5.

7 Magnetic Materials
5.8 Inductance and Inductors
5.9 Magnetic Energy
5.10 Magnetic Force and Torque

Force on a moving charge

F = Q E : force on a charged particle

Force on a charged particle in motion in a magnetic field intensity B:

magnitude → proportional to the product the charge Q, its velocity v,
and the flux density B
direction → perpendicular to both v and B, direction of v× B
F = Q v× B

Force on a moving particle arising from combined electric and magnetic fields:
F = Q(E+ v× B) ← Lorentz force equation
 Force on a differential current element
Force on a charged particle moving through a steady magnetic field
d F = dQ v× B

The charge separation is disclosed by the presence of a slight potential difference

across the conductor sample in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field
and the velocity of the charges.
"Hall voltage"
"Hall effect"

J = ρν v : convection current density in terms of the velocity of the volume charge density
dQ = ρν dν
d F = ρν dν v× B
d F = J× B dν
J dν = K dS = Id L
d F = K× B dS , d F = Id L× B
F =  J× B dν
vol

F =  K× B dS
S

F =  Id L× B = − I  B×d L
+++++++++++++++++
F = I L× B ← a straight conductor in a uniform magnetic field
F = BIL sinθ
 Example
As a numerical example of these equations, consider Figure 8.2. We have a sqare
loop of wire in the z = 0 plane carrying 2 mA in the field of an infinite filament on
the y axis, as shown. We desire the total force on the loop.
Solution .
I 15
H= az = a z A/m ← the field produced in the plane
2π x 2π x
of the loop by the straight filament
3 × 10−6
B = μ0 H = 4π × 10−7 H = az T
x
F = − I  B× d L
 3 az 2 a 1 a 0 a 
F = −2 × 10−3 × 3 × 10−6   × dx a x +  z
× dy a y +  z
× dx a x +  z
× dy a y 
y =0 3 y =2 1
 x =1 x x =3 x


−9 1
2
0 
= −6 × 10  ln x 1 a y + y ( − a x ) + ln x 13 a y + y a x 
3

 3 0 2

 2 1 
= −6 ×10−9 (ln 3) a y − a x + (ln ) a y + 2 a x 
 3 3 
= −8 a x nN

Force between differential current

elements
The magnetic field at point 2 due to a current element at point 1:
I d L ×a
d H 2 = 1 1 2 R12
4π R12
d F = Id L× B
d ( d F2 ) = I 2 d L 2 × d B 2
I1 I 2
d ( d F2 ) = μ0 d L 2 × ( d L1× a R12 )
4π R122

The total force between two filamentary circuits:

I1 I 2  d L1× a R12 
F2 = μ0
4π  d L × 
2
R122


I1 I 2  a R12 × d L1 
= μ0
4π    R122  × d L2
Example
As an example that illustrates the use (and misuse) of these results, consider the
two differential current elements shown in Figure 8.3. We seek the differential force
on d L 2 . P1 (5, 2, 1), P2 (1, 8, 5)

Solution .

I1d L1 = −3 a y A ⋅ m at P1 (5, 2, 1) and I 2 d L 2 = −4 a z A ⋅ m at P2 (1, 8, 5)

R12 = − 4 a x + 6 a y + 4 a z
4π 10−7 ( −4 a z ) × [( −3 a y ) × ( −4 a x + 6 a y + 4 a z )]
d ( d F2 ) = = 8.56 a y nN
4π (16 + 36 + 16)1.5

The magnetic field intensity at either wire caused by other:

I
H=
2π d
μ0 I 2
F= N/m ← dF = IdL × B
2π d
 Force and torque on a closed circuit
The force on a filamentary closed circuit: F = − I  B× d L

F = − I B×  d L ← uniform magnetic flux density

 d L=0 ← The force on a closed filamentary circuit in a uniform magnetic field is zero.

+++++++++++++++++++
The torque about point O:
T = R× F ← F: force at point P, R: a rigid lever arm extending from O to P

T = R1× F1 + R 2 × F2 , where F1 + F2 = 0
T = (R1 − R 2 ) × F1 = R 21× F1 ← torque is independent of the choice of origin

d F1 = I dx a x × B 0 or d F1 = I dx( B0 y a z − B0 z a y ) ← the vector force on side 1

d T1 = R1× d F1 where R1 = − 12 dy a y
= − 12 dy a y × I dx( B0 y a z − B0 z a y )
= − 12 dx dy IB0 y a x
d T3 = R 3 × d F3 = 12 dy a y × ( − I dx a x × B 0 )
= − 12 dx dy IB0 y a x = d T1
d T1 + d T3 = −dx dy IB0 y a x
d T2 + d T4 = dx dy IB0 x a y
d T = I dx dy( B0 x a y − B0 y a x ) = I dx dy(a z × B 0 )
or d T = I d S× B

d m = I d S A ⋅ m 2 ← the differential magnetic dipole moment

d T = d m× B
d T = d p× E ← d p : the differential electric dipole moment

The torque on a planar loop of any size or shape in a uniform magnetic field:
T = I S× B = m× B
Example
To illustrates some force and torque calculations, consider the rectangular loop shown
in Figure 8.7. Calculate the torque by using T = I S× B

Solution .
B 0 = −0.6 a y + 0.8 a z
T = 4 × 10−3 [(1)( 2)a z ] × ( −0.6 a y + 0.8 a z ) = 4.8 a x mN ⋅ m

Example
Now let us find the torque once more, this time by Calculating the total force and
torque contribution for each side.

Solution .
F1 = I L1× B 0 = 4 ×10−3 (1a x ) × ( −0.6 a y + 0.8 a z )
= −3.2 a y − 2.4 a z mN
F3 = 3.2 a y + 2.4 a z mN
F2 = I L 2 × B 0 = 4 ×10−3 ( 2 a y ) × ( −0.6 a y + 0.8 a z )
= 6.4 a x mN
T = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 = R1× F1 + R 2 × F2 + R 3 × F3 + R 4 × F4
= ( −1a y ) × ( −3.2 a y − 2.4 a z ) + (0.5 a x ) × (6.4 a x )
+ (1a y ) × (3.2 a y + 2.4 a z ) + ( −0.5 a x ) × ( −6.4 a x )
= 2.4 a x + 2.4 a x = 4.8 a x mN ⋅ m
 The nature of magnetic materials
Classification Magnetic B Values Comments
Moments
Diamagnetic morb+mspin=0 Bint<Bappl Bint≒Bappl, Silver, Mercury, Bismuth,
(역자성체) Lead, Carbon, Copper, Water
Paramagnetic morb+mspin=smal Bint>Bappl Bint≒Bappl, Tungsten, Caesium,
(상자성체) l Aluminium, Lithium, Magnesium,
Sodium
Ferromagnetic |mspin|>>|morb| Bint>>Bappl Domains, Co, Fe, Ni
(강자성체)
Antiferromagnetic |mspin|>>|morb| Bint≒Bappl Adjacent moments oppose
Ferrimagnetic |mspin|>>|morb| Bint>Bappl Unequal adjacent moments oppose
Superparamagnetic |mspin|>>|morb| Bint>Bappl Nonmagnetic matrix; recoding tapes

Orbiting electron
Electron spin analogous to a small current loop
Nuclear spin

Magnetization and permeability

Bound current or Amperian current: the current produced by the bound charges
(orbital electrons, electron spin, and nuclear spin)
Magnetic dipole moment:
m = I b d S ← I b : bound current
nΔν
m total =  mi ← n dipoles per unit volume
i =1
nΔν
1
M = lim
Δν →0 Δν
m
i =1
i A/m ← magnetization: magnetic dipole moment per unit volume

d S⋅ d L : small volume
nd S⋅ d L : number of magnetic dipoles in d S⋅ d L or n magnetic dipoles per unit volueme

ΔI b dI b
dI b = nI b d S⋅ d L = M⋅ d L ⇐ lim = = nI b
Δv = 0 Δv dv
I b =  M⋅ d L
 B
 μ 0
⋅ d L = IT where IT = I b + I ← Ampere's circuital law for the total current

B 
I (toal free current enclosed by the closed path ) = IT − I b =   − M  ⋅ d L
 μ0 
B
H= − M ← new definition
μ0
B = μ0 (H + M)
I =  H⋅ d L ← Ampere's circuital law in terms of free current

I b =  J b ⋅ d S, IT =  J T ⋅ d S, I =  J⋅ d S
S S S

B
using Stoke's theorem → ∇ × M = J b , ∇ × = JT , ∇ × H = J
μ0
M = χ m H ← χ m : magnetic susceptability
B = μ0 (H + χ m H) = μ0 μr H where μr = 1 + χ m ← μr : relative permeability
μ = μ0 μr ← permeability
B=μH

Bx = μ xx H x + μ xy H y + μ xz H z
By = μ yx H x + μ yy H y + μ yz H z
Bz = μ zx H x + μ zy H y + μ zz H z

Example

Given a ferrite material which we shall specify to be operating in a liner mode with
B = 0.05 T, let us assume μr = 50, and calculate values for χ m , M , and H .

Solution
χ m = μr − 1 = 49
B = μ r μ0 H
0.05
H= = 796 A/m
50 × 4π ×10−7
B = μ0 ( H + M ) or 0.05 = 4π ×10−7 (796 + 39 000)
B = μr μ0 H or 0.05 = 50 × 4π × 10−7 × 796
Magnetic boundary conditions
S
B⋅ d S = 0 : Gauss's law for the magnetic field
BN 1ΔS − BN 2 ΔS = 0
μ1
BN 2 = BN 1 , H N 2 = H
μ2 N 1
μ1 χ μ
M N 2 = χm2 H N1 = m2 1 M N1
μ2 χ m1μ2
+++++++++++++++++++

 H⋅ d L = I
H t1ΔL − H t 2 ΔL = K ΔL
H t1 − H t 2 = K
(H1 − H 2 ) × a N 12 = K
H t1 − H t 2 = a N 12 × K
Bt1 Bt 2
− =K
μ1 μ2
χ
M t 2 = m 2 M t1 − χ m 2 K
χ m1

Example
To illustrate these relationships with an example, let us assume that μ = μ1 = 4 μ H/m
in region 1 where z >0, while μ 2 = 7 μ H/m in region 2 where z < 0. Moreover,
let K = 80 a x A/m on the surface z = 0. We establish a field, B1 = 2 a x − 3 a y +
a z mT, in region 1 and seek the value of B 2 .

Solution .
B N 1 = (B1 ⋅ a N 12 )a N 12 = [( 2 a x − 3 a y + a z ) ⋅ ( − a z )]( − a z ) = a z mT
B N 2 = B N 1 = a z mT
Bt1 = B1 − B N 1 = 2 a x − 3 a y mT
B t1 ( 2 a x − 3 a y )10−3
H t1 = = = 500 a x − 750 a y A/m
μ1 4 × 10−6
H t 2 = H t1 − a N 12 × K = 500 a x − 750 a y − ( − a z ) × 80 a x
= 500 a x − 750 a y + 80 a y = 500 a x − 670 a y A/m
Bt 2 = μ2 H t 2 = 7 ×10−6 (500 a x − 670 a y ) = 3.5 a x − 4.69 a y mT
B 2 = B N 2 + Bt 2 = 3.5 a x − 4.69 a y + a z mT
The magnetic circuit
E = −∇V  H = −∇Vm ← Vm : magnetomotive force
B B
VAB =  E⋅ d L  VmAB =  H⋅ d L
A A

J =σ E  B = μ H
I =  J⋅ d S  Φ =  B⋅ d S
S S

V = IR  Vm = Φℜ ← ℜ (A ⋅ t/Wb) : reluctance
d d
R=  ℜ=
σS μS
 E⋅ d L = 0   H⋅ d L = I total ,  H⋅ d L = NI
++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Air-core toroid with 500 turns, a cross-sectional area of 6 cm 2 , a mean radius of 15 cm, and a coil current of 4 A
Vm , source = 2000 A ⋅ t
d 2π (0.15) V 2000
ℜ= = = 1.25 ×109 A ⋅ t/Wb, Φ = m , S = = 1.6 ×10−6 Wb
μ S 4π 10 × 6 × 10
−7 −4
ℜ 1.25 ×109
Φ 1.6 × 10−6 B 2.67 ×10−3
B= = = 2.67 × 10−3 T, H = = = 2120 A ⋅ t/m
S 6 ×10 −4
μ 4π 10−7
H φ 2π r = NI
NI 500 × 4
Hφ = = = 2120 A/m
2π r 6.28 × 0.15

Ferromagnetic materials

Hysteresis loop
Example
Let us make use of the magnetization curve for silicon steel to solve a magnetic circuit
problem that is slightly different from our previous example. We shall use a steel core
in the toroid, except for an air gap of 2 mm. Magnetic circuits with air gaps occur
because gaps are deliberately introduced in some devices, such as inductors, which
must carry large direct currents, because they are unavoidable in other devices such
as rotating machines, or because of unavoidable problems in assembly. There are still
500 turns about the toroid, and we ask what current is required to establish a flux
density of 1 T everywhere in the core.

Solution .
d air 2 ×10−3
ℜair = = = 2.65 ×106 A ⋅ t/Wb
μ S 4π 10 × 6 ×10
−7 −4

Φ = BS = 1(6 × 10−4 ) = 6 × 10−4 Wb

Vm , air = (6 ×10−4 )( 2.65 ×106 ) = 1590 A ⋅ t
H steel = 200 A ⋅ t
Vm , steel = H steel dsteel = 200 × 0.30π = 188 A ⋅ t
total mmf: 1778 A ⋅ t → a coil current: 3.56 A

Example

Aa a last example, let us consider the reverse problem. Given a coil current of 4 A in
the magnetic circuit of Example 8.7, what will the flux density be?

Solution .
Linearize the magnetic curve by a straight line:
B = 1, H = 200
B = H / 200 in steel, B = μ0 H in air
ℜsteel = 0.314 ×106 for the steel path , ℜair = 2.65 ×106 for the air gap
ℜ total = 2.96 ×106 A ⋅ t/Wb

Φ = 6.76 ×10−4 Wb, B = 1.13 T, since Vm = 2000 A ⋅ t

 Potential energy and forces on magnetic
materials
1 1
WE = 
2 vol
D⋅ E dv  WH =  B⋅ H dv ← for the linear media
2 vol
1 1 B2
WH =  μ H dv or WH = 
2
dv
2 vol 2 vol μ
+++++++++++++
For a long solenoid with a silicon-steel core, n turns/m coil, and a current I surrounding the coil,
H = nI A ⋅ t/m
Suppose that the core is composed of two semi-infinite cylinders which are just touching.
We apply a mechanical force to separate these two sections of the core while keeping
the flux density constant.
Applying a force F over a distance dL,
1 Bst2
dWH = F dL = S dL ← S: core cross-sectional area
2 μ0
Bst2 S
F= ← Bst ≈ 1.4 T if the magnetic field intensity is sufficient to produce saturation
2 μ0
F = 7.80 ×105 S N

Inductance and mutual inductance

Consider a toroid of N turns in which a current I produces a total flux Φ .
This flux links or encircles each of the N turns and each of the N turns links the total flux Φ .
The flux linkage N Φ is defined .

NΦ
L= (H, Wb ⋅ t/A): inductance (or self-inductance)
I
+++++++++++++++
For a coaxial cable of inner radius a and outer radius b, I
Hφ = ( a < ρ < b)
μ Id b 2πρ
Φ = 0 ln ← pp. 239, (42) μ0 I
2π a B = μ0 H = aφ
2πρ
μd b μ b μ0 I
L = 0 ln H, L = 0 ln H/m Φ =  B⋅ d S = 
d b

2π a 2π a S 0 
a 2πρ
aφ ⋅ d ρ dz aφ

+++++++++++++++ Φ=
μ0 Id b
ln
2π a
For a toroidal coil of N turns and a current I,
μ NI μ NIS
Bφ = 0 , Φ = 0 ← S : cross sectional area, ρ0 : mean radius
2πρ 2πρ0
μ0 N 2 S
L=
2πρ0
 For partial flux linkages,
N
( N Φ )total = Φ1 + Φ 2 +  + Φ i +  + Φ N =  Φ i ← Φ i : the flux linking the ith turn
i =1

2WH
L= ← equivalent definition for inductance using an energy point of view
I2

L=
 vol
B⋅ H dν
I2
1
I 2 vol
L= H⋅ (∇ × A)dν

∇ ⋅ (A× H) ≡ H⋅ (∇ × A) − A⋅ (∇ × H) : vector identity

1  ∇ ⋅ (A× H)dν + A⋅ (∇ × H)dν 
 vol vol
L=
I2 
1   (A× H) ⋅ d S + A⋅ J dν  : divergence theorem, ∇ × H = J
 S vol
L= 2
I 

1
L=
I2  vol
A⋅ J dν

μJ
A= dν ← pp. 247, (51)
vol 4π R
1  μJ 
L=
I2 vol  vol 4π R dν  ⋅ J dν
1  μI d L  μ  dL
L=
I2
   4π R  ⋅ I d L = 4π    R  ⋅ d L

1 1
L=
I 
 A⋅ d L → Stoke's theorem → L =  (∇ × A) ⋅ d S
I S
1 Φ
L =  B⋅ d S or L =
I S I

Let the filament make N identical turns about the total flux,
NΦ
L=
I
+++++++++++++++
μ
La ,int = H/m ← the internal inductance of a long, straight wire of circular cross section, radius a,
8π
and uniform current distribution
+++++++++++++++
NΦ
M 12 = 2 12 ← mutual inductance between circuits 1 and 2 in terms of mutual flux linkage
I1
Φ12 : the flux produced by I1 which links the path of the filamentary current I 2
N 2 : the number of turns in circuit 2
1 1
M 12 =
I1 I 2 
vol
(B1 ⋅ H 2 )dν or M 12 =
I1 I 2 
vol
( μ H1 ⋅ H 2 )dν

where B1 is the field resulting from I1 (with I 2 =0), and H 2 is the field arising from I 2 (with I1 =0).
M 12 = M 21
Example
Calculate the self-inductances of and the mutual inductances between two coaxial
solenoids of radius R1 and R2 , R2 > R1 , carrying currents I1 and I 2 with n1 and
n2 turns/m, respectively.

Solution . Let n1 = N / d ,
H1 = n1 I1 a z (0 < ρ < R1 ), H1 = 0 ( ρ > R1 )
H 2 = n2 I 2 a z (0 < ρ < R2 ), H 2 = 0 ( ρ > R2 )
Φ12 = μ0 n1 I1π R12 for uniform field, M 12 = μ0 n1n2π R12
Φ 21 = μ0 n2 I 2π R12 , M 21 = μ0 n1n2π R12 = M 12
If n1 =50 turns/cm, n2 =80 turns/cm, R1 = 2cm, and R2 = 3cm,
M 12 = M 21 = 4π ×10−7 (5000)(8000)π (0.022 ) = 63.2 mH/m
Φ11 = μ0 n1 I1π R12
L1 = μ0 n12 S1d H
L1 = μ0 n12 S1 H/m ← inductance per unit length
L1 = 39.5 mH/m, L2 = μ0 n22 S 2 = 22.7 mH/m