservative and curative, the most

significant and modern approach is the preventive approach. This approach is
very much influenced by principles of public health. According to Kaplan and
Baron, this approach ” is based on the principle that the best way to insure
well-adjusted individuals is to surround them with environmental influences
which will enable each person to develop his full potentialities, to attain
emotional stability, and to achieve personal and social adequacy”. Preventive
mental hygiene begins in the home, and its principles are important even in
the school and other areas.

Characteristics of Mental Health

Mental health is more than just the absence of mental illness. It includes how
you feel about yourself and how you adjust to life events. However, the
National Mental Health Association cites 10 characteristics of people who are
mentally healthy.

1. They feel good about themselves.

2. They do not become overwhelmed by emotions, such as fear, anger,

love, jealousy, guilt, or anxiety.

3. They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships.

4. They feel comfortable with other people.

5. They can laugh at themselves and with others.

6. They have respect for themselves and for others even if there are
differences.

7. They are able to accept life’s disappointments.

8. They can meet life’s demands and handle their problems when they
arise.

9. They make their own decisions.

10.They shape their environment whenever possible and adjust to it when

necessary.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud developed the idea of defense mechanisms
as a way to understand human behavior. Freud proposed that people use
defense mechanisms unconsciously, as a way to avoid uncomfortable feelings
and emotions.

Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used

to protect a person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or
feelings. According to Freudian theory, defense mechanismss involve a
distortion of relaity in wome way so that we are better able to cope with a
situation.

Why do we need Ego defenses?

We use defense mechanisms to protect ourselves from feelings of anxiety or
guilt, which arise because we feel threatened, or because our id or
superego becomes too demanding.

Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level and help ward off

unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the
individual.

Ego-defense mechanisms are natural and normal. When they get out of
proportion (i.e., used with frequency), neuroses develop, such as anxiety
states, phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.
How to Control your Reactive & Defensive Behaviour
1. Meditation
2. The Stepping Stone

The “mature” defence mechanisms such as sublimation and

intellectualization, seem more ideal than others. Meditation will help us
maintain consciousness during stressful times, but sometimes we slip!
We’re human. I would recommend channeling these defence mechanisms
as a stepping stone to finding inner-acceptance.

3. Understand What is Happening

Since mindfulness is a practice to develop over time, I recommend learning

how to cope better with negative thoughts and feelings. Although
sublimation and intellectualization are mature defence mechanisms, they
still involve the avoidance of emotions. Without prioritizing the acceptance
of their emotions, these people may develop a personality lacking with
empathy. Understand what is making you anxious, then accept it, and
change it. What’s the point in trying to be aware of a stressful situation if
you can’t deal with the anxiety that comes from it? You will probably slip
right back into your old defence mechanism (or a worse one) and say,
“screw it!” to that meditation stuff.

4. Journaling and Finding Motivation

To be consistent, find a motivating reason to not allow the reactive and

defensive behaviour to begin in the first place. By setting a personal
standard to practice mindfulness, you reduce suffering in your life and for
the people around you. Maybe, it’s for one of these reasonings

 Love
 Significance
 Personal Growth
 Success and Contribution
 Mental Stability
 Authenticity & Connection