Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 Ionic bonds usually occur between metal and nonmetal ions.

For example, sodium (Na), a metal, and chloride (Cl), a nonmetal, form an ionic
bond to make NaCl.

 The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in
the valence shell. When atoms have fewer than eight electrons, they tend to react
and form more stable compounds
 Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding
occurs between two atoms of the same element or of elements close to each other
in the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily between nonmetals.

 Polar molecules occur when two atoms do not share electrons equally in a
covalent bond.

 Nonpolar molecules occur when electrons are shared equal between atoms
of a diatomic molecule or when polar bonds in a larger molecule cancel
each other out.
 Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a
molecule.
 Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

The amount of energy in molecules of matter determines the state of matter.

1. Ion-dipole - interaction of an ion (cation or anion) with a polar molecule
examples: dissolving any ionic compound in water
2. Dipole-dipole - Interaction of polar molecules with other polar molecules
examples: acetone in acetone, triethyl amine in acetone
3. London (also called instantaneous dipole-induced dipole)
These are the very weak interaction that hold two nonpolar molecules together.
4. Hydrogen bonding - special case of dipole-dipole when there is a H bonded to
a N, O, or F. Hydrogen bonding is an especially strong form of dipole-dipole
interaction.
examples: water, acetic acid, acetone in water
 Intermolecular Forces Affect Many Physical Properties of liquids

 Surface tension results from the net inward force experienced by the
molecules on the surface of a liquid.
 Viscosity is a measure of how much a liquid resists flowing freely. A liquid
that flows very slowly is said to be more viscous than a liquid that flows
easily and quickly.
 Intermolecular forces also cause a phenomenon called capillary action,
which is the tendency of a polar liquid to rise against gravity into a small-
diameter tube (a capillary)
 Cohesion is the tendency for the same kind of particles to be attracted to
one another. 
 Adhesion is when forces of attraction exist between different types of
particles. Particles of a liquid will not only be attracted to one another, but
they are generally attracted to the particles that make up the container
holding the liquid.
 Volatility can be thought of as how likely a substance will be to vaporize at
normal temperatures. Volatility is more often a property of liquids, but
some highly volatile solids may sublime at normal room temperature.
 Vapor Pressure the pressure exerted by the vapor/liquid equilibrium in
the closed container

The Unique Properties of Water

Water is a good solvent-A unique property of water is its ability to dissolve
a large variety of chemical substances. It dissolves Salts and other ionic
compounds as well as polar covalent compounds such as alcohols and
organic compounds.

Water has a high specific heat-Water can absorb a large amount of heat
even if its temperature rises only slightly. To raise the temperature of
water, the intermolecular hydrogen bonds should break.
 Properties of Solids

Ionic Crystals
An ionic crystal consists of ions bound together by electrostatic attraction.
The arrangement of ions in a regular, geometric structure is called a crystal
lattice. For example, Calcium fluoride (CaF2) and NaCl has a melting point
Metallic Crystals
Metallic crystals consist of atomic nuclei surrounded by the “sea” of delocalized electrons.
These delocalized electrons are nothing but valence electrons surrounding the atomic
nuclei of the metallic crystals. Additionally, they also exhibit metallic luster and high
malleability. The atoms of metallic crystals are held together by metallic bonds. Some of
the examples of Metallic crystals are:

 Mercury (Hg)
 Copper (Cu)
 Gold (Au)
 Silver (Ag), etc.

Molecular Crystals

Molecular crystals consist of a number of different molecules. Not to mention, Molecular

crystals are held together by intermolecular forces between the constituent molecules. In
fact, just because molecular solids form due to a number of different molecules, as a
result, these types of crystalline solids have variable hardness, variable brittleness, as
well as variable melting points. Some of the examples of molecular crystals are:

 Hydrogen (H2)
 Water (H2O)
 Ammonia (NH3)
 Iodine (I2), etc.

Covalent Network Crystals

According to the definition of crystalline solid, Covalent network crystals consists of
atoms being covalently bonded with each other. These types of crystalline solids are not
good conductors of electricity. Some of the examples of Covalent network crystals are:

 Diamond (C)
 Quartz
 Boron (B)
 Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), etc.
 Phase Changes and Phase Diagram

When the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of
evaporation of the liquid or solid, the amount of gas, liquid and/or solid no
longer changes. The gas in the container is in equilibrium with the liquid or
solid.

Types of Phase Changes

There are a total of six phase changes that can occur. Let's look at what happens in each
change.

 Freezing occurs when a liquid changes to a solid.

 Melting occurs when a solid changes directly to a liquid.
 Sublimation occurs when a solid changes directly to a gas.
 Deposition occurs when a gas changes directly to a solid.
 Condensation is when a gas changes directly to a liquid.
 Vaporization happens when a liquid changes directly to a gas.

“Forget all the reasons it won’t work and believe the one reason that it will.”
Prepared by: Ms. Ulyann H. Ningal