Chapter 8.

Time-Harmonic
Electromagnetic Waves

Wave propagation in free space

Under sourceless condition (ρv =J =0),
 ∂E
 ∇ × H =∈0 ∂t

∇ × E = − μ ∂ H
 0
 ∂t
 ∇ ⋅ E = 0
 ∇⋅H = 0


Uniform plane wave: both E and H fields lie in the transverse plane
which is normal to the direction of propagation → transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave

E = Ex a x : polarized in the x direction

 ∂Ex ∂H ∂H y  ∂Ex ∂H y
∇ × E = a y = − μ0 = − μ0 ay  = − μ0
∂z ∂t ∂t ∂z ∂t
  
 ∇ × H = − ∂H y a =∈ ∂ E =∈ ∂Ex a ∂
 y = − ∈ ∂Ex
H
  ∂z
0 0 0
∂z ∂t ∂t ∂t
x x

 ∂ 2 Ex ∂2H y
 2 = − μ0
 ∂z ∂t ∂z ∂ 2 Ex ∂ 2 Ex
 2 → = μ ∈
0 0 : x-polarized TEM electric field in free space
∂ H y ∂ 2 Ex ∂z 2 ∂t 2
 ∂z∂t = − ∈0 ∂t 2
 1
ν= = 3 ×108 m/s = c
μ0 ∈0
2
∂ Hy ∂2 H y
= μ0 ∈0
∂z 2 ∂t 2
Ex ( z , t ) = f1 (t − z / ν ) + f 2 (t + z / ν ) → forward- and backward-propagating waves
Ex ( z , t ) = ε x ( z , t ) + ε x' ( z , t )
= Ex 0 cos ω (t − z / ν p ) + φ1  + Ex' 0 cos ω (t + z / ν p ) + φ2 
= Ex 0 cos [ωt − k0 z + φ1 ] + Ex' 0 cos [ωt + k0 z + φ2 ]
 
forward z travel backward z travel

ν p : phase velocity, ν p = c in free space

ω
k0 ≡ rad/m ← wave number
c
2π
k0 z = k0 λ = 2π → λ= (wave length in free space)
k0
k0 z = 2mπ → condition for the m-th crest of the wave (t=0, on z axis)
ωt − k0 z = ω (t − z / c ) = 2mπ → t ↑→ z ↑ to keep the same phase point
1 1
ε x ( z, t ) =
2
Ex 0 e jφ1 e − jk0 z e jωt + c.c. = Exs e jωt + c.c. = Re[ Exs e jωt ] ← forward propagating field
  2
Ex 0

Example
Let us express ε y ( z , t ) = 100 cos(108 t − 0.5 z + 30 ) V/m as a phasor.

Solution .
8 
ε y ( z , t ) = Re[100e j (10 t −0.5 z +30 ) ]

E ys ( z ) = 100e − j 0.5 z + j 30
 Example
Given the complex amplitude of the electric field of a uniform plane wave, E0 =
100 a x + 20∠30 a y V/m, construct the phasor and real instantaneous fields if the wave
is known to propagate in the forward z direction in free space and has frequency of
10 MHz.

Solution .
E s ( z ) = 100 a x + 20e j 30 a y  e − jk0 z


 
ω
k0 = = ( 2π ×107 ) / (3 ×108 ) = 0.21 rad/m
c
7  7
ε ( z , t ) = Re[100e − j 0.21z e j 2π ×10 t a x + 20e j 30 e − j 0.21z e j 2π ×10 t a y ]
7 7
t − 0.21 z + 30 )
= Re[100e j ( 2π ×10 t − 0.21 z )
a x + 20e j ( 2π ×10 ay ]
= 100 cos ( 2π ×107 t − 0.21z )a x + 20 cos ( 2π ×107 t − 0.21z + 30 )a y

∂ y ∂ε x
= − ∈0
∂z ∂t
1 1
ε x ( z , t ) = Exs ( z )e jωt + c.c. and  y ( z , t ) = H ys ( z )e jωt + c.c.
2 2
dH ys ( z )
= − jω ∈0 Exs ( z )
dz
 ∇ × H s = jω ∈0 E s
∇ × E = − jωμ H
 s 0 s

 ∇ ⋅ Es = 0
 ∇ ⋅ Hs = 0
∇ × ∇ × E s = − jωμ0∇ × H s = ∇(∇ ⋅ E s ) − ∇ 2 E s
∇ 2 E s = ∇( ∇ ⋅ E s ) − ∇ × ∇ × E s
∇ 2 E s = − k02 E s
∇ 2 Exs = − k02 Exs
∂ 2 Exs ∂ 2 Exs ∂ 2 Exs
2
+ 2
+ 2
= −k02 Exs
∂x ∂y ∂z
d 2 Exs
2
= −k02 Exs
dz
Exs ( z ) = Ex 0 e − jk0 z + Ex' 0 e jk0 z
∇ × E s = − jωμ0 H s
dExs
= − jωμ0 H ys
dz
1 ω
H ys = − [( − jk0 ) Ex 0 e − jk0 z + ( jk0 ) Ex' 0 e jk0 z ] ← k0 = = ω ∈0 μ0
jωμ0 c
∈0 ∈0
= Ex 0 e − jk0 z − Ex' 0 e jk0 z = H y 0 e − jk0 z + H y' 0 e jk0 z
μ0 μ0
∈0 ∈0
H y ( z , t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt − k0 z ) − Ex' 0 cos(ωt + k0 z )
μ0 μ0
μ0
Ex 0 = H y 0 = η0 H y 0
∈0
μ0
Ex' 0 = − H y' 0 = −η0 H y' 0
∈0
μ0
η0 = = 377  120π Ω
∈0

Wave propagation in dielectrics

For homogeneous (having constant μ and ∈ with position) and
isotropic (in which μ and ∈ are invariant with field orientation) medium,
∇ 2 Es = −k 2 E s
k = ω μ ∈ = k0 μr ∈r
∂ 2 Exs
2
= − k 2 Exs
∂z
jk = α + j β → k : complex propagation constant
α : attenuation coefficient (Np/m, nepers per meter), β : phase constant
Exs = Ex 0 e − jkz = Ex 0 e −α z e − j β z
Ex = Ex 0 e −α z cos(ωt − β z )
++++++++++++++++++++
α = 0.01 Np/m, wave amplitude at z=50 m → e−0.01×50 =0.607
at z=1/α → e −1 =0.368
∈=∈' − j ∈" =∈0 (∈'r − j ∈"r ) ← complex permitivity
μ = μ ' − j μ " = μ0 ( μr' − j μr" ) ← complex permeability

∈"
k = ω μ (∈' − j ∈" ) = ω μ ∈' 1 − j
∈'
1/ 2
 2 
μ ∈'   ∈" 
α = Re{ jk } = ω 1 +  '  − 1
2  ∈  
 
1/ 2
 2 
μ ∈'   ∈"  ∈"
β = Im{ jk } = ω 1 +  '  + 1 , ' : loss tangent
2  ∈   ∈
 
ω
νp =
β
βλ = 2π
2π
λ=
β
Ex 0
H ys = e −α z e − j β z
η
μ μ 1
η= ' "
= '
∈ − j∈ ∈ 1 − j (∈" / ∈' )

β = ω μ ∈' (lossless medium)

Ex = Ex 0 cos(ωt − β z )
ω 1 c
νp = = =
β μ∈'
μr ∈'r
2π 2π 1 c λ0
λ= = = = = (lossless medium)
β ω μ ∈' f μ ∈' f μr ∈'r μr ∈'r
Ex 0
Hy = cos(ωt − β z )
η
μ
η=
∈
 Example
Let us apply these results to a 1 MHz plane wave propagating in fresh water. At
this frequency, losses in water are negligible, which means that we can assume that
∈"  0. In water, μr = 1 and at 1 MHz, ∈'r = 81.

Solution .
ω ∈'r 2π ×106 81
β = ω μ ∈' = ω μ0 ∈0 ∈'r = = = 0.19 rad/m
c 3.0 ×108
2π
2π
λ= = = 33 m
β .19
ω 2π ×106
νp = = = 3.3 ×107 m/s
β .19
μ η0 377
η= '
= = = 42 Ω
∈ ∈'
r
9
Ex = 0.1 cos( 2π 106 t − .19 z ) V/m
Ex
Hy = = ( 2.4 ×10−3 ) cos( 2π 106 t − .19 z ) A/m
η

Example
Consider plane wave propagation in water at the much higher frequency of 2.5 GHz.
∈'r = 78, ∈"r = 7
1/ 2
 
( 2π × 2.5 ×109 ) 78  
2 2
μ ∈'   ∈"   7 
α = Re{ jk } = ω 1 +  '  − 1 = 1 +  78  − 1  = 21 Np/m
2  ∈   (3.0 ×108 ) 2    
   
1/ 2
 2 
μ∈   ∈"  '
β = Im{ jk } = ω 1 +  '  + 1 = 464 rad/m
2  ∈  
 
λ = 2π / β = 1.4 cm, whereas λ0 =c / f =12 cm in free space

μ μ 1 377 1
η= ' "
= '
= = 43 + j1.9 = 43∠2.6 Ω
∈ − j∈ ∈ "
1 − j (∈ / ∈ )'
78 1 − j (7 / 78)
→ Ex leads H y in time by 2.6
∇ × H s = jω (∈' − j ∈" ) E s = ω ∈" E s + jω ∈' E s
∇ × H s = J s + jω ∈ E s
∇ × H s = (σ + jω ∈' ) E s = Jσ s + J ds
σ
∈" =
ω
J σ s ∈" σ
= =
J ds j ∈' jω ∈'
∈" σ
tan θ = = ← loss tangent
∈' ω ∈'
σ
jk = jω μ ∈' 1 − j
ω ∈'
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)( n − 2) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x +  , where |x|<<1.
2! 3!
 σ 1 σ 
2

jk = jω μ ∈' 1 − j +  ' 
+  = α + j β ← x = − jσ / ω ∈' , n=1/2
 2ω ∈ 8  ω ∈ 
'

 σ  σ μ
α = Re( jk )  jω μ ∈'  − j ' 
=
 2ω ∈  2 ∈
'

 1 σ   2

β = Im( jk )  ω μ ∈' 1 +  '  

 8  ω ∈  
β  ω μ ∈'
μ  σ 
2
3 σ 
η 1 −  ' 
+j 
∈  8  ω ∈ 
'
2ω ∈' 
μ σ 
η 1+ j
∈'  2ω ∈' 

Example
As a comparison, we repeat the computations of Example 12.4, using the approxima-
tion formulas (60a), (61), and (62b).

Solution .
∈" / ∈' = 7 / 78 = 0.09, ∈" = σ / ω
ω ∈" 1 μ 377
α = (7 × .85 ×1012 )( 2π × 2.5 × 109 )
'
= 21 Np/m
2 ∈ 2 78
β  ( 2π × 2.5 ×109 ) 78 / (3 ×108 ) = 464 rad/m
377  7 
η 1 + j 2 × 78  = 43 + j1.9
78  
 Poynting’s theorem and wave
power
∂D
∇ × H = J+
∂t
∂D
E⋅∇ × H = E⋅ J + E⋅
∂t
∇ ⋅ (E× H) = − E⋅∇ × H + H⋅∇ × E : vector identity
∂D
H⋅∇ × E− ∇ ⋅ (E× H) = J⋅ E+ E⋅
∂t
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t
∂B ∂D ∂E ∂H
− H⋅ − ∇ ⋅ (E× H) = J⋅ E+ E⋅ or − ∇ ⋅ (E× H) = J⋅ E + ∈ E⋅ + μ H⋅
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t

∈ E⋅
∂E ∂  1
=  D⋅ E  ←
 ∂ ( ) = ∂ E ⋅ E+ E⋅ ∂ E = 2 E⋅ ∂ E
E⋅ E
∂t ∂t  2  ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
∂H ∂ 1 
μ H⋅ =  B⋅ H 
∂t ∂t  2 
∂ 1  ∂ 1 
−∇ ⋅ (E× H) = J⋅ E+  D⋅ E  +  B⋅ H 
∂t  2  ∂t  2 

∂ 1  ∂ 1 
−  ∇ ⋅ (E× H)dν =  J⋅ E dν +   D⋅ E  dν +   B⋅ H  dν
vol ∂t  2
vol
vol vol ∂t  2 
d 1 d 1
−  (E× H) ⋅ d S =  J⋅ E dν +  D⋅ E dν +  B⋅ H dν ← Poynting's theorem
area vol dt vol 2 dt vol 2
vol
J⋅ E dν : total (but instantaneous) Ohmic power dissipated within the volume
1
vol 2
D⋅ E dν : total energy stored in the electric field

1
vol 2 B⋅ H dν : total energy stored in the magnetic field
Time derivative - time rate of increase of stored energy within the volume,
or instantaneous power going to incrases the stored energy

 area
(E× H) ⋅ d S W: total power flowing out of the volume

S = E× H W/m 2 : Poynting vector - instantaneous power density and its direction at a point
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Ex a x × H y a y = S z a z
Ex = Ex 0 cos(ωt − β z )
Ex 0
Hy = cos(ωt − β z ) ← η is real for a perfect dielectric
η
Ex20
Sz = cos 2 (ωt − β z )
η
 Ex = Ex 0 e −α z cos(ωt − β z )
η = η ∠θη ← Ex and H y are not in time phase for a lossy dielectric
Ex 0
Hy = e −α z cos(ωt − β z − θη )
η
Ex20
S z = Ex H y = e −2α z cos(ωt − β z )cos(ωt − β z − θη )
η
1 T 1 Ex20 −2α z
T 0 2 η
Sz  = e [cos( 2ωt − 2 β z − 2θη ) + cosθη )]dt

← time-average power density, cos A ⋅ cos B = 1 / 2 cos( A + B ) + 1 / 2 cos( A − B )

1 Ex20 −2α z
Sz  = e cosθη
2 η

In a phasor form of the electric and magnetic fields,

1
 S = Re(E s × H*s ) W/m 2
2
E s = Ex 0 e − j β z a x
Ex 0 Ex 0
H*s = e+ jβ z a y = e jθ e + j β z a y
η *
η

Propagation in good conductors:

skin effect
σ
For a good conductor, >> 1.
ω ∈'
σ
jk = jω μ ∈' 1 − j ← general expression for the propagation constant
ω ∈'
σ
jk = jω μ ∈' − j or jk = j − jωμσ
ω ∈'
1
− j = 1∠ − 90 and 1∠ − 90 = 1∠ − 45 = (1 − j )
2
ωμσ
jk = j (1 − j ) = (1 + j ) π f μσ = α + j β
2
α = β = π f μσ
++++++++++++++++++++++++++
π f μσ
Ex = Ex 0 e − z cos(ωt − z π f μσ ) ← traveling in the +z direction
Ex = Ex 0 cos(ωt ) ( z = 0)
J = σ E ← negligible displacement current
π f μσ
J x = σ Ex = σ Ex 0 e− z cos(ωt − z π f μσ ) → exponential decrease in the conduction current density and electric field intensity
with penetration into the conductor
1
1 at z=0, and e −1 = 0.368 when z =
π f μσ
1 1 1
δ= = = ← depth of penetration or skin depth
π f μσ α β
 0.066
Copper σ = 5.8 × 107 S/m, δ Cu =
f
At a power frequency of 60 Hz, δ Cu = 8.53 mm
0.3682 =0.135 for every 8.53 mm of distance into the copper
At a microwave frequency of 10,000 MHz, δ = 6.61× 10−4 mm
→ All fields in a good conductor such as copper are essentially zero
at distances greater than a few skin depths from the surface.

1
α =β = = π f μσ
δ
2π
β=
λ
λ = 2πδ
ω
νp =
β
ν p = ωδ

For copper at 60 Hz, λ = 5.36 cm and ν p = 3.22 m/s.

Example
Let us again consider wave propagation in water, but this time we will consider seawater.
The primary difference between seawater and fresh water is of course the salt content.
Sodium chloride dissociates in water to form Na + and Cl− ions, which, being charged,
will move when forced by an electric field. Seawater is thus conductive, and so it will
attenuate electromagnetic waves by this mechanism. At frequencies in the vicinity of 107 Hz and below,
the bound charge effects in water discussed earlier are negligible, and losses in seawater arise
principally from the salt-associated conductivity. We consider an incident wave of frequency 1 MHz.
We wish to find the skin depth, wavelength, and phase velocity. In seawater, σ = 4 S/m, and ∈'r = 81.

Solution .
σ 4
= = 8.9 × 102 1 → good conductor at 1 MHz
ω ∈ ( 2π ×10 )(81)(8.85 ×10−12 )
' 6

1 1
δ= = = 0.25 m = 25 cm
π f μσ (π × 10 )( 4π × 10−7 )( 4)
6

λ = 2πδ = 1.6 m
ν p = ωδ = ( 2π ×106 )(0.25) = 1.6 ×106 m/sec → λ = 300 m, ν = c in free space

At a frequency of 10 Hz, δ (10Hz )  80 m → λ = 2πδ  500 m

 Skin effect
• All fields in a good conductor such as copper
are essentially zero at distances greater than a
few skin depths from the surface.
• Any current density or electric field intensity
established at the surface of a good conductor
decays rapidly as we progress into the conductor.
• Electro-magnetic energy is not transmitted in
the interior of a good conductor; it travels in the
region surrounding the conductor, while the
conductor merely guides the waves.

jωμ μ
η= ← intrinsic impedance of a good conductor, η = ' , ∈" = σ / ω
σ + jω ∈'
∈ + j ∈''
jωμ 1
η= ← δ=
σ π f μσ
2∠45 (1 + j )
η= =
σδ σδ
z
Ex = Ex 0 e − z /δ cos(ωt − )
δ
σδ Ex 0 z π
Hy = e− z /δ cos(ωt − − )
2 δ 4
1 σδ Ex20 −2 z /δ π 1
Sz  = e cos( ) ← S = Re(E s × H*s ) W/m 2
2 2 4 2
1
 S z  = σδ Ex20 e −2 z /δ
4
b L1 1
PL =   S z  da =   σδ Ex20 e −2 z /δ dx dy = σδ bLEx20 ← Ex 0 = J x 0 / σ
area 0 0 4 4
z =0

1
PL = δ bLJ x20
4σ
 ∞ b
I =  J x dy dz
0 0

z
J x = J x 0 e − z /δ cos(ωt − )
δ
− z /δ − jz / δ
J xs = J x 0 e e = J x 0 e − (1+ j ) z /δ
∞
∞ b −δ J x 0bδ
Is =   J x 0 e − (1+ j ) z /δ dy dz = J x 0be − (1+ j ) z /δ =
0 0 1+ j 0
1+ j
J x 0bδ π
I= cos(ωt − )
2 4
J x0 π
J' = cos(ωt − ) ← uniform density @ 0 ≤ z ≤ δ
2 4
1 J x20 π
PLi (t ) = ( J ' )2 bLδ = bLδ cos 2 (ωt − ) ← J ⋅ E: Ohmic power loss per unit volume
σ 2σ 4
1 2
PL = J x 0bLδ
4σ
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
L L
← conductor for circular cross section (high frequency), S ≈ π a 2 − π ( a - δ )
2
R= =
σS 2π aσδ
103
Rdc = = 5.48 Ω ← copper wire of 1 mm radius and 1 km length at direct current
π 10−6 (5.8 ×107 )
103
R= = 41.5 Ω ← at 1 MHz, δ = 0.066 ×10−3
2π 10 (5.8 ×107 )(0.066 ×10−3 )
−3

Wave polarization
Wave polarization: time-dependent electric field vector orientation at a fixed point in space

Linearly polarized: E-field is in a fixed straight orientation for all times and positions:
E s = ( Ex 0 a x + E y 0 a y )e −α z e − j β z
 Ey0 E 
H s = [ H x 0 a x + H y 0 a y ]e −α z e − j β z =  − a x + x 0 a y  e −α z e − j β z
 η η 
1 1
S z  = Re{ E s × H*s } = Re{Ex 0 H *y 0 (a x × a y ) + E y 0 H x*0 (a y × a x )}e −2α z
2 2
1  E E * E y 0 E y 0  −2α z
*

= Re  x 0 * x 0 + e az
2  η η * 
1 1 2 2
= Re  *  ( Ex 0 + E y 0 )e −2α z a z W/m 2
2 η 
→ two distinct plane waves having x and y polarizations,
whose electric fields are combining in phase to produce the total E.
 Consider the effect of a phase difference, φ (φ < π / 2), between Ex 0 and E y 0 ,
E s = ( Ex 0a x + E y 0 e jφ a y )e − jβ z
→ E( z , t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt − β z )a x + E y 0 cos(ωt − β z + φ )a y
→ E(0, t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt )a x + E y 0 cos(ωt + φ )a y ← z =0

Case 1: linearly polarized wave

Ex 0 = E y 0 = E0 , φ = 0
E(0, t ) = E0 cos(ωt ) a x + a y 
→ E-field vector is in fixed straight orientation for all times: linearly polarized

Case 1: linearly polarized wave

Ex 0 = E y 0 = E0 , φ = 0
E(0, t ) = E0 cos(ωt )a x + cos(ωt )a y  x
E0 ωt=0
ωt = 0 : E(0, 0) = E0 a x + a y 
π π  1 1  ωt=π/4
ωt = : E(0, ) = E0  ax + ay 
4 4  2 2  y
π π ωt=π/2 E0
ωt = : E(0, )=0
2 2
3π 3π  1 1  ωt=3π/4
ωt = : E(0, ) = E0  − ax − ay 
4 4  2 2 
ωt=π
ωt = π : E(0, π ) = E0  − a x − a y 
Case 2: circularly polarized wave
Ex 0 = E y 0 = E0 , φ = −π / 2
E(0, t ) = E0 cos(ωt )a x + sin(ωt )a y 
→ E-field vector rotates in the clockwise direction in xy plane:
Right handed circularly polarized (RHCP)

Ex 0 = E y 0 = E0 , φ = π / 2
E(0, t ) = E0 cos(ωt )a x − sin(ωt )a y 
→ E-field vector rotates in the counterclockwise direction in xy plane:
Left handed circularly polarized (LHCP)

Case 2: RHCP
Ex 0 = E y 0 = E0 , φ = −π / 2
x
E(0, t ) = E0 cos(ωt )a x + sin(ωt )a y 
E0
ωt=0 ωt=π/4
ωt = 0 : E(0, 0) = E0 [a x ]
π π  1 1 
ωt = : E(0, ) = E0  ax + ay 
4 4  2 2  ωt=π/2
π π y
ωt = : E(0,) = E0 a y  E0
2 2
3π 3π  1 1  ωt=π
ωt = : E(0, ) = E0  − ax + ay 
4 4  2 2 
ωt=3π/4
ωt = π : E(0, π ) = E0 [ − a x ]
 Case 3: elliptically polarized wave
Ex 0 ≠ E y 0 , φ = −π / 2
E(0, t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt )a x + E y 0 sin(ωt )a y
→ E-field vector rotates in the clockwise direction in xy plane:
Right handed elliptically polarized (RHEP)

Ex 0 ≠ E y 0 , φ = π / 2
E(0, t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt )a x − E y 0 sin(ωt )a y
→ E-field vector rotates in the counterclockwise direction in xy plane:
Left handed elliptically polarized (LHCP)

Case 2: LHEP
Ex 0 ≠ E y 0 , φ = π / 2
x
Ex0
E(0, t ) = Ex 0 cos(ωt )a x − E y 0 sin(ωt )a y
ωt=0
ωt = 0 : E(0, 0) = Ex 0 a x ωt=π/4
π π 1 1
ωt = : E(0, ) = Ex 0 a x − Ey0 ay
4 4 2 2
π π
ωt = : E(0,) = −Ey0 a y
2 2 y
3π 3π 1 1 ωt=π/2 Ey0
ωt = : E(0, ) = − Ex 0 ax + Ey0 ay
4 4 2 2
ωt = π : E(0, π ) = − Ex 0 a x
ωt=π
ωt=3π/4
 Example
Let us consider the result of superimposing left and right circularly polarized fields
of the same amplitude, frequency, and propagation direction, but where a phase shift
of δ radians exists between the two.

Solution .
E sT = E sR + E sL = E0 [a x − j a y ]e − j β z + E0 [a x + j a y ]e − j β z e jδ
E sT = E0 [(1 + e jδ )a x − j (1 − e jδ )a y ]e − j β z
E sT = E0 e jδ / 2 [(e − jδ / 2 + e jδ / 2 )a x − j (e − jδ / 2 − e jδ / 2 )a y ]e − j β z

E sT = 2 E0 [cos(δ / 2)a x + sin (δ / 2)a y ]e − j ( β z −δ / 2 )

← electric field of a linearly polarized wave,
whose field vector is oriented at an anlge δ / 2 from the x-axis