FRS19R222 - Dermatoglyphics

UNIT 1 : BASICS OF FINGERPRINTING
FRS19R222 : FORENSIC
DERMATOGLYPHICS Presented by : N Vishnu Venkatesh
Assistant Professor, Forensic Science
KARE
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

COURSE OUTLINE
CO 1. The fundamental principles on which the science of fingerprinting is

based. COURSE DESCRIPTION
CO 2. The method of classifying criminal record by fingerprints. The purpose of this Forensic Science course is to
introduce the fundamental concepts and
applications of Dermatoglyphics to the students
CO 3. The physical and chemical techniques of developing fingerprints who are studying legal aiding science . It would
on crime scene evidence.
help them to identify the different types of
fingerprint ridges and understanding their pattern,
CO 4. The various methods of preserving fingerprints.
uniqueness , formation, and their role in criminal
justice.
CO 5. The significance of foot, palm, ear and lip prints.
© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME

SYLLABUS
Introduction and history, with special reference to
India. Biological basis of fingerprints. Formation of
ridges. Fundamental principles of fingerprinting. Types
of fingerprints. Fingerprint patterns. Fingerprint
characters/minutiae. Plain and rolled fingerprints.
UNIT:1 BASICS OF FINGERPRINTING
OUTCOME
The fundamental principles on which the science of
fingerprinting is based.

WHAT IS FORENSIC DERMATOGLYPHICS?
Dermatoglyphics - the study of skin markings or patterns on fingers,

hands, and feet, and its application, especially in criminology.
The term ‘Dermatoglyphics’ was coined in 1926 by Dr. Harold
Cummins from Greek “derma - skin + glyphe - carve”. He later wrote
that: "The word is literally descriptive of the delicately sculpted skin
surface, inclusive of single ridges and their configural arrangements.”
The word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning "of or
before the forum.”
Dermatoglyphics also refers to the making of naturally occurring ridges
on certain body parts, namely palms, fingers, soles, and toes. These are
areas where hair usually does not grow, and these ridges allow for
increased leverage when picking up objects or walking barefoot.

Dactyloscopy - identification by
comparison of fingerprints.
Father of Dactyloscopy - William
Herschel Ist to advocate the use of
fingerprints as substitute for signature
from among Indian native to avoid
impersonation.

HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTS IN INDIA
Today, fingerprint individuality is accepted and taken for granted all over the world, but only when we go back into
the history of this discipline do we realise that Indians knew about the relevance and significance of fingerprinting
before any other civilisation had an inkling of it.
Indians have consistently studied and researched this branch of knowledge, traversing from initial speculation,
through interpretation, to its development into the most perfect system of identification.
ANCIENT ERA : Since ancient times, fingerprinting has remained intertwined with Indian culture. An Indian
scripture, Samudra Shastra, compiled by a sage named Samudra Rishi in 3102 BC,tells us a great deal about
fingerprinting.
Modern fingerprint examiners broadly classify fingerprint patterns in three broad types: Arches, loops and
whorls
Samudra Shastra too identifies three types of fingerprints. It says that two are of common types, viz., sankha
(corresponding to loops), and chakra (corresponding to whorls), while the third type, seep(corresponding to
arches) are rare.

The modern science of fingerprinting asserts that parallel ridges on fingertips are interrupted by seven common types of
irregularities, known as fingerprint characters or minutiae. Samudra Shastra too identifies many of these characters /
minutiae.
Samudra Shastra too identifies many of these characters.
MEDIEVAL ERA : In the medieval era, Indian became cognizant of the fact that the hand print of each person is unique.
Several edicts and documents of this period bear the hand print of the author instead of or in addition to his
seal/signatures.
For example, It shows the hand impression of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. This has been reproduced from a farman
(royal edict) addressed by the Emperor to Dalan Singh, the king of Gidhour (in present day Bihar).
Rulers otherthan those belonging to the Mughal dynasty were also aware of the importance of hand prints/fingerprints.

MODERN ERA : In 1897, the world’s first fingerprint bureau was set up in Calcutta (now Kolkata), Bengal Fingerprint Bureau, it
was housed in Writer’s Building.
At that time, a very large section of Indian population was illiterate. Instead of appending their signatures on official
documents, most persons used to impress their hand prints. With passage of time, hand print gave way to impressions of
index and ring fingers.
By the time the Bengal Fingerprint Bureau was inaugurated, the thumb impression became an acceptable form of signature
not only on registration deeds, but on all official documents including bank accounts, pension records and postal
transaction
The impression of any other finger too served the purpose, but the thumb impression was preferred as it has a larger pattern
area as compared to other digits.
For cataloguing criminal record, however, the impressions of all ten fingers were required.

The fingerprints were taken and preserved for record keeping in a special type of proforma called index card.
It was at Bengal Fingerprint Bureau that the formula for classifying all ten fingerprints of a person for record
keeping was worked out.
Later, a single fingerprint classification system, as well as a telegraphic code for transmitting fingerprints
(only one impression at a time) from one crime record office to another was also developed at the Bengal
Fingerprint Bureau.
The techniques for detecting fingerprints at crime scenes, the procedures for recording the fingerprints of
arrested suspects and the scheme for comparing the detected and recorded fingerprints too were standardized
here.
Fingerprints began to be used for personal identification for humanitarian reasons, such as in cases of amnesia,
missing persons or unknown deceased. In addition, they proved invaluable in identifying victims of arson,
floods and air crashes.

CONTEMPORARY HISTORY
1858 - Sir William Herschel, British Administrator in District in India, requires fingerprint and signatures on civil contracts.
1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scottish doctor in Tokyo, Japan publishes article in “Nature”
1882 - Alphonse Bertillion, a French anthropologist, devised method of body measurements to produce a formula used to
classify individuals. This formula involves taking the measurements of a persons body parts, and recording these measurements
on a card. This method of classifying and identifying people became known as the Bertillion System.
1891 - Juan Vucetich, Argentine Police Official, Initiated the fingerprinting of criminals, (First case used was the Rojas
Homicide in 1892, in which the print of a woman who murdered her two sons and cut her own throat in an attempt to place the
blame on another person was found on a door post)
1892 - Sir Francis Galton, a British Anthropologist and cousin to Charles Darwin, publishes the first book on fingerprints. In his
book, Galton identifies the individuality and uniqueness of fingerprints. The unique characteristics of fingerprints, as identified
by Galton, will officially become known as minutiae, however they are sometimes still referred to as Galton’s Details.

1896 - International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), Establish National Bureau of Criminal Identification, for the
exchange of arrest information.
1901 - Sir Edward Henry, an Inspector General of Police in Bengal, India, develops the first system of classifying
fingerprints. This system of classifying fingerprints. This system of classifying fingerprints was first adopted as the official
system in England, and eventually spread throughout.
1903 – The William West – Will West Case at a Federal Prison in Leavenworth, Kansas, changed the way that people were
classified and identified. When a man named Will West entered the Leavenworth Prison inmates. His face was
photographed, and his Bertillon measurements were taken. Upon completion of this process, it was noted that another
inmate, known as William West, who was already incarcerated at Leavenworth, had the same name, Bertillon
measurements, and bore a striking resemblance to Will West.
The incident called the reliability of Bertillon measurements into question, and it was decided that a more positive means of
identification was necessary. As the Bertillon System began to decline, the use of fingerprints in identifying and classifying
individuals began to rise. After 1903, many prison systems began to use fingerprints as the primary means of identification.

1905 – U.S. Military adopts the use of fingerprints – soon thereafter, police agencies
began to adopt the use of fingerprints.
1908 – The first official fingerprint card was developed.
1911 - Fingerprints are first accepted by U.S. courts as a reliable means of
Identification.
1924 – Formation of ID Division of FBI
1980 – First computer data base of fingerprints was developed, which came to be known
as the Automated Fingerprint Identification System, (AFIS). In the present day, there
nearly 70 million cards, or nearly 700 million individual fingerprints entered in AFIS.

FORMATION OF RIDGES
Fingerprints are impressions left on surfaces by the friction ridges on the finger of a human.
Fingerprints are the distinctive ridges appearing as corrugated lines on the tips of fingers and
thumbs. The corrugation results due to rising of a portion of the upper layer of fingertip
skin slightly above the normal level. Since the upper layer of skin is called Epidermis,
the finger ridges are also referred to as Epidermal ridges.
Skin is composed of layers of tissue.
The nearest the surface make up the outer portion of the skin known as the epidermis, and the
inner skin is known as the dermis.
A cross section of skin reveals a boundary of cells separating the epidermis and dermis.
The shape of this boundary, made up of dermal papillae, determines the form and pattern of the
ridges on the surface of the skin.
FORMATION OF RIDGES
A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on the digits (fingers and toes), the palm of the hand or the
sole of the foot, consisting of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin.\
Epidermal ridges are caused by the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis and the
inter-papillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis.
The development of fingerprints happens in the basal layer of skin.
Fingerprints are protected by the outer layer of epidermis A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on
the digits (fingers and toes), the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot, consisting of one or more connected
ridge units of friction ridge skin.\
Epidermal ridges are caused by the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis and the
inter-papillary (rete) pegs of the epidermis.
The development of fingerprints happens in the basal layer of skin.
Fingerprints are protected by the outer layer of epidermis

FORMATION OF RIDGES
A person's fingerprints are formed when they are a tiny developing baby in their mother's
womb.
Pressure on the fingers from the baby touching, and their surroundings create what are
called "friction ridges", the faint lines you see on your fingers and toes.
These ridges are completely formed by the time a foetus is 6 months old, that's 3 months
before the baby is born.
Fingerprints are made of an arrangement of ridges. Each ridge contains pores, which are
attached to sweat glands under the skin.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINTING
Since, Galton's time, and as a result of his efforts, fingerprints have become an integral part of policing and forensic science. The
principal reason for this is that fingerprints constitute a unique and unchanging means of personal identification. Fingerprint
analysts have formulated three basic principles of fingerprints that encompass these notions of the uniqueness and stability of
fingerprint identification.
Principle 1: The Fingerprint is an Individual Characteristic ; No Two Fingers Have Yet Been Found to Possess Identical Ridge
Characteristics.
The acceptance of fingerprint evidence by the courts has always been predicated on the assumption that no two individuals
have identical fingerprints.
The probability for the existence of two identical fingerprint patterns in the worlds population is extremely small.
The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its general shape or pattern but by a careful study of its ridge
characteristics (also known as minutiae).
The identity, number, and relative location of characteristics impart individuality to a fingerprint.
An expert can easily compare the characteristics of the complete fingerprint; the average fingerprint has as many as 150
individual ridge characteristics.
Most prints recovered at crime scenes, however, are only partial prints, showing only a segment of the entire print.

It has been suggested that between 8 and 16 are sufficient to meet the criteria for individuality.
In 1973, the International Association for Identification, after a three-year study of this question, concluded that "no valid
basis exists for requiring a predetermined minimum number of friction ridge characteristics which must be present in two
impressions in order to establish positive identification."
Hence, the final determination must be based on the experience and knowledge of the expert.
Principle 2 : A Fingerprint Remains Unchanged During an Individuals Lifetime.
Fingerprints are a reproduction of friction skin ridges found on the palm side of the fingers and thumbs.
Similar friction skin can also be found on the surface of the palms and soles of the feet. Apparently, these skin surfaces
have been designed by nature to provide our bodies with a firmer grasp and a resistance to slippage.
A visual inspection of friction skin reveals a series of lines corresponding to hills (ridges) and valleys (grooves). The
shape and form of the skin ridges are what one sees as the black lines of an inked fingerprint impression.
Skin is composed of layers of cells. Those nearest the surface make up the outer portion of the skin known as the
epidermis, and the inner skin is known as the dermis.

A cross section of skin reveals a boundary of cells separating the epidermis and dermis.
The shape of this boundary, made up of dermal papillae, determines the form and pattern of the ridges on
the surface of the skin.
Each skin ridge is populated by a single row of pores that are the openings for ducts leading from the sweat
glands. Through these pores, perspiration is discharged and deposited on the surface of the skin.
Once the finger touches a surface, perspiration, along with oils that may have been picked up by touching
the hairy portions of the body, is transferred onto that surface, there by leaving an impression of the fingers
ridge pattern.
Prints deposited in this manner are invisible to the eye and are commonly referred to as latent fingerprints.
Although it is impossible to change ones fingerprints, come criminals have tried to obscure them.
If an injury reaches deeply enough into the skin and damages the dermal papillae, a permanent scar forms.

Principle 3 : Fingerprints Have General Ridge Patterns That Permit Them to Be Systematically
Classified.
All fingerprints are divided into three classes on the basis of their general pattern: loops,
whorls, and arches. Sixty to 65 percent of the population have loops, 30 to 35 percent
have whorls, and about 5 percent have arches.
These three classes form the basis for all ten-finger classification systems presently in use.
Fingerprints can be classified for record keeping.
Common Characteristics : Pattern Area, Type Lines, Delta, Core

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
PATTERN AREA
Pattern area is a part of a loop or a

whorl where appears the core,
deltas and ridges that are
primarily responsible for
classifying fingerprints.
It exists in all patterns but in most
arches, it is indefinable.
Type lines enclose the pattern
areas of loops and whorls.
TYPE LINES
Type lines are the ridges that determine the pattern

area of loops and whorls.
Type lines are defined as the two inner most

ridges starting parallel or run parallel to each other
then, diverge and tend to covers the Pattern Area.
They do not form two continuous ridges.

DELTA CORE
Delta is formed when a ridge bifurcates and Core is the central point of the pattern.
two arms of the bifurcating ridge diverge or
when two adjacent ridges running side by The core is approximately the center of the
side diverge causing an interspace within finger impression.
which the pattern lies.

Type line may not be continuous and also may
very short

FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
Fingerprint patterns are based on the arrangement

of ridges
Based on the arrangement of ridges , they are

classified into
1.
1. Arch
2. Loop
3. Whorl
4. Composites

ARCH : These patterns account for approximately 5 percent of recorded prints. In this pattern, the
ridge run from one side of the print to the other, and as the name implies in an arch - like fashion.
There are no re-curving ridges in an arch/ pattern.
Plain arch : This is the simplest of all fingerprint patterns. Plain arch is formed by the
ridges entering the pattern on the left, flowing smoothly towards the right of the pattern
with small rise in the centre resembling a hill or hump.
Tented arch : This is the pattern in which most, but not all, of the ridges enter the pattern
on the left side, flow , or tend to flow , to the right side, with one or more ridges in the
centre forming either a definite angle or standing almost straight up.

LOOP : Some 60 to 65 per cent of all patterns are of loop type. A loop is formed by one or more ridges entering at one side of
the pattern, continuing up to the centre of the pattern, and recurving around a core to form a loop; then flowing back and
terminating on the same side of the pattern from which they entered. A loop always has a ‘delta’ and a ‘core’ and at least one
ridge passing freely between the core and delta . Core is an inner terminus and delta is the outer terminus.
Radial loop : The loop is formed by ridges, which enter from one side and flow back, after recurving around the
core, to the same side with the opening of the loop pointing towards the radial bone or the thumb of the same hand
Ulnar loop : This loop is also formed by ridges, which enter from one side and flow back, after recurving around
the core , to the same side with the opening of the loop pointing towards the ulnar bone or the little finger of the
same hand. To decide whether a loop is radial or ulnar, it is necessary to know the hand from which the finger
print originated

WHORL : 30 to 35% of all patterns

are of whorl type . A whorl is the
pattern having two deltas and at least
one ridge making a complete circuit
which may be spiral, oval, circular or
any variant of circle. An imaginary
line drawn between the two deltas
must touch or cross at least one of the
recurving ridges within the inner
pattern area.

COMPOSITE : The composite is a combination of any of the above mentioned three classes. This constitutes around 1 to 2
percent of the total collection. Composites are sub-divided as:
Central pocket loop : This pattern combines features of both the loop and the whorl. In this pattern the majority of the
ridges have the appearance of a loop, but in which one or more of the ridges within the pattern area recurve about the
core, thus forming a pocket. If an imaginary line is drawn between the two deltas that line does not cross or touch any of
the circular ridges in the centre of the pattern
Lateral pocket loop : This is basically a double loop pattern. It is formed by two loops, either overlapping or surrounding
each other, and in which the ridges surrounding the cores of the loops terminate on the opposite side of the delta. In
other words both loop formations flow in the same direction with core lines without being divided by either of the deltas.
Twinned loop : This is also a double loop pattern. The pattern is formed by two loops, either overlapping or surrounding
each other and having the termination of the ridges representing the core of each loop separated by one of the deltas

Accidental loop : Patterns which do not fall under any of the above category
falls under this category .in this , pattern are formed by the combination of any
two different patterns except a combination in which one of the pattern is an
arch. This pattern must contain at least two deltas. But may have as many as
four. When a pattern is formed by a loop over a plain arch it is interpreted not as
an accidental but as a mutant loop or a nascent loop.

SURPRISE TEST (Time limit 1 hr)
1. Give historical background of fingerprints

2. Elaborate developments in contemporary history of fingerprinting (mentioning
name and dates)
3. What all developments happened in Bengal Fingerprint Bureau
4. Explain the terms
Dermatoglyphics
Dactyloscopy
Samudra shashtra
FINGERPRINT CHARACTERS/MINUTIAE
The ridges are subject to certain breaks or interruptions

presenting various kinds of characteristics referred to as minutiae.
These minutiae are able to describe the invariant details and are
helpful to identify fingerprints.
The friction ridges have certain basic features, which are present
in sufficient number in every fingerprint.
A single fingerprint may possess as many as 100 or more minutiae
They are also sometimes referred to as Galton’s details

TYPES OF RIDGE
CHARACTERS/MINUTIAE
Ridge ending : This is a ridge,

which abruptly ends its path.
They occur very abundantly in
a finger impression.

TYPES OF RIDGE
CHARACTERS/MINUTIAE
Bifurcation : It is a ridge, which

splits into two small ridges
forming a Y shape.
It is also known as diverging

fork. They give an appearance
of branch points between curved
lines. These are also encountered
very frequently in a fingerprint.

TYPES OF RIDGE CHARACTERS/MINUTIAE
Trifurcation : It is a ridge, which

splits into three small ridges. It is
rare in occurrence.
Interjunction : It is the joining of

two adjacent ridges by a short
diagonal ridge. It is also called a
cross-over.

Fragment/ Short Ridge : It is an independent

ridge of relatively small length.
Enclosure/Lake : It is a ridge, which first

bifurcates and then converges or joins back
to form an elliptical enclosure. It is also
called as lake. It can vary in size.

Island / Dot : It is a point or a

dot within the overall pattern of
a fingerprint.
Intersection /Change Over : It
is formed when two adjacent
ridges change their places by
crossing over each other.

Return : It is a ridge that changes

its path and takes a U-turn.
Hook : When a small curved

ridge, which is attached to main
ridge forms a hook like
appearance.

TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS FOUND ON A CRIME SCENE
There are three types of

fingerprints :
1) Latent Fingerprints
2) Patent Fingerprints
3) Plastic Fingerprints

TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS FOUND ON A CRIME SCENE
Latent fingerprints are made of the sweat and oil on the skin’s
surface. This type of fingerprint is invisible to the naked eye and
requires additional processing in order to be seen. This processing can
include basic powder techniques or the use of chemicals.
Patent fingerprints can be made by blood, grease, ink, or dirt. This

type of fingerprint is easily visible to the human eye.
Plastic fingerprints are three-dimensional impressions and can be

made by pressing your fingers in fresh paint, wax, soap, or tar. Like
patent fingerprints, plastic fingerprints are easily seen by the human
eye and do not require additional processing for visibility purposes.

PLAIN AND ROLLED FINGERPRINTS
ROLLED IMPRESSIONS:
Rolled impressions are made by rolling the

finger or thumb from nail edge to nail edge.
They are made to show the entire friction

surface of the finger or thumb, from the tip.
The larger surface of the fully rolled impression

not only allows accurate classification but it also
gives more points for comparison.

PLAIN AND ROLLED FINGERPRINTS
PLAIN FINGERPRINTS
Plain impressions are those in which the finger

is pressed down on a flat surface but not rolled.
While plain impressions cover a smaller area

than rolled prints, they typically do not have
the distortion introduced during rolling.

UNIT 2 : Classification and
FRS19R222 : FORENSIC Documentation of Fingerprints
DERMATOGLYPHICS Presented by : N Vishnu Venkatesh

Assistant Professor, Forensic Science
KARE

SYLLABUS
Classification and cataloguing of fingerprint record.
Automated Fingerprint Identification System.
Significance of poroscopy and edgeoscopy.
UNIT:2 CLASSIFICATION AND
DOCUMENTATION OF FINGERPRINTS
OUTCOME
The method of classifying criminal record by
fingerprints.

HISTORY OF FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Alphonse Bertillon
Sir William Hershel
Henry Fauld
Sir Francis Galton – Fingerprints – in the year 1892
Dr. Juan Vucetich
Sir Edward Richard Henry – 1897 (1901)

TEN-DIGIT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The original classification system as proposed by Henry took into consideration all the
fingers and converted the ridge patterns present on them in the form of letters and
numbers that could be easily arranged in the form of a fraction.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation faced with the difficulty of ever growing number
of collections of set of prints expanded the Ten-Digit Fingerprint classification system
by adding extensions.
In the Henry System, sets of fingerprints were given a primary classification, based on
the distribution of patterns in the fingers and further extensions were achieved by
assessing the specific features of each digit.

In order to conduct a search, subject fingerprints were classified in exactly the same
manner as those in the database. Only the segment bearing the same classification
required individual comparison to determine identity.
In the Ten-Digit classification system, the Ten-Digit fingerprint slip is analysed under
the following seven classification system:

1.Primary classification
2.Major division classification
3.Secondary classification
4.Sub-secondary classification
5.Second sub-secondary classification
6.Final classification
7.Key classification

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The primary classification takes into consideration all ten fingers.
Arches is 5-10%
Loops is 60-65%
Whorls is 30-35%
Composite is 1-2%
Plain and tented arches and composite patterns is relatively low in comparison to the
frequency of loops and whorls.

LOOPS (L) :
1. LOOPS :
Radial Loop (RL)
Ulnar Loop (UL)
2. ARCHES
Plain Arch (A)
Tented Arch (T)

WHORL (W) :
1. Whorl (W)
2. Composites
Central Pocket loop (CP)
Lateral Pocket loop (LP)
Twin loop (TW)
Accidental (X)

The ten fingers of two hands are grouped into five pairs :
1) Pair I – Right Thumb and Right Index (RT & RI)
2) Pair II – Right Middle and Right Ring (RM & RR)
3) Pair III – Right Little and Left Thumb (RL & LT)
4) Pair IV – Left Index and Left Middle (LI & LM)
5) Pair V – Left Ring and Left Little (LR & LL)

Second part – Numerator

First part – Denominator
R. Index R. Ring L. Thumb L. Middle L. Little

------------ ------------ ------------- ------------ ----------
R. Thumb R. Middle R. Little L. Index L. Ring

The possible combination of patterns are:
Loops Whorls Loops Whorls
-------- ---------- --------- ---------
Loops Whorls Whorls Loops
This is the possible combinations for pair-I,II, III, IV, and V also.
So, in all 1024 combinations are possible.

These 1024 combinations could be represented in a chart having 32x32 cabinets

arranged horizontally and vertically which could provide location for all combinations
of loops and whorls.
For practical purposes, different numerical values have been assigned to the patterns.
i.e. Valued and non-valued groups ;
A. Whorls – Valued group
B. Loops – Non-valued group

Value for Value for
loops whorls
Pair I RT & RI 0 16
Pair II RM & RR 0 8
Pair III RL & LT 0 4
Pair IV LI & LM 0 2
Pair V LR & LL 0 1

When all the ten fingers possess whorls, on assigning the numerical values, the arrangement of
primarily formula would be,
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
---- ---- --- --- ---
16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
The five pairs provide 1024 possible combinations
31/31 – whorls and 0/0 – loops

So, a value of 1 is added to both the numerator and denominator so that the
final figure becomes 32/32 for whorls and 1/1 for loops.
Hence, the complete primary formula will fluctuate between 1/1 to 32/32.
Formula for Primary classification :
Sum of even digit number + 1
Formula = Sum of odd digit number + 1

RIDGE COUNTING
Ridge counting is performed in loop type pattern.
The number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is known
as the RIDGE COUNT.
If there is a bifurcation at the exact point of coincidence, two ridges are

counted.
If there is a bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary

line would be drawn, two ridges are counted.

RIDGE COUNTING
Fragments & dots are counted if they appear as thick as the

neighbouring ridges.
Ridges, which run close up to without meeting the line, are not counted.
Where the line crosses an island, both sides are counted.

Ridge counting for bifurcation and
island

RIDGE TRACING
The tracing of the lower ridge of the left delta, is followed and it will be
found either to meet or to go inside or to go outside the corresponding
ridge of the right delta.
If the course of the ridge ends suddenly, the course of the next ridge
below it is to be followed.
In case of bifurcating ridge the lower line of bifurcation should be

followed.

RIDGE TRACING
Definition :
The process of coursing or tracing the ridge that originates from the left
delta flowing towards the right delta or near the point and determining
the number of intervening ridges between the traced ridge and right
delta to constitute the three subdivisions such as inner, meeting and
outer presented by capital I, M, O.

RIDGE TRACING
When the traced ridge meets the corresponding ridge of the right delta or
goes inside or outside, with not more than two ridges intervening
between them, the Whorl is specialised as Meeting(M).
When the ridge goes inside and there are three or more intervening
ridges, it is specialised as Inner(I).
When the ridge goes outside and there are three or more intervening
ridges, it is specialised as Outer(O).

Inner (I)

Meeting (M)

Outer (O)

EXTENSIONS TO PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
MAJOR DIVISION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
In this system, right and left thumb fingers are considered.
This division is formed by counting the ridges in loop patterns

and for the whorl pattern, ridge tracing is considered.
The value of right thumb is taken as numerator and the left

thumb taken as denominator.
To perform the ridge counting for loops, the number of ridges

cut by an arbitrary line joining core and delta are counted.

MAJOR DIVISION CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
And are denoted by I, M, O types where the
A. I type – number of ridges up to 12
B. M type – number of ridges between 13-19
C. O type – number of ridges between 20 or more.
For arches, plain and tented arch will always be considered under I types as they do not
have any ridge count.
For whorls, the ridge tracing is performed.
O type is valid for accidental, central-pocket and double loops.

SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
In secondary classification system the patterns appearing on the

right and left index fingers are considered wherein the right index is
taken as numerator and left index is taken as denominator
The types of patterns identified under this system are A, T, UL, RL, W,
C, X
where these notations implies Arches, Tented arches, Ulnar loops, Radial
loops, Whorls, Composites and Accidental, respectively.

SUB - SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
In this system, the patterns appearing on the left and right Index, Middle and Ring fingers
are analysed.
It can be performed in two ways:

Lettered Group
Ridge Counting and Ridge Tracing

Lettered Group
If A (arches), T (Tented arches), R (Radial loops) appear on the middle and ring finger,
then this method is employed.

The patterns appearing on the fingers of right hand is taken as

numerator and the patterns on left hand are taken as denominators.
The patterns appearing on index finger of both the hands, they are
denoted by capital notations.
The patterns appearing on middle and ring fingers of right hand are
denoted by small letters and no notation is used for left hand.

INDEX (I) MIDDLE (M) RING ®
RIGHT A T R
LEFT W C U
The above given patterns can be denoted by:
A t r
W - -
In case of loops, ridge counting is done in the following manner :

INDEX (I) MIDDLE (M) RING ®
I 1-5 1-6 1-7
M 5-12 7-13 8-14
O 13 or more 14 or more 15 or more
For whorls, ridge tracing is carried out in the same way as in

Major division classification system.

Formula for Sub-secondary Classification

= I M R (right hand) / I M R (left hand)
For example consider, for right hand ridge count for index finger, middle finger
and ring finger have ridge count 4, 9, 14 and for left hand ridge count for index,
middle and ring finger have ridge count 8, 18, 3 then,
Sub-secondary Classification = <I> <M> <R> / <I> <M> <R>

IMM
= ---------
MOI

SECOND SUB - SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
It is used when under the Sub-Secondary classification system ridge

counting and ridge tracing is employed and is based on the U, C, W,
X patterns present on middle and ring fingers.
The patterns on the right are taken as numerator and the left are taken
as denominator.

FINAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
The value of Final classification system is arrived at by counting the

number of ridges in case of loops on the right and left little fingers
and placing them as numerators and denominators respectively.
In case of whorls also, ridge counting is performed.

KEY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
It involves the ridge counting of loops or whorl patterns appearing on

the right thumb only.
Pattern is represented by small alphabets.
In case of right thumb the left delta is considered.

BATTLEY’S SINGLE DIGIT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
In 1929, Chief Inspector Henry Battley and Detective Fredrick Cherrill of New Scotland Yard developed
the most popular system.
Under Battley system the print of thumb and other fingers are classified individually.
The single digit classification system mainly depends on the following points :
The pattern
A. The formation of core
B. Position of delta / dealtas
C. Ridge counting / tracing
D. Other characteristics or pecularities

Here we use 10 separate files for each finger
For reference the files are arranged and numbered as

follows :
RIGHT LEFT
THUMB 1 6
INDEX 2 7
MIDDLE 3 8
RING 4 9
LITTLE 5 10

Chance prints found at crime scene can be classified easily.
Uses a special magnifying glass with a concentric circles.
Magnifying lens have fixed focus and a plane glass window at the base.
Concentric circles around the focus with 7 concentric circles with radii of
3,5,7,9,11,13 and 15 mms.
And they are denoted by capital letters A,B,C,D,
E,F,G and outside G it is H.

PROCEDURE
Prints of one finger are filed.
Firstly, patterns are divided according to general pattern types.
Then they are subdivided according to Battley classification.
The magnifying glass is placed on the core of the pattern and the area
on which delta and characteristics are noted.

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UNIT 1 : BASICS OF FINGERPRINTING

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

CO 1. The fundamental principles on which the science of fingerprinting is

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education COURSE NAME

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Dermatoglyphics - the study of skin markings or patterns on fingers,

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Principle 2 : A Fingerprint Remains Unchanged During an Individuals Lifetime.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Pattern area is a part of a loop or a

Type lines are the ridges that determine the pattern

Type lines are defined as the two inner most

They do not form two continuous ridges.

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Fingerprint patterns are based on the arrangement

Based on the arrangement of ridges , they are

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

WHORL : 30 to 35% of all patterns

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

1. Give historical background of fingerprints

The ridges are subject to certain breaks or interruptions

A single fingerprint may possess as many as 100 or more minutiae

They are also sometimes referred to as Galton’s details

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Ridge ending : This is a ridge,

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Bifurcation : It is a ridge, which

It is also known as diverging

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Trifurcation : It is a ridge, which

Interjunction : It is the joining of

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Fragment/ Short Ridge : It is an independent

Enclosure/Lake : It is a ridge, which first

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Island / Dot : It is a point or a

© Kalasalingam academy of research and education

Return : It is a ridge that changes

Hook : When a small curved