4.

1 INTRODUCTION
with gradual changes in its water
A steady non-uniform flow in a prismatic channel er
surface elevation is termed as gradually varied flow (GVF). The backwater produced

by a dam or weir across a river and the drawdown produced at a sudden drop in a channe
are few typical examples of GVE. In a GVE, the velocity varies along the channel and
consequently the bed slope, water surface slope, and energy slope will all differ from
each other. Regions of high curvature are excluded in the analysis of this flow.

The two basic assumptions involved in the analysis of GVF are the following:
1. The pressure distribution at any section is assumed to be hydrostatic. This
follows from the definition of the flow to have a gradually varied water
surface. As gradual changes in the surface curvature give rise to negligibe
normal accelerations, the departure from the hydrostatic pressure distribution
is negligible. The exclusion of the region of high curvature from the analysus
of GVF, as indicated earlier, is only to meet
this requirement.
2. The resistance to flow at any depth is assumed to be given
by the correspo
ing uniform flow equation, such as the Manning's formula, with the condition
that the slope term to be used in the equation is the energy the
slope and not
bed slope. Thus, if in a GVF the depth of flow at any section
isy, the enci
slope S, is given by
n'V (4.1)
where R
S,R R/3

=
hydraulic radius of the section at
depthy.

4.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF GVF

Consider the total energy Hof a gradually varied flow ina l o p eand

a = 1.0 as
channel of small Siop

(4.2)
H Z+E =
Z+ y+
where E
2g
=
specific energy.
 Aschematic sketch of a gradually varied flow is shown in Fig. 4.1. Since the water
rface, in general, varies in the longitudinal (x) direction, the depth of flow and total
encrgy are functions of x. Differentiating Eq. (4.2) with respect to .

dH dZ dE
(4.3)
dx dx dx
dH dZ dyd
i.c (4.4)
dx d dr dx |2g
Energy slope S,
Energy line
2/2g
Water surface

Angle =

Datum Bed slope S%

Fig. 4.1 Schematic sketch of GVF

In Eq. (4.4), the meaning of each term is as follows:

dH represents the energy slope. Since the total energy of the flow always
dx
decreases in the direction of motion, it is common to consider the slope of the

decreasing line as positive. Denoting it by S,, we have

energy
dH
S (4.5)
dx
It is common to consider the channel slope with
denotes the bottom slope.
dr
bed elevations decreasing in the downstream direction as positive. Denoting it

as S we have
dZ (4.6)
d
-S
dyrepresents the water surface slope relative to the bottom of the channel
dx
INote: The slope ofthe water surface relative to horizontal is S = | - S

4 d d d
d 2g dv 2g.4 dr
dA d
g4 d d
 Since dA/dy 1.
O'T dv
dV gA dr
(47
dr 2g
S
d O'T d
Equation (4.4) can now be rewritten as
d g4 d

On re-arranging.
dy S-S (4.8
dx 'T
gA

dy S, S, (4.8a)
Or
dx 1-F

where FF oT = Froude number of the flow at depth v.

This is the basic differential equation of GVF and is also known as the
dynamit
equation of GVE. If a value of the kinetic-energy correction factor a greater tnan
unity is to be used. Eq. (4.8) would then read as

dy S (4.86)
dx QT

Other Forms of Eq. (4.8)

(a) If K= Conveyance at any depth y and K
normal depth y, then Conveyance corresponding
K /s,
(By assunmption 2 of GVE) (4.9)

and
K,/s (Uniform flow)
S,/S-K/K (4.10)

Similarly, if Z section factor at

depth y, depth y and Z
section
ritical
=
facto
tor at the

- A|T
and
4

Hence,
T
Usng Eqs (4.10) and (4.11). Eq. (4.8) can now be written as

1
dx S T

&A

K
S (4.12)

This equation is useful in developing direct integration techniques.

y and 0 denotes the critical
(b) If Q represents the normal discharge at a depth
discharge at the same depth y,

, =K s, (4.13)

and (4.14)

Using these definitions, Eq. (4.8) can be written as

I-(Q/Q,) (4.15)
So(Q/0.
dx

Eq. (4.3) and can be written as

(c) Another form of Eq. (4.8) is

(4.16)
S,-S
dx

This equation is called the differential energy

equation of GVF to distinguish it
from the GVF differential equations [Eqs (4.8),
(4.12) and (4.I 5)J. This energy equa-
for the GVF profile
numerical techniques
IS very useful in developing
O
Computation.

4.3
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW PROFILES
fixed depths if 0, n and S, are fixed. Also, there are
given channel, y, and y, are two

(), Vthe (ii)y, y. and =

Ce possible relations between y, and y,

as
()), 1.e. when (a) channel bed is
does not exist,
urther, there are two cases where y,
channel has an adverse slope, (S, is -ve). Based on
izontal, (S. 0), (b) when the
=

into five categories as indicated in Table 4.1.

above, the channels are classified lines representing the critical depth
for cach of the five categories of channels,
the longitudinal section. These would
exists) can be drawn in
ormal depth (if it as follows:
vide the whole
v flow space into three regions
 most line
Region 1: Space above the top
and the next lower line
Region 2: Space between top line
between the second line and the bed
Region 3: Space channels.
4.2 shows these regions in the various categories of
Figure
Table 4.1 Classification of channels

Remark
SL. Channel S y m b o l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c

No category condition

Mild slope M Subcritical flow at normal depth

Steep slope Supercritical flow at normal depth

Critical slope Critical flow at normal depth
4 Horizontal bed H 0 Cannot sustain uniform flow
5 Adverse slope A S<0 Cannot sustain uniform flow

Region_.-NDL Region
CDL - CDL

Mild slope Steep slope NDL

So =ve
(i) So=+ ve
(ii)

-- Region O

CDL
NDL Region CDL

Critical slope
S=ve
Horizontal bed
(i11) S=0
(iv)
CDL
Region)-

CDL= Critical depth line

NDL
S
Adverse slope
ve =

Normal depth line

()
Fig. 4.2 Regions of (vi)
flow profiles
the channel category and
Depending upon
files will shapes. Whetherregion
have characteristic of
of flow
a given flow,
. the wate
the water surface pr
decreasing
or water depth in
the given GVF
increasing
direction of flow *ll
tive or negative.
(4.8) being positive. profile will have
term dy/dt n Eq. will depend
dep upon the
 dys positive
lt can be seen from Eq. (4.12) that i
dx
(i) if the numerator >0 and the denominator > 0,
(ii) if the numerator<0 and the denominator <0,
or

dy s positive if (i) K > K, and Z>z.

i
1.e.
dx
or (ii) K <
K, and Z >
Z
annels of the first kind, K is a single-valued function ofy, and hence

0 if (i) y >
y, and y >
y
dx

or (ii) y <y, and y <y,

Similarly, dy 0if (i) y, >y>
dx

or (11), y > V
in various regions, the
assist in the determination of flow profiles
Further, to
4.8 as follows:
behaviour of dy/dr at certain key depths is noted by studying q.

1. As y Yo dx dy 0 , i.e. the water surface approaches the normal depth line

asymptotically.
2. As dy i.e. the water surface meets the
critical depth line vertically.
yY d
0,

indicative of the trend of the profile. In reality.

This information is useful only as
of gradually-varied
zones violate the assumption
high curvatures at critical depth
GVF computations have to end
or commence a
nature of the flow and as such the
location.
Snort distance away from the critical-depth

large depth horizontal

o, dy meets a very as a
3 y i.e. the water surface
S,

asymptote.
gradually varied flow profiles are
Based on this information, the various possible
characteristic shapes and end conditions
into twelve types (Table 4.2). The
pcd
d l these profiles are indicated in Fig. 4.3.
is adopted to depict the nature of
Fig. 4.3, anexaggerated vertical scale
and H, profiles, are
ure In reality the GVF profiles, especially M,, M,
one to two orders
of magnitude larger than
flat.
verya t T The
h e longitudinal
long distances are
the depths.
 Flow (GVF) Profiles
Table 4.2 Types of Gradually Varied

Channel Region Condition Type

y>yoy
M

2
M
Mild slope (M)
3 M,

S
Steep slope (S) 2 yyy

C
Critical slope (C)|
C
Horizental hed (H) 2 H
H

Adverse stlope (A) y

y<y A

Note: Profiles of category I and 3 are rising profiles and

falling profiles. profiles of category 2 are

It is evident from Fig. 4.3 that all the

curves in
commonly known as backwater curves. region 1 have positive slopes; thesc
Similarly, all the curves in Region na
negative slopes and are referred to as drawdown
indicated by dashed lines curves. At critical depth, the
are
to remind that the GVF cur
cable in that
neighbourhood. equation is strictly not apP

NDL Normal depth line

CDI Critical depth line Horizontal
asymptote
M

M, -NDL

-CDL-
M
(a) Mild slope

Fig. 4.3 Various GVE Profiles

(Contd)
 Horizontal
asymptote
S

S3

-CDL
(b) Steep slope NDL
Horizontal
asymptote
C

C
NDL
CDL
(c) Critical slope

Horizontal H2

CDL
H

(d) Horizontal bed

Horizontal y Az
CDL

(e) Adverse slope

Fig. 4.3 Various GVF profiles

4.4 SOME FEATURES OF FLOW PROFILESS
Type-M Profiles
The most common of all GVF profiles is the M, type, which is a subcritical flow
natural
condition. Obstructions to flow, such as weirs, dams, control structures and
4.4 (a). These extend to
features, such as bends, produce M, backwater curves Fig.
several kilometres upstream before merging with
the normal depth.

Horiz. RVF

M
NDL-
Flow
CDL

Mild slope
profile
Fig. 4.4 (a) M,

at constriction
sudden drop in
the bed of the channel,
h e M, profiles o c c u r at a 4.4 (b).
canal outlet
into pools Fig.
p e of transitions and at the

M
Pool
NDL

CDL
Flow
Drop
Mild slop

Fig. 4.4 (b) M, profile

 Sluice gate

- NDL

Jump
CDL
M
Flow

RVF

Vena contracta Mild slope

Fig. 4.4 (c) M, profile

Where a supercritical stream enters a mild-slope channel, the M, type of profile

occurs. The flow leading from a spillway or a sluice gate to a mild slope forms a
typical example [Fig. 4.4(c)]. The beginning of the M, curve is usually followed by
a small stretch of rapidly varied flow and the downstream is generally terminated
by a hydraulic jump. Compared to M, and M, profiles. M, curves are of relatively
short length.

Type-S Profiles
The S, profile is produced when the flow from a steep channel is terminated by a deep
pool created by an obstruction, such as a weir or dam [Fig. 4.4(d)1. At the beginning
of the curve, the flow changes from the normal depth
(supercritical flow) to subern
cal flow through a hydraulic jump. The profiles extend with a downstreanm posine
water surface slope to reach a horizontal asymptote at the pool elevation.

CDL

NDL Jump Flow

Weir

Steep slope
Fig. 4.4(d) S, profile

Profiles of the S, type occur at the

a reservoir and at a break
entrance region of a nnel leading from
of grade from steep channel leaa
Generally S, profiles are of short length. mild slopes to steep slope Fig. [Fig: 4.4e)
Free flow from a
sluice gate with a steepwhen
type [Fig. 4.4(f)|. The S, curve also results slope
a flow exists from a stcepe
on its
downstream 1s f the
à steepcr slope
to a less steep slope [Fig. 4.4(g)].
 Flow
S2

CDL
NDIL
Fig. 4.4(e) S, profile

- CDL

Flow NDL

Steep slope

Fig. 4.4(f) S, profile

CDL

NDL
Flow - CDL

NDL
Steeper slope

Steep slope

Fig. 4.4(g) S, profile

Type CProfiles
unstable.
aid C profiles are very rare
and are highly
Type H Profiles
A horizontal channel can be considered as the Tower limit reached h .
a mild
slope as its bed slope becomes latter. It is obvious that there is no Region t
horizontal channel as , The 1, and similar for
.
7, protiles are to
and M, M
profles respectively |Fig. 4.4(h)|. However. the 71, curve has a horizor
asymptote.

Sluice gate

Jump
CDL

H Flow--

Horizontal bed
Drop
Fig. 4.4(h) H, andH, profiles

Type A Profiles
Adverse slopes are rather rare and A, andA, curves are similar to H, and H, curves
respectively [Fig. 4.4 (i)]. These profiles are of very short length.

A2

Pool
Flow

CDL
Adverse slope
So
Fig. 4.4() A, profile

._DL
A

Adverse Slope Drop

Fig. 4.4) A, profile
4.5 CONTROL SECTIONS
A ontrol section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exists between
he discharge and depth oft fHow.
Weirs. spillways sluice gates are some typica
vamples of structures which give rise to control sections. The critical depth iS
also a control point. fiowever, it is effective in a flow profile which changes from
suberitical to supereritical flow. In the reverse case of transition from supercritical
daw to subcritical fiow, a hydraulic jump is usually formed by passing the critical
depth as a control point. Any GVF profile will have at least one control section.

M Control
NDL
CDL

(a)

Control
M

NDL
Flow
Jump
CDL
Flow-
Control
M
(b)

Reservoir H2 Control

Horizontal bed

Control

Jump
Flow
CDI

Control

(d
Fig. 4.5 (contdj
 Control
Reservoir

2
Flow-
CDL
NDIL
(e)

Control
B)
M

M
NDL
Flow --CDL

Po ol

Drop
Fig. 4.5 Examples of controls in GVF

In the synthesis of GVF profiles occurring in

serially connected channel
elements. the control sections provide a key to the identification
of proper prone
shapes. A few typical control sections are indicated in Fig. 4.5 (a-d). It may be
noted that subcritical flows have controls in the downstream end while
ical flows are governed by control sections
supercrit
existing at the upstream end of t
channel section. In Figs 4.5(a) and (b) for the
M, profile, the control sectio
indicated by a dark dot in the figures) is just upstream of the spillway and slulce
gate respectively. In Figs 4.5(b) and (d) for M, and S,
profiles respectively, t
control point is at the vena contracta of the
sluice-gate flow. In suberitical-f
reservoir offtakes Fig. 4.5(C). even
though
the discharge is res

ervoirelevation. the channel entry section is not strictly a governed

by the
The
control sectio
water-surtace elevation in the channel will be lower than the ation

reservoir eleva
byan amount equivalent to (1K 2 g where K is the entrance-loss coetfic
The true control section will be at
a downstream location in the channe or
the situation shown in fig. 4.5(c) the
critical depth at the free overtlow t the
channel end acts as the downstream control, For rflow)

due
a sudden drop (free oveC
to curvature ot the
streamlines the critical depth ance

of about 4.0y upstream of the drop. This distance. actually

occurs at distd
GVF
being small comparea
lengths, iS neglected and it is usual to perform calculations
the by assuming
occur at
drop.
 ora supereritical canal intake |Fig. 4.5(e)1, the reservoir
ttcal depth at the head of the canal and then onwards the waterwater surface falls to the
surface follows
the
S urve. The critical depth
occurring at the upstream end of the canal is the
for this flow. contro
A mild-slope channel
discharging into a pool of variable surface elevation 1S
indicated in Fig. 4.5(1). Four cases are shown. In Case 1, the pool elevation s
higher than the elevation of the normal-depth line at B. This
gives rise to a drown-
ing of the channel end. A profile of the M, type is produced with the pool level at
Ras control. The velocity head of the channel flow is lost in turbulence at the exit
and there is no recovery in terms of the change in surface elevation. In Case 2, the
pool elevation is lower than the elevation of the normal-depth line but higher than
the critical-depth line at B. The pool elevation acts as a control for the M, curve.
In Case 3, the pool elevation has dropped down to that of the critical-depth line at
B and the control is still at the pool elevation. In Case 4, the pool elevation has
dropped lower than the elevation of the critical-depth line at B. The water surface
cannot pass through a critical depth at any location other than B and hence a
sudden drop in the water surface at B is observed. The critical depth at B is the
control for this flow.

4.6 ANALYSIS OF FLOW PROFILE

The process of identification of possible flow profiles as a prelude to quantitative
computations is known as analysis of flow profile. It is essentially a synthesis of the
information about the GVF profiles and control sections discussed in the previous
section.
A channel carrying a gradually varied flow can in general contain different
prismoidal-channel sections of varying hydraulic properties. There can be a number
OI control sections of varying locations. To determine the resulting water-surface
profile in a given case, one should be in a position to analyse the effects of various
Channel sections and controls connected in series. Simple cases are illustrated to
provide information and experience to handle more complex cases.

Break in Grade
two channel sections with differing
mple situations ofa series combination of
cd slopes are considered. In Fig. 4.6(a), a break in grade from a mild channel

to first draw the Critical-Depth Line

d(CDmilder channel is s hown. It is necessary
and the Normal-Depth Line (NDL) for both the slopes. Since y, does not
the CDL is at a constant height above
Pend upon the slope (as O constant),
=

for the mild slope is lower

Channel bed in both slopes. The normal depth v acts as a control, similar to
that of the milder slope ( V). backwater V
In this case,
c u r v e is produced in the mild-
C i r or spillway case and an M,

slope channel. presented

GVF profiles are
fious combinations of slopes and the resulting
there can be more than
some situations
14.6a-h). It may be noted that in
one possible profiles. For example. in Fig. 4.6(e). a jump and s, profile or
or an
an M
profile and a jump are possible. The particular curve in this case depends on ths
n the
channel and its properties.
M
NDL
CDL NDL

CDI
o
Mild

Milder
(a)
CDL

NDL
CDL --

Steep
Steeper NDL

b)
Ma
NDL

CDL

NDL
Milder CDL
Mild
(c)
CDL

NDL-
CDL

Steeper NDL

(d) Steep
CDL S
NDL NDL.
Jump NDL20).
-CDL
Jump
Steep M

Mild
(e)
Fig. 4.6 (Contd)
 NDL M2
CDL

S2

Mild - CDL
Steep
(f) NDL
2

CDL NDL

Adverse CDL
Mild

(g)

CDL
Horizontal
NDL
Steep

(h)
Fig. 4.6 GVF profiles at break in grades

n e examples indicated in Fig. 4.6, the section where the grade changes acts as a
Contro
OSection and this can be classified as a natural control. It should be noted that
even ough the bed slope is considered as the only variable in the above examples, the
though the bed
Same type
p eof analysis would hold good for channel sections in which there is a marked
g i n the roughness characteristics with or without a change in the bed slope. A
ong Cach of unlined canal followed by a lined reach serves as a typical example for
te same. The junction provides a natural control ofthe kind discussed above. A change
in the channel geometry (say. the bed width or side slope) beyond a section while
retaining the prismoidal nature in each reach also leads to a natural control section

Serial Combination of Channel Sections

To analyse a general problem of many channel sections and controls, the following
steps are to be adopted:

1.
1 Draw the longitudinal section of the systems.
2. Calculate the eritieal depth and normal depths of various reaches and mark the
CDL and NDL in all the reaches.
3. Mark all the controls-both the imposed as well as natural controls.
4. Identify the possible profiles.