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Declaration: Automatic Power Factor Correcter
Declaration: Automatic Power Factor Correcter
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We grateful to the god, without his blessing and mercy; this thesis would not have been
possible. We like to thank our family members for their constant support and encouragement.
Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to my advisor “Advisor Name”, for
the continuous support of my ‘AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTER’, for his
patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His/her guidance helped us in all
the time of research and writing of this thesis. Without him, we could not have written this
thesis. We would like to express gratitude to our head of the department, Electrical and
Computer Engineering “Ass pro DEGU MENA”, who helped us to finalize my thesis.
Lastly, we offer our regards to the faculty and all of those who supported us in any respect
during the completion of the project.
Amp - Ampere
C – Capacitance
CKT – Circuit
CT – Current transformer
DC – Direct current
GND – Ground
Hz - Hertz
I – current
IC – Capacitor current
Icp – Per phase Capacitor current
IL – Load current
IM - induction motor
Kv – Kilo-Volt
KVA - kilovolt-amperes
KVAH - kilovolt-ampere-hours.
KW – kilo-watt
KWh - in kilowatt-hours
mA – Mill-Ampere
MHz – Mega-Hertz
Ms – Mill-Second
NC - Normally closes
NO - Normally open
P - Real Power
Pave – Average power
Q – Reactive power
R – Resister
S – Apparent power
V – Voltag
XC – Capacitive reactance
Abstract
Low power is poor electrical efficiency. It results in excess heating since the current flow
through electrical system components is higher than necessary. The excess heating then can
lead to damage or shortening the life of the appliances. Low power factor also results in low-
voltage conditions which can lead to slow operation of appliances and dimming of lights.
When the power factor is low, the electrical utility provides higher apparent power which
means that the utility will use larger distribution system devices. And the utility will pass the
higher expenses through higher utility bills.
In the present technological revolution power is very precious. So we need to find out the
causes of power loss and improve the power system. Due to industrialization the use of
inductive load increases and hence power system losses its efficiency. So we need to improve
the power factor with a suitable method. . Whenever we are thinking about any programmable
devices then the embedded technology comes into force front. The embedded is now a day
very much popular and most the product are developed with Microcontroller based embedded
technology. Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line voltage
and line current by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with respect to
voltage signal with the help of power factor transducer high accuracy by using an internal
timer. This time values are then calibrated as DC voltage output and corresponding power
factor. Then the values are displayed in the 2X16 LCD modules.
Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to the industries, power systems
and also households to make them stable and due to that the system becomes stable and
efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases. The use of microcontroller reduces
the costs become more efficient.
CHAPTER- ONE
1.1INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 BACKGROUND
The power factor of an ac electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power to the
apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the electric
load for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current
and voltage of the electric load. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or
due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power can be greater than the real power . Low-power-factor loads increase losses in
a power distribution system and result in increased energy costs. In a purely resistive ac
circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase; changing polarity at the same instant in
each cycle Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements such as filament lamps and
cooking stoves have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive
elements such as lamp ballasts and motors often have a power factor below 1.0 .
Over the last few years, the interest in reactive power compensation has been growing, mainly
because of the way in which energy supplier charge a customer for reactive power. Moreover,
the energy price is growing, what force the industry plants and individual customers to
minimize energy consumption, including reactive power. The aim is to minimize reactive
power flow in supplying and distribution systems, eliminate or minimize the charge for
reactive power as well as aspire to active energy limitation, in result, reducing fare for
electrical energy. In the matter of fact, the energy providers want them customers to
compensate reactive power. There are few solutions, that allow handle the problem of reactive
power compensation. One of them is reactive power compensator basing on power capacitors.
This is the most popular compensating device, mainly because of economical reasons, they
are relatively cheap comparing with i.e. active filters or compensation by means of electric
motors. That is one of the reasons, for which proposed the thesis topic “Design of automatic
power factor corrector”.
1.1.2Power theory
Active Power
“Power is a measure of energy per unit time. Power therefore gives the rate of energy
consumption or production. The units for power are generally watts (W). For example, the
watt rating of an appliance gives the rate at which it uses energy. The total amount of energy
consumed by this appliance is the wattage multiplied by the amount of time during which it
was used; this energy can be expressed in units of watt-hours (or, more commonly, kilowatt-
hours).The power dissipated by a circuit element whether an appliance or simply a wire is
given by the product of its resistance and the square of the current through it: P=I 2R. The term
“dissipated” indicates that the electric energy is being converted to heat. This heat may be part
of the appliance’s intended function (as in any electric heating device), or it may be
considered a loss (as in the resistive heating of transmission lines); the physical process is the
same. Another, more general way of calculating power is as the product of current and
voltage: P=IV. For a resistive element, we can apply Ohm’s law (P=I.V) to see that the
formulas P=I2R and P=I.V amount to the same thing:”
1.1.3Complex power
“Applying the simple formula P=I.V becomes more problematic when voltage and current are
changing over time, as they do in a.c. systems. In the most concise but abstract notation,
power, current, and voltage are all complex quantities, and the equation for power becomes:
S=I*V Where S is the apparent power and the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate of the
current I, meaning that for purposes of calculation, the sign (positive or negative) of its
imaginary component is to be reversed. All this ought to make very little sense without a more
detailed discussion of complex quantities and their representation by phasors. In the interest
of developing a conceptual understanding of A.C power, let us postpone the elegant
mathematics and begin by considering power, voltage, and current straightforwardly as real
quantities that vary in time. In the fundamental and correct way to interpret the statement
P=I*V when I and V vary in time is as a statement of instantaneous conditions. Regardless of
all the complexities to be encountered, it is always true that the instantaneous power is equal
to the instantaneous product of current and voltage. In other words, at any instant, the power
equals the voltage times the current at that instant. This is expressed by writing each variable
as a function of time, P (t) = I (t)* V (t)
Where t is the same throughout the equation (i.e. the same instant). “However, instantaneous
power as such is usually not very interesting to us. In power systems, we generally need to
know about power transmitted or consumed on a time scale much greater than 1/60 of a
second. Therefore, we need an expression for power as averaged over entire cycles of
alternating current and voltage. Consider first the case of a purely resistive load. Voltage and
current are in phase; they are oscillating simultaneously. The average power (the average
product of voltage and current) can be obtained by taking the averages (rms values) of each
and then multiplying them together. Thus, Pave = Irms *Vrms (in resistive case)
But now consider a load with reactance. The relative timing of voltage and current has been
shifted; their maxima no longer coincide. In fact, one quantity is sometimes negative when the
other is positive. As a result, the instantaneous power transmitted or consumed (the product of
voltage and current) is sometimes negative. We can interpret the negative instantaneous
power as saying that power flows “backwards” along the transmission line, or out of the load
and back into the generator
Reactive power
“Finally, we also specify what we might intuitively think of as the difference between
apparent and real power, namely, reactive power [6]. Reactive power is the component of
power that oscillates back and forth through the lines, being exchanged between electric and
magnetic fields and not getting dissipated . It is denoted by the symbol Q, and its magnitude is
given by”
Q = Irms *Vrms* sinφ
Again, note how the equation converges for the resistive case where φ =0 and sin sinφ=0, as
there will be no reactive power at all. Reactive power is measured in VAR (also written Var
or VAr), for volt-ampere reactive. We can represent power as a vector in the complex plane:
namely, and arrow of length S (apparent power) that makes an angle f with the real axis. The
angle φ is the same as the phase difference between voltage and current.”
Nonlinear loads
Electromagnetic immunity of devices on electromagnetic distortions is smaller
Electromagnetic ecology
The main point of the power quality improving is to understand the problem by the energy
customers and suppliers. In order describe the sources of the power distortion, it is necessary
to determine which parameters of the power decide about the quality.
All of this can be caused for few reasons, such as resonance phenomenon, mistakes in design,
use of unsuitable equipment, wrong exploitation. But despite of all negative consequences,
there are also positive ones, which will definitely improve energy quality. These are as
follows:
Bearing above in mind, before one decides, what kind of compensating device will be used in
particular case; there is a few factors and conditions that has to be taken under consideration,
such as:
Rating of the mains, that is: voltage, frequency, and it`s real value
(measurement)
Demand on inductive reactive power taking into account the aim of
compensation
Presence of higher order harmonics of a current and voltage
Short circuit parameters at the capacitor bank future location
Ambient conditions
Place of installation
Though correction of power factor is very old practice, we have considered the work done in
recent years in our Thesis. Many of the authors below have suggested and prescribe many
ways of power factor correction but this work concentrates on .We have considered the work
done in the previous years, starting from 1988. Proposed a continuing effort to develop an
effective, reliable, and inexpensive adaptive power factor controller (APFC). The APFC was
able to compensate adaptively the reactive power of rapidly varying loads without adding
harmonics or transients to the power system. Based on thousands of hours of field operation,
the APFC had substantially modified to improve its reliability and effectiveness. Proposed the
speed and power factor of an adjustable speed slip power recovery drive were controlled in
order to optimize the operation. This was accomplished by means of a variable voltage
variable-frequencies power converter. The function of the digital controller of the power
converter was to provide the online speed and power factor regulation. reports a laboratory
model of a microcomputer-based power factor controller (PFC) for compensating the reactive
power of rapidly varying loads by switching capacitors sized in a binary ratio, with the help of
zero voltage static switches. Four types of control strategies were tried, viz.
1. Unity step control method
2. Binary search method
3. Successive approximation method and
4. Look-up table method.
Features like,
Independent control of current in each phase,
Reactive current sensing and capacitor switching in one cycle,
Zero voltage switching of static switches to prevent the occurrence of
transients and harmonics.
Switch failure detection logic and their display are all incorporated in the
software programming.
Investigates the use of variable inductance (the inductance varies with current), which
provides adequate harmonic reduction. Three types of inductors are investigated: an inductor
with a fixed air- gap operating with a saturated core, a swinging inductor which has a stepped
gap and a novel inductor construction with a sloped air-gap (SAG). Results are presented for a
200 W power supply and it is shown that the SAG inductor has the best performance in terms
of harmonic response and size. Proposed a detailed analysis of the ripple current of an
electrolytic capacitor in a boost type power factor control circuit. The ripple current was
divided into two components, namely the low-frequency and the high-frequency components.
The root-mean-square value of the capacitor current was derived for both components. In
proposed the programming of micro-controller for power factor correction that described the
design and development of a three-phase power factor corrector using (Programmable
Interface Microcontroller) chip. This involved sensing and measuring the power factor value
from the load using PIC and sensors, then using proper algorithm to determine and trigger
sufficient switching capacitors in order to compensate excessive reactive components, thus
withdraw PF near to unity .Proposed a new integrated power quality device-power factor
controller (PFC) for power distribution system and industrial power circuit applications. A
PFC integrated breaker-switched capacitor banks into a compact design with low cost sensing
elements and an intelligent control unit. The device provided more accurate voltage control
and power factor correction than traditional shunt capacitor bank installations. Proposed a
power factor controller (PFC) for a three-phase induction motor (IM) utilized the
programmable logic controller (PLC). It focused on the implementation of a laboratory model
for a PLC based PFC to improve the power factor of a three-phase induction motor. During
the online process a set of capacitors sized in a binary ratio would be switched on or off with
the help of zero voltage static switches according to a control strategy to obtain a pre specified
power factor. This control strategy relied on a look-up table and an expert system. Proposed
an innovative converter topology that improved the performance of a switched reluctance
motor drive, aimed to equip home appliances. It was based on a modified C dump converter
configuration, where the energy recovery stage acted as an active power factor controller for
off-line operation. Proposed a general description of new functions integrated in the medium
voltage switchboard to meet the power quality challenge. They described circuit breakers with
magnetic actuators that were easy to justify economically and gave low cost power quality
solutions. introduces a single-phase digital power-factor correction (PFC) control approach
that requires no input voltage sensing or explicit current-loop compensation, yet results in
low-harmonic operation over a universal input voltage range and loads ranging from high-
power operation in continuous conduction mode down to the near-zero load. The controller is
based on low-resolution A/D converters and digital pulse width modulator, requires no
microcontroller or DSP programming, and is well suited for a simple, low-cost integrated
circuit realization, or as a hardware description language core suitable for integration with
other power control and power management functions. proposed a novel compensator, where
in-phase and quadrature components of the supply current are vector-controlled.
Implementation of this compensator in a power electronic system operating with a very poor
power factor (and hence high THD) shows that the system then draws a leading current. A
conventional power electronic system with one of the traditional static VAR compensators
and the conventional power electronic system incorporated with the proposed compensator
are simulated and the simulation results are obtained. It is shown that the proposed method
offers only 0.7% THD, which also implies that the power factor is improved. Shuffling
presents an intelligent power factor compensation controller that can perform power factor
correction without exciting harmonic resonance under varying demand conditions. Practical
and robust control algorithms are proposed for the purpose of easy implementation in a micro-
controller. In addition, the controller relies on common low cost sensing devices and does not
require additional measurements. As a result, the proposed controller can be constructed as a
retrofitting device to replace existing power factor correction controllers with little effort.
P
PF= *100
S
Or Power factor cos ϕ is defined as the ratio between the Active component IR and the total
value of the current I; ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and the current.
losses in the circuits. Also due to higher current, the conductor temperature rises and hence
the life of the insulation is reduced. Also, with the increased current the voltage drop
increases; thereby the voltage at the supply point is reduced. For different loads it causes
voltage drop resulting in: a. Lower output of the illumination system. Less current is drawn by
the heating devices so that the operating temperature drops. This results in increased
consumption for the same rise of temperature. The induction motors slow down and therefore
draw more current to produce a fixed torque for the loads.
The advantages of an improved power factor
Higher power factors result in: a) Reduction in system losses, and the losses in the cables,
lines, and feeder circuits and therefore lower cable sizes could be opted for. b) Improved
system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage to motors, pumps and other equipment.
The voltage drop in supply conductors is a resistive loss, and wastes power heating the
conductors. Improving the power factor, especially at the motor terminals, can improve the
efficiency by reducing the line current and the line losses. c) Improved voltage regulation. d)
Increased system capacity, by release of KVA capacity of transformers and cables for the
same KW, thus permitting additional loading without immediate expansion.
Power Factor and Electrical Loads
In general, electrical systems are made up of three components: resistors, inductors and
capacitors. Inductive equipment requires an electromagnetic field to operate. Because of this,
inductive loads require both real and reactive power to operate. The power factor of inductive
loads is referred to as lagging, or less than 100%, based upon our power factor ratio.
In most commercial and industrial facilities, a majority of the electrical equipment acts as a
resistor or an inductor. Resistive loads include incandescent lights, baseboard heaters and
cooking ovens. Inductive loads include fluorescent lights, AC induction motors, arc welders
and transformers.
Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices .
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are
widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant
circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for
stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes. Capacitors also require
reactive power to operate. However, capacitors and inductors have an opposite effect on
reactive power. The power factors for capacitors are leading. Therefore capacitors are
installed to counteract the effect of reactive power used by inductive equipment.
INDUCTION
AC SUPPLAY
MOTOR
PT CT CAPACITOR SWITCH
SWITCHING
MICRO-
DRIVE
PF TRANSDUCER CONTROLLER
LCD
When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the parallel energy of a series group too
great (above 4650 kvar) for the capacitor units or fuses, the bank may be split into two wye
sections. The characteristics of the grounded double wye are similar to a grounded single
wye bank. The two neutrals should be directly connected with single connection with
ground.
H Configuration
Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a current transformer connected
between the two legs to compare the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors are
normal, no current will flow through the current transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates,
some current will flow through the current transformer. This bridge connection can be very
sensitive. This arrangement is used on large banks with many capacitor units in parallel.
Delta-connected Banks
Delta-connected banks are generally used at distributions voltages and are configured with a
single series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one series group of
units no overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a
faulted capacitor unit. Therefore, unbalance detection is not required for protection. A delta-
connected bank of capacitors is usually applied to voltage classes of 2400 volts or less.
In a three phase system, to supply the same reactive power, the star connection requires a
capacitor with a capacitance three times higher than the delta connected capacitor. In addition,
the capacitor with the star connection results to be subjected to a voltage√3 lower and flows
through by a current √3 higher than a capacitor inserted and delta connected.
Where,
Ur = rated voltage, which the capacitor must withstand indefinitely;
Fr = rated frequency
Qc = generally expressed in kVAR (reactive power of the capacitor bank).
The circuit breaker should be sized no less than 135% of the rated capacitor current:
Rated Capacitor Current = (1000 x kVAR) / (sqrt (3) x Voltage) Amps
Where: Voltage = line to line voltage KVAr = 3 phase kVAR rating of capacitor (Nameplate
rating).
For 723.3 kVAR capacitor, 380 V systems:
Rated Capacitor Current = (723.3 x 1000) / (1.73 x 380) =1100.24.Amps
The breaker shall be rated to carry the = 1100.24A x 135% or 1485.3A continuously in its
operating environment. In this case therefore a 1000A 100% rated breaker will be required as
a minimum.
Contactors for capacitors switching
An automatic power factor correction system consists of several capacitor banks of identical
or different ratings (several steps), energized separately according to the value of the power
factor to be corrected. An electronic device automatically determines the power of the steps to
be energized and activates the relevant contactors. The inrush current peak, in the case of
automatic correction, depends on the power of the steps already on duty, and can reach 100
times the nominal current of the step to be energized.
I1 = Q / sqrt (3) * V
I1 = 361500 / 380 * 1.73 = 549.89A
The contactor operating currents Ie
Ie = 549.89A x1.43 = 786.3477A
The selected contactors’ that have contact capacity of 800A.
In our case of splitting capacitor banks in to two equal banks we use two contactors both have
the same contact capacity I.e. 800 A.
The single-phase power factor transducer shown above has a single multiplier or element
inside the electronics package. Often the combined loads of an entire house, apartment, or
office are monitored with a power factor transducer. This requires a two-element model with
current transformers. The two- element, single-phase power factor transducer is connected as
shown below.
The two-element power factor transducer shown above has two multipliers inside the
electronics package. The output of these two multipliers is summed to obtain the total power.
The output signal of this power factor transducer thus represents the total power being used.
Power factor transducers are polarity sensitive. They sense not only the power but also the
direction in which it is flowing. Should a current transformer be installed backwards, the watt
transducer will sense this as reverse power flow and provide an output reversed in polarity, a
negative output. Watt transducers are also phase sensitive. If a current transformer is installed
on the wrong phase line, the watt transducer will interpret this as a 120-degree phase angle
shift and give the wrong result.
With the known electrical load parameter prospective, we select the desired power factor or
phase angle transducer LTPFU. These transducers require an auxiliary power supply and offer
a highly accurate method of the phase angle of the input. They have a full four quadrate
capability. The output is a linear function of the phase angle between the two inputs (which
can be current or voltage), the circuit can also be used as power factor transducer only added a
cos ӫ circuit. Output amplifier provides constant current and voltage output. Output is
unaffected by load resistance provided it is within the specific range.
MODEL
Current input/ range 0.5ampAc and 10-200% of rated input
Current input over range capability 200% of rated input continuous
Current input burden < 0.2VAper element
Voltage input and range 120V 240V
Input powered range 100-135V Ac 200-264V Ac
Voltage input burden per element Less than 0.5 V Less than 0.1V
Auxiliary powered range 0-120% rated input
Sustained voltage input over range 150% of rated input with out damage
Rated output 4-12-20 mAmp Dc and 0-5V
Accuracy +0.01power factor
Output calibration 0.5-1-0.5 power factor
External calibration adjustment Zero:+1% minimum
Response time Less than 400 mill second
Output ripple 0.3% peak to peak max
Isolation 500V Ac output to case
Surge withstand capability IEEE472/ANSIC 37.90.1
Insulation resistance > 10 megohm/500VAc/input/output/power
Operating temperature -20oC to +60oC
Operating humidity 0-90% operating humidity
Temperature effect +500 PPM/oC of span
External magnetic field < 0.2% at 400AT/m
Influence of input voltage < 1% span
Influence of input current < 2% span
Low current detection < 4% rated current
Wight 100g
Shock < 0.2% after 50G
Vibration < 0.2% after 16.7HZ
Auxiliary powered burden < 5% VA
Pin configuration of power factor transducer
Power of Arduino
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.
The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from
an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a
2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted
in the GND and VIN pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate on an
external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may
supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage
regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
In our project we use microcontroller especially for measuring the power factor transducer
output (voltage or current) and displaying the measured value in the form of the current power
factor value (lagging or leading) and energizing the relay driver. The microcontroller energize
the relay driver only the measured power factor value is less than 0.95.If the measured power
factor value greater than 0.95 the microcontroller de-energize the relay driver.
3.2.5 RELAY DRIVER
The relay driver is 2N3904.The relay used here having the specification as follows,
Coil voltage=12Vdc
Contact capacity=230V, 7A
The above specification indicates that the coil requires 12V dc and 200mA current dc. The
Microcontroller can’t supply more than 10mA current. So driver section is very much
required. 2N3904 has a typical maximum output current of 500mA under normal conditions
of temperature.