C. Reading 1- Fill in the blanks with the words / expressions in the box below.

a) A ……………….is a virtual or mechanical artificial agent. In practice, it is usually an electro-mechanical

system which, by its appearance or movements, conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its
own. There is general agreement among experts and the public that robots tend to do some or all of
the following: move around, operate a mechanical limb, sense and manipulate their environment.

b) ………………… is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms. It
uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and
characteristics of genes directly. Some examples are in improving crop technology, the manufacture
of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria…

c) ……………… is a major branch of philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life. It is
significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong. It is the compound
word with "bios" which represent life or something concerning life with "ethikos" which represent
ethics or mores. Both words are traced from Greece.

d) …………………….., which is sometimes shortened to "Nanotech", refers to a field whose theme is the
control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Manufactured products are made from atoms.
The properties of those products depend on how those atoms are arranged. If we rearrange the
atoms in coal we can make diamond. If we rearrange the atoms in sand (and add a few other trace
elements) we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the atoms in dirt, water and air we can
make potatoes.

e) ………………….. is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in
biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the
relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, philosophy, and theology.

f) ……………………..is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent
computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human
intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.

g) Deoxyribonucleic acid ……………..is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of
………………….. molecules is the long-term storage of information.

Genetic engineering – robot – Ethics – Bioethics – Nanotechnology - DNA – artificial intelligence No doubt, robots are

regarded as wonderful inventions which have impacted all aspects of our life. However, these artificially-intelligent
creatures are a blessing and a curse.

On the one hand, robots are programmed in a way that can draw a lot of benefits. In our homes, they have made life
increasingly easy and effortless. Household chores such as vacuuming, washing and cleaning are roughly eliminated.
Besides, robots are beneficial for the elderly and people with special needs. They are also capable of performing a
wide range of activities including health care, security, education, cooking and entertainment. In the workplace, robots
are being used almost in all fields duch as medicine, astronomy, the army and manufacturing. Relying on these smart
creatures, the work is done within a blink of an eye to which humans take hours to complete. Besides, they can
perform tasks which seem difficult or dangerous. Last but not least, they can work at a constant speed and increase
production.

On the other hand, there are many disadvantages linked to the utilization of robotics. The entire dependence on
robots at home makes people lazy and inactive. As a result, this may give rise to a consumerist and materialistic
society which overlooks the noble human values and ethics. Besides, some industries prefer robots to humans. Hence,
the unemployment rate will increase and people are made redundant when they lose their jobs.

To sum up, it is our duty to use robots with some reasonable limits. However, they should be our slaves and not our
masters. Losing control on them could mean the end of civilization.

In this method, recombinant DNA technology was used to realize data storage, and the sticking model
was used to encode information.

3. Recombinant DNA techniques developed for cloning genes.

Before recombinant DNA technology enabled pharmaceutical companies to manufacture human insulin

in the 1980s, pig and cow insulin were routinely given to diabetic patients.

The first step is the extraction of DNA from the organism known to have the trait
of interest. The second step is gene cloning, which will isolate the gene of interest
from the entire extracted DNA, followed by mass-production of the cloned gene
in a host cell. Once it is cloned, the gene of interest is designed and packaged so
that it can be controlled and properly expressed once inside the host plant. The
modified gene will then be mass-produced in a host cell in order to make
thousands of copies. When the gene package is ready, it can then be introduced
into the cells of the plant being modified through a process called
transformation.  The most common methods used to introduce the gene
package into plant cells include biolistic transformation (using a gene gun)
or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Once the inserted gene is stable,
inherited, and expressed in subsequent generations, then the plant is considered
a transgenic. Backcross breeding is the final step in the genetic engineering
process, where the transgenic crop is crossed with a variety that possesses
important agronomic traits, and selected in order to obtain high quality plants
that express the inserted gene in a desired manner.

Developing plant varieties expressing good agronomic characteristics is the ultimate goal of plant
breeders. With conventional plant breeding, however, there is little or no guarantee of obtaining any
particular gene combination from the millions of crosses generated. Undesirable genes can be
transferred along with desirable genes; or, while one desirable gene is gained, another is lost because
the genes of both parents are mixed together and re-assorted more or less randomly in the offspring.
These problems limit the improvements that plant breeders can achieve.

genetic engineering allows the direct transfer of one or just a few genes of
interest, between either closely or distantly related organisms to obtain the
desired agronomic trait (Figure 1). Not all genetic engineering techniques involve
inserting DNA from other organisms. Plants may also be modified by removing
or switching off their own particular genes.

Figure 1. Comparing conventional breeding and genetic engineering.

Source: Agricultural Biotechnology (A Lot More than Just GM
Crops). http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/agricultural_biotechnology/download/

Conventional Breeding Genetic Engineering

  Limited to exchanges between
the same or very closely
related species
 Little or no guarantee of any
particular gene combination
from the million of crosses
generated
 Undesirable genes can be
transferred along with
desirable genes
 Takes a long time to achieve
desired results
 Allows the direct transfer of
one or just a few genes,
between either closely or
distantly related organisms
 Crop improvement can be
achieved in a shorter time
compared to conventional
breeding
 Allows plants to be modified
by removing or switching off
particular genes

here are five major steps in the development of a genetically engineered crop.

The first step is the extraction of DNA from the organism known to have the trait
of interest. The second step is gene cloning, which will isolate the gene of interest
from the entire extracted DNA, followed by mass-production of the cloned gene
in a host cell. Once it is cloned, the gene of interest is designed and packaged so
that it can be controlled and properly expressed once inside the host plant. The
modified gene will then be mass-produced in a host cell in order to make
thousands of copies. When the gene package is ready, it can then be introduced
into the cells of the plant being modified through a process called
transformation.  The most common methods used to introduce the gene
package into plant cells include biolistic transformation (using a gene gun)
or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Once the inserted gene is stable,
inherited, and expressed in subsequent generations, then the plant is considered
a transgenic. Backcross breeding is the final step in the genetic engineering
process, where the transgenic crop is crossed with a variety that possesses
important agronomic traits, and selected in order to obtain high quality plants
that express the inserted gene in a desired manner.

ADVANTAGES OF THE NEW TECHNIQUE

he technology can be utilized in a number of ways, for example to engineer resistance to abiotic stresses, such as
drought, extreme temperature or salinity, and biotic stresses, such as insects and pathogens, that would normally
prove detrimental to plant growth or survival. The technology can also be used to improve the nutritional content of
the plant, an application that could be of particular use in the developing world. New-generation GM crops are now
also being developed for the production of recombinant medicines and industrial products, such as monoclonal
antibodies, vaccines, plastics and biofuels.

The UN Food and Agricultural Organization notes that rice, genetically modified to produce
high levels of Vitamin A, have helped to reduce global vitamin deficiencies.

Genetically modified foods can have a longer shelf life. 

- it is possible to produce certain proteins and vaccines, along with other pharmaceutical
goods, thanks to the use of genetic modifications. 

- Colors can be changed or improved with genetically modified foods so they become more
pleasing to eat

- Brighter foods are associated with better nutrition and improved flavors.

- Because GMO crops have a prolonged shelf life, it is easier to transport them greater
distances.

- Herbicides and pesticides are used less often. 

- when crops are modified to include antibiotics and other items that kill germs and pests, it
reduces the effectiveness of an antibiotic or other medication when it is needed in the
traditional sense. 

-  Genes go into different plant species. 

Crops share fields with other plants, including weeds. Genetic migrations are known to
occur. 

- crops tolerant to commercial pesticides greatly increased the risk of cancer development in
rats

-crop yields become more consistent a nd productive, allowing more people to be fed.

This may increase the chances of an allergic reaction occurring. Since 1999, the rates of
food allergies in children has increased from 3.4% to 5.1%.
Genetic modifications do more than add pest resistance or weather resistance to GMO
crops. The nutritional content of the crops can be altered as well, providing a denser
nutritional profile than what previous generations were able to enjoy

Writing : The advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified foods can spark a
bitter debate. There is an advantage in providing the world with better food access, but more
food should not come at the expense of personal health

Of course, genetic engineering isn’t entirely positive. There is an upside to the ability to genetically
alter humans and animals, but only in ideal situations.

Our world isn’t perfect, and scientists make mistakes all the time. We can’t assume that genetic engineering
will be available to the entirety of the human population, which is a flaw in itself.

The negatives of genetic engineering seem to outweigh the positives, especially since there is so much room
for error. We don’t know what we’re tampering with, which opens the door to a host of potential problems.

The Ethical Dilemma

There are a couple of ethical problems with genetic engineering that we need to consider as a society. Those
who subscribe to religion will see genetic engineering as blasphemy, for instance. We’d be “playing God,” in
a sense. Anyone who believes in creation will be expressly against genetic engineering – especially in human
children.

Those who are on the opposite side of the spectrum from religious people probably won’t love genetic
engineering either. Genetically engineered food might work, but changing the genes of people will add to
the overpopulation problem we’re currently experiencing.

Diseases are one of the most effective forms of population control. We don’t have the heart to eliminate
other humans in the name of population control, so disease does it for us. If we eliminate diseases, humans
will have virtually no threat left on this planet.

Living longer lives might be ideal, but it isn’t practical. If we extend the prime of our lives, we’re opening the
door to having more children. Since all children would be in perfect health, we’ll see a population increase
that could have devastating consequences.

Limiting Diversity

If genetic engineering becomes a reality, it will likely only be available to the richest members of society.
They’ll be able to extend their lives, limit diseases, and make sure their children are always healthy when
they’re born

When this happens, natural selection is completely obsolete. Instead, the wealthiest in society will thrive
while the poor will die-out. Eventually, genetic diversity will completely disappear as genetically engineered
children all express the most desirable characteristics
This problem also arises in nature if we decide to engineer plants and animals genetically. These organisms
might start as food, but could introduce themselves to the wild and take over. They’ll decimate natural
species, and eventually be the only thing left.

The Possibility of Mistakes

One of the biggest hurdles in genetic engineering is the possibility of errors or genetic defects, especially in
humans. Scientists have a general understanding of what creates a functioning human, but they don’t yet
have all the pieces to the puzzle.

When it comes down to changing humans at a cellular level, scientists don’t yet have the understanding of
how small changes can affect the development of a growing baby. Changing genes could result in more
damaging birth defects or even miscarriages.

Furthermore, tampering with diseases could end up creating a super-disease that is even harder to combat.
There are too many variables in the human body for genetic engineering to work to the fullest potential.
Even if it could, people will probably be too nervous to trust scientists tampering with the cells of their
future children.

The Logical Extreme

Science still isn’t at a point where they can alter the genes of humans to prevent all diseases in unborn
children, but it might be there soon. When that time comes, some might take genetic engineering to its
logical extreme.

Our priority will be to create healthy children. Once we perfect this process, though, where to, we go? The
next logical step is the ability to pick certain traits that our children will have. We might be able to select
whether we have a boy or girl. Then, we can decide what eye color and hair color they have.

Pretty soon, we’re selecting every trait that our child has before they leave the womb. Nature will be virtually
out of the question at this point, and people with enough money will design their babies from scratch.

Is Genetic Engineering Good or Bad?

Since the pros and cons of genetic engineering are compelling, it’s worth it to explore the possibility further.
We still haven’t reached a place where scientists fully understand the opportunities genetic engineering
presents, so they still have years of research on their hands.

In the end, though, no system of genetically altering humans, animals, or plants will be perfect. There is a
massive potential for errors, and we likely won’t have equal opportunities if and when scientists ever crack
the case.
 Although the positives of genetic engineering are convincing, the negatives can be terrifying. If we ever get
to the point where we can genetically alter humans, we need to consider the moral, ethical, and practical
application of technology before going any further.

performing complex tasks such as controlling the flight of an airplane, through a broad range of machine
learning algorithms, to the embodied digital technologies of robotics. Generally speaking, the distinctive
characteristic of AI systems is that they feature complex cognitive tasks, that is, they exhibit an advanced
processing of inputs that can be compared to human understanding of images or voice. The surprising
classification and prediction performances of learning algorithms then suggest the idea that the machine
really learned and possibly understood something, while it actually just optimized a (huge) number of
parameters searching into a given (rich) set of solutions. Moreover, differently from other complex
software systems, but similarly to human understanding, AI’s data processing is able to flexibly adapt, at
some extent, to environmental changes, so that its behaviour can be tailored to the user or agent
interacting with the machine. On the other hand, the term Artificial Intelligence has now moved beyond
computer science and digital technologies to enter many other fields, like economy, politics, law,
philosophy, social sciences, neuroscience, psychology, education, and it is a recurring theme also in mass
media and in the public discourse. In each of these domains the term is enriched with a lot of specific
connotations which often remain implicit, even if sometimes the implications of such hidden meanings or
nuances can become very explicit, resulting for instance in an official regulation or in very focused public
and private investments1 . In such a context, a fundamental role can be played by cross-disciplinary
research, which is mainly based on human dialog. First, since AI-based tools and services will have an
impact on many aspects of human life, their investigation and development cannot be committed only to
scientists and engineers; experts of social, cognitive, ethical and legal issues should be involved since the
early stages of the design level and not just in a post hoc assessment. Secondly, the difficult process of
establishing a cross-disciplinary dialogue based on a common language usually uncovers implicit
assumptions and gives new insights about a hypothesis or a definition. Indeed, nuances and hidden
connotations are naturally attached to terms and concepts that are routinely used in specific research
communities, forming a sort of jargon. Such an implicit knowledge comes to light when talking with people
with a 1 Powles 2017; Harwell 2018; European Parliament 2017; UNHR 2018 Journal of Ethics and Legal
Technologies – Volume 1(1) – May 2019 46 different background and trying to transfer a term from a jargon
to another. In Section 2 we will discuss this issue, presenting a number of problematic examples that
illustrate how a cross-disciplinary dialogue not only may advance the general knowledge, but also produces
deeper insights within each single discipline. Another kind of human dialogue that is worth enhancing is the
one between science and technology, which are particularly tangled in the context of AI. We will discuss it
in Section 3, observing that such a dialogue brings in the relationship between theory, knowledge and
applications, in terms of both feasibility and impact on the society. Therefore, the importance of an ethical
framework guiding both scientific and technological developments is remarked. Finally, Section 4 broadens
the dialogue beyond experts, concentrating on the mutual benefits coming from a dialogue between the
research community and the society. The observation that modern digital systems are actually socio-
technical systems entails researchers’ social and ethical responsibilities and at the same time calls for an
educated social conversation that could effectively prompt and orient the priorities of research
investigations and practical applications. 2. The Cross-Disciplinary dialogue A main distinction between
academic disciplines is between scientific disciplines and humanities. Besides the topics of interest, they
differ in their research methodology: while the scientific method is grounded in a manipulative
experimental method and a rigorous formalization base