Renewable Energy Engineering: Solar, Wind and

Biomass Energy Systems

Teaching Assistants
Mr. Mrinal Bhowmik
Ms. Makkitaya Swarna Nagraj
Research Scholars
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039, India
Email: mrinalbhowmik@iitg.ac.in &
swarn176107002@iitg.ac.in
Dr. R. Anandalakshmi
Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati -781039, India
Email: anandalakshmi@iitg.ac.in
 Lecture 1: Solar Energy: An Overview of
Thermal Applications
 Basic Concepts of Energy

 Types of Energy

 Renewable and Non-renewable Energies

 Energy Alternatives and Current Energy Scenario

 Sun and Earth Relationship

 Formation of the Atmosphere

 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

 Air Mass

 Instruments for the Measurement of Solar Radiation and Sunshine

2
 Lecture 2: Solar Radiation

Solar angles

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

Sun path diagrams

Solar Radiation on horizontal and tilted surfaces

3
 Lecture 4: Non-concentrating Solar Collectors

 Solar Thermal Collectors

 Flat Plate Collectors

 Theory of Flat Plate Collectors

 Thermal Analysis

 Absorber Coatings

 Solar Air Heaters and Evacuated Tube Collectors

 Solar Cooker

 Solar Stills

 Solar Cooling and Refrigeration

4
 Solar Thermal Collectors
 Solar collectors transform solar radiation into thermal energy and transfer that thermal energy to a medium (water,
phase change liquids, air).
 Generated heat can be used for heating water, to heating or cooling systems, for heating swimming pools etc.
 Solar cooling technologies and solar power plants demand high temperatures and solar collectors are capable of
producing them.

Based on nature of solar

radiation falling on the
Solar Thermal Collectors
absorber

5
 Solar Thermal Collectors

 Concentrating type
 Higher temperature range achieved
 Only beam radiation is used

 Non-Concentrating type
 Low temperature range achieved
 Both beam & diffused radiations are used

 In non-concentrating collectors, the aperture area (i.e., the area that receives the solar radiation) is roughly

same as that of the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation).

 Concentrating collectors have a much larger aperture than the absorber area.

 Non-concentrating collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space heating,

while concentrating collectors in concentrated solar power plants generate electricity by heating a heat-

transfer fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator. 6

 Flat Plate Collector
 The absorber plate is usually made of copper and coated to
increase the absorption of solar radiation. It may be flat, corrugated
Fluid passage
or grooved with tubes, fins or passages attached to it. Absorber plate
Beam
Diffuse
 The cover glass or glasses are used to reduce convection and re- radiation
radiation
Transparent
cover
radiation losses from the absorber.
Thermal
 Insulation is used on the back and side edges of the absorber plate insulation
to reduce conduction heat losses.

 The housing holds the absorber with insulation on the back and
Casing
side edges, and cover plates and protects them from dust, moisture
etc.
Fig. : Flat Plate Collector
 Tubes, fins or passages for conducting or directing the heat transfer
fluid from the inlet to the outlet. The working fluid (water, air etc.)
is circulated through the absorber plate and carry the solar energy
to its point of use. 7
 Flat Plate Collector
 When no optical concentration is done, the device in which a) Absorption Glazing
the collection is achieved is known as Flat Plate Collector. plate
Tfi Tfo
Air gap

 The surface may be a combination of flat, grooved or of Water in Water out

other shapes as the absorbing surface is attached with heat
Insulation
removal device like tubes or channels.
Cut section of metallic
tubes
 Converts solar radiation as possible into heat at the highest b) Cover plates of
Blackened
attainable temperature (40oC to 100oC) with the lowest absorber plates
glasses
possible investment in material and labour. Liquid
pipes
Liquid
 A dark surface when exposed to solar radiation, radiation is inlet
absorbed. A heat exchanger which transfer the radiant Liquid
outlet
energy of the incident sunlight to the sensible heat of a
working fluid-liquid or air - Useful Heat Gain
Side casing
(insulated)
Back insulation
 Water heating, space heating & cooling and low 8
temperature cycles for power generation Fig: (a) Cross sectional view of flat plate collector
(b) Components of Flat plate collector
 Flat Plate Collector
 If a metal sheet is exposed to solar radiation, the temperature will rise until the rate at which
energy is received is equal to the rate at which heat is lost from the plate

 If the back of the plate is protected by a heat insulting material, and the exposed surface of
the plate is painted black and is coved by one or two glass sheets, then the temperature will
be much higher than that for the simple exposed sheet.

 This plate may be covered into a heat collector by adding a fluid circulating system, either
by making it hollow or by soldering metal pipes to the surface, and transferring the heated
fluid to a tank for storage.

 No useful heat can be extracted at the stagnation temperature (collection efficiency is zero)

 When the flow of liquid is so flat (temperature rise is very small, losses are small and
collection efficiency is 100 percent), no useful heat can be extracted.
9
 Flat Plate Collector – Tilt Angle

 Flat-plate collectors are installed facing the equator

 South oriented in the Northern hemisphere
 North oriented in the Southern hemisphere

 The optimal tilt of the collector plate is close to the latitude of the location (+/- 15o)

 Year-round hot water application, the optimum angle is Latitude + 5o

 Solar cooling: optimum installation angle is Latitude - 10o (the solar beam is
perpendicular to the collector during summertime).

 Solar heating: optimum installation angle is Latitude + 10o.

10
 Flat Plate Collector – Fluids
Water

 Relatively high volumetric heat capacity

 Incompressible

 It has a high mass density (which allows using small tubes and pipes for transport)

 Disadvantage: It freezes during winter, which can damage the collector or piping system.

 Drain the collector at low solar inputs (below a critical insolation threshold)

 Drain down sensors may help to monitor the system and ensure complete draining

 Possible air pockets may block water flow and decrease system efficiency

 Antifreeze mixtures (ethylene glycol or propylene glycol)

 Nominal antifreeze service is around 5 years after which it needs to be replaced

11
 Flat Plate Collector – Fluids
Air

 Space heating or crop drying applications

 A fan is required to facilitate air flow in the system and efficient heat transport

 Certain designs can provide passive (no fan) movement of air due to thermal buoyancy

Phase-change liquids

 Refrigerants do not freeze

 Due to their low boiling point can change from liquid to gas as temperature increases

 Can be potential solution where immediate response to quick temperature fluctuation is

needed
12
 Flat Plate Collector – Design Considerations

 Maximizing absorption

 Minimizing reflection and radiation losses

 Effective heat transfer from the collector plate to the fluids

 Good thermal bond between the absorber plate and the tubes or ducts carrying the heat-
transfer fluids. Methods of component attachment - thermal cement, solder, clips,
clamps, brazing, mechanical pressure applicators. One of the consideration is cost of
labor and materials.

 Different construction designs

13
 Flat Plate Collector – Design Considerations
 The convective heat loss may be decreased using double glazing, but the radiation reaching the absorber
is reduced due to double reflection.

 Absorber plate classification

 Pipe and fin type, in which flows only in the pipe and hence has comparatively low wetted area and
liquid capacity

 Rectangular or cylindrical full sandwich type in which both the wetted area and the water capacity
are high

 Roll bond type or semi-sandwich type, intermediate between Pipe and fin type and Rectangular or
cylindrical full sandwich type

 Some constructions include fluid channels in the absorber plate structure to maximize thermal
conductance between the components.

 Other modifications include tubes and channels soldered or cemented to the plate.

14
 Thermal Analysis

 Conservation of energy

 Under steady state, the useful energy output of the collector is the difference between absorbed solar
radiation and the total thermal losses from the collector

Useful energy = Absorbed solar energy - Thermal losses

qu
i 
IT Ac
 Higher the useful energy output from a particular design, the higher the expected efficiency

 Thermal efficiency creates the basis for comparison of different materials and modifications of collector
systems.

 IT is the parameter characterizing the external conditions, and it is usually known from practical
measurements (with a pyranometer) or assumptions for a specific location. The collector area (Ac) is a set
technical characteristic. How to estimate the Qu - the useful energy?
15
 Thermal Analysis
 We need to understand the energy balance within the collector: Absorbed energy – Losses

qu  Ap  S  U l Tpm  Ta  

where S is the absorbed solar radiation, UL is the total losses, Tpm is the mean temperature
of the absorbing plate, and Ta is the temperature of the air, and Ap the area of the plate
surface.

 In a general case, when measurements of incident solar radiation (IT) are available, the
convenient approximation for the absorbed energy is given by:

S  I T  avg

where (τα)avg is the product of transmittance of the collector cover and absorptance of the
plate averaged over different types of radiation. In fact, (τα)avg ≈ 0.96(τα)b based on
practical estimations. 16
 S  Ib rb  b   I d rd   Ib  I d  rr   d

n2 s in  i 1 I s in
2
 r  i 
  rI  I 
n1 s in  r 1 I s in
2
 r  i 
1   II
 r  i 
2
 r II  ta n
1   II  II 
 r  i 
2
ta n
 r I   r II
r 
2

 Kc

a  e
cos  r
   a r  d   a 1   r 

 p
 
1  1   p   d
17
 Thermal Analysis

 The maximum possible useful energy gain can be achieved when the collector is at the
same temperature as the inlet fluid (heat losses are minimized)

 In actual operational setting, it is possible. The effective (actual) useful energy gain via
heat exchange, we should introduce the heat removal factor – FR

 This coefficient shows how much energy remains after heat losses to the surrounding
due to collector and inlet temperature difference. Therefore, the energy balance equation
for the actual system can be written as follows

qu  Ap FR  S  U l Tin  Ta  

18
 Thermal Analysis
 m  w  Do  
tanh   0. 5
 2   Ul 
 where m   
 m  w  Do    K p p
 
 
 2 

1
F 
 1 a 1 
wU l    
 U l   w  Do   Do  K a Do  Di h f 

mC p   F 'U l Ap  
FR  1  exp  
U l Ap   mC p  

19
 Thermal Analysis

  T pm  Tc 
4 4
qt
 h p  c  T pm  Tc 
Ap  1 1 
   1
 c 
 p 

 hw (Tc  Ta )   c Tc4  Tsky4 

qt
Ap

20
 Performance Test
 The theoretical models and calculations can be done. However, it can be checked in
practice by performing collector tests.

 Expose the system to solar radiation, run the fluid through it, and measure the inlet and
outlet temperature along with the flow rate. Then the useful energy gain can be
calculated from the experimental data as follows
qu  mC p Tout  Tin 
 In addition the incident radiation on the collector (IT) and ambient temperature (Ta) can
be recorded, so we can express the useful gain in terms of incident radiation:
qu  Ap FR  S  U l Tin  Ta  
 Experimental efficiency of the system at each instant of operation can be obtained:
qu
i 
IT Ac
21
 Flat Plate Collector - Advantages

 Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components of solar radiation

 Simple in design and there are no moving parts

 Are fixed in tilt and orientation and thus, there is no needed of tracking
the Sun

 Are easy to make and are low in cost

 Have comparatively low maintenance cost and long life

 Operate at comparatively high efficiency

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 Flat Plate Collector - Summary

 FPC comes in various shapes, sizes, materials, and configurations.

 As a representative case for understanding the energy balance and system

performance.

 Absorbing as much solar radiation as possible (via black absorptive

surfaces), minimizing losses to the surrounding environment as much as
possible (via glazing surfaces, insulation, and vacuum tubes) using
various technologies with a trading off among level of performance,
material and manufacturing costs.

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 Absorber Coating

 Absorber plate surfaces which exhibit the characteristics of high

value of absorptivity for incoming solar radiation and low values
of emissivity for outgoing re-radiations – Selective surfaces.

 Thin surface layer -0.1𝜇𝑚

 Increase collector efficiency

Generally, it observation is found that
 Ideal selective surface (from spectral FPC ղ
distribution) Selective coating 1 glass cover 43.6

 𝛼𝜆 = 𝜀𝜆 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 < 4𝜇𝑚 Non-selective coating 1 glass cover 31.5

 𝛼𝜆 = 𝜀𝜆 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜆 > 4𝜇𝑚 2 glass cover 35.3

25
 Solar Air Heaters
• Application Convection loss
Space heating & drying for agricultural and industrial Radiation loss
purpose.
Solar radiation Air out at To
• Principle (I)
 Absorber plate and parallel plate below forms a Absorber
passage of high aspect ratio. plate
 Air flows between- i. Cover & absorber plate
Reflection
ii. Passages above and below loss Bottom of
the absorber plate collector
• Advantages I (τα)e
Insulation
 Temperature range – 40oC to 100oC
 Simple in design &little maintenance Conduction
 No moving parts Transparent loss
cover
 No special attention required by fluid below 0oC Air passage
• Disadvantages Air in at Ti
 Heat transfer coefficient is low- lower efficiency. Fig: Construction of Solar Air Heater (Basic elements)
(Rough surface, longitudinal fins, V-shaped or corrugated absorber)
 Large volume of fluids requires definite amount of pressure drop 26
 Working Principle of ETC Glass cover Q abs- og
Q rad- og-sky
 The evacuated tube comprises of an inner and an Q abs- ig
Vacuum
outer concentric tube; the clearance is evacuated, then
the tubes are sealed at the end. Q cond-ig
Q conv-fluid
 The evacuated space between the tubes is an excellent
thermal insulation and minimizes the convection loss,
Q conv-og-air
Q cond-og
thus improving the thermal efficiency.
Q rad-ig-og
 The incident solar radiation reaches the selective
coating surface on the inner glass tube through Fig. Energy balance of a single evacuated tube

transparent glass tubes, where it is absorbed.

 The absorbed solar radiation is converted into heat
and then transferred to the flowing water.

27
 Working Principle of ETC

Fig. Cross-sectional view of ETC with inserted U- tube and fin.

Fig. Longitudinal view of ETC with inserted U- tube and fin.

28
 Solar Cooker
 It is used for domestic cooking purpose. Two main categories:

Box type cooker with rectangular
enclosure
 Temperature obtained - 100oC (sunny days)
(With mirrors 15-20oC higher)
 Requires little attention.
Construction: insulated box & glass reflector
(with variable inclination) – 30 min-2.5 hr.
Solar cooker with paraboloid reflecting surface
 Temperature range- above 200oC.
 Reflecting surface materials – glass
mirrors aluminum sheet, aluminum foil.
 Requires continuous attention.
Construction: paraboloid mirror

Scheffler Cooker

29
 Solar Stills
 The solar-still process uses the sun instead of other sources such as fossil fuels to gain the energy needed for
purification. It can be used in areas where there are no other sources of energy for water filtration.

Working Principle Basic elements in a solar still

1. Incoming radiation (energy)
• Evaporation 2. Water vapor production from brine
 Unclean water is placed in trough with black 3. Condensation of water vapour (condensate)
bottom. 4. Collection of condensate
 Solar heat energy causes evaporation separating
the H2O vapor from the impurities.
• Condensation
• Water vapor condenses on the angled glass
ceiling
• Clean water droplets are collected in the trough. Water
vapor

Collection of brine
condensate
Basin

30
 Compression Refrigeration Cycle

 In a compression refrigeration cycle, refrigerant is compressed via electrical energy input

to a mechanical compressor
PV = nRT

 When refrigerant undergoes compression (an increase in pressure in the same volume),
the temperature of the working fluid must increase.

 Compressed, higher temperature refrigerant is pumped through a heat exchanger, where it

exchanges heat with the ambient air (coil and fins on the back of your window air
conditioner unit or your electric refrigerator).

 Colder refrigerant passes through an expansion valve where it is returned to its pre-
compression pressure (at the same volume)

31
 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
Absorber

 Absorbent-refrigerant mixture (strong solution), which is delivered by a liquid pump to

the generator

 The solution passes through a heat exchanger where its temperature increases.

Generator

 Heats the absorbent-refrigerant mixture using the external heat source (FPC). The heat
causes the solution to boil, and water turns into vapor flows to the condenser.

 Remaining LiBr with still some water (weak solution) is sent back to absorber via a
heat exchanger.

32
 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
Condenser

 Condenses the water vapor coming from the generator.

 This liquid condensate is now directed to the evaporator through an

expansion valve.

Evaporator

 Absorbs the heat from the cooled space due to evaporation of the
refrigerant at low pressure. This creates the cooling effect.

 Vaporized refrigerant then flows back to the absorber, where it mixes

with the "weak solution" of LiBr.
33
 Solar Cooling & Refrigeration (VAS)
By combining solar thermal energy and modern adsorption technology, heat can be used to cool our buildings.
Solar thermal heat is used as the driving force behind the cooling process. Thermally driven cooling machines,
such as ab- or ad-sorption chillers have been used.
Methods
Hot water GENERATOR (Heat 1. Adsorption chiller need water at 60–90°C and
from FPC Exchanger)
High pressure refrigerant
can use flat plate solar collector or vacuum
vapor (rich mixture) tubes
2. Absorption chiller (single-effect) need water at
Refrigerant vapour is
absorbed back into a CONDENSER 80 –110°C and can use vacuum tubes and it’s
solution mixture Solar cooling High pressure more difficult with flat plate solar collector.
(weak) withdrawn liquid
from generator. cycle 3. Absorption chiller (double-effect) need water
at 120 –150°C and can use CPC collectors.
4. Desiccant cooling need water or air at 45-90 °C
EVAPORATOR COIL
and can use flat plate solar collector or solar air
EXPANSION VALVE
Cooling or refrigeration (throttling) collectors.
effect Low pressure and low
temperature vapour
 Common refrigerant-absorbents: Ammonia-water,
Water- lithium bromide. COP value range is
between 0.5-0.8 34
 Suggested Reading Materials References
1. S. P. Sukhatme and J. K. Nayak, Solar Energy: Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage,
Tata McGraw Hill, 2015

2. S. A. Kalogirou, Solar Energy Engineering, Elsevier, 2009

3. J. A. Duffie, and W. A. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Wiley and Sons,
2013.

4. H. Buchberg, I. Cotton and D. K. Edwards. 1976. Natural convection in enclosed surfaces- a

review of application to solar energy collection. Journal of Heat Transfer, Trans. ASME, 98:
182.

5. F. L. Test, R. C. L. Lessman and A. Johary. 1981. Heat transfer during wind flow over
rectangular bodies in the natural environment. Journal of Heat Transfer, Trans. ASME, 103:
263.

6. J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer Tenth ed. McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering, 2010
35