2nd GRADING LEARNING MATERIAL 2 EARTH SCIENCE

OCEANIC RIDGES AND SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Most Essential Learning Competency: Explain how seafloor spreads.

The majority of, but not all, divergent plate boundaries are associated with oceanic ridges: elevated areas of the
seafloor characterized by high heat flow and volcanism. The global ridge system is the longest topographic feature
on Earth’s surface, exceeding 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) in length. As shown in Figure 7.12, various
segments of the global ridge system have been named, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, East Pacific Rise, and
Mid-Indian Ridge.

Representing 20 percent of Earth’s surface, the oceanic ridge system winds through all major ocean basins like
the seams on a baseball. Although the crest of the oceanic ridge is commonly 2 to 3 kilometers higher than the
adjacent ocean basins, the term ridge may be misleading because it implies “narrow” when, in fact, ridges vary in
width from 1000 kilometers (600 miles) to more than 4000 kilometers (2500 miles). Further, along the crest of
some ridge segments is a deep canyonlike structure called a rift valley. This structure is evidence that tensional
forces are actively pulling the ocean crust apart at the ridge crest.

The mechanism that operates along the oceanic ridge system to create new seafloor is appropriately called sea-
floor spreading. Typical rates of spreading average around 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year, roughly the same rate
at which human fingernails grow. Comparatively slow spreading rates of 2 centimeters per year are found along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, whereas spreading rates exceeding 15 centimeters (6 inches) per year have been measured
along sections of the East Pacific Rise. Although these rates of seafloor production are slow on a human time scale,
they are nevertheless rapid enough to have generated all of Earth’s ocean basins within the past 200 million years.

The primary reason for the elevated position of the oceanic ridge is that newly created oceanic lithosphere is
hot, which means it is less dense than cooler rocks found away from the ridge axis. (Geologists use the term axis to
refer to a line that follows the general trend of the ridge crest.) As soon as new lithosphere forms, it is slowly yet
continually displaced away from the zone of upwelling. Thus, it begins to cool and contract, thereby increasing in
density. This thermal contraction accounts for the increase in ocean depths away from the ridge crest. It takes about
80 million years for the temperature of oceanic lithosphere to stabilize and contraction to cease. By this time, rock
that was once part of the elevated oceanic ridge system is located in the deep-ocean basin, where it may be buried
by substantial accumulations of sediment.

In addition, as the plate moves away from the ridge, cooling of the underlying asthenosphere causes it to
become increasingly more rigid. Thus, oceanic lithosphere is generated by cooling of the asthenosphere from the
top down. Stated another way, the thickness of oceanic lithosphere is age dependent. The older (cooler) it is, the
greater its thickness. Oceanic lithosphere that exceeds 80 million years in age is about 100 kilometers (60 miles)
thick—approximately its maximum thickness.

OCEAN BASINS
Most Essential Learning Competency:
Describe the structure and evolution of ocean basin.

If the Earth’s crust were at the same elevation everywhere, the water currently held in the oceans would cover
the surface of the Earth uniformly to a depth of about 2.5 km (1.5 miles). But the elevation of the Earth’s surface is
not uniform; rather, it consists of higher areas (the continents) and lower areas (the ocean basins) that differ in

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elevation by an average of 4.5 km (2.8 miles) as shown in figure 1. Due to gravity, water flows downslope, so it
drains from continents into the ocean basins to fill the oceans, leaving the surface of continents as dry land.

Why do distinct ocean basins exist? Recall that oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere differ markedly
in terms of their composition and thickness as shown in figure 2. Oceanic lithosphere has a maximum thickness of
100 km (60 miles) and includes a 7- to 10-km (4- to 6-mile)-thick crust of relatively dense rock, whereas
continental lithosphere reaches a thick- ness of about 150 km (90 miles) and includes a 25- to 70-km (15- to 45-
mile)-thick crust of relatively less dense rock. Because of these differences, the surface of oceanic lithosphere sits
deeper than the surface of the continental lithosphere—the low areas, underlain by oceanic lithosphere, are the
ocean basins. To picture this contrast, imagine two blocks of wood as shown in figure 3: a thicker one composed of
less dense pine, which represents a continent, and a thinner one composed of denser oak, which represents the
ocean floor. If you place both blocks in a basin of water, the surface of the oak block sits lower than the surface of
the pine block, once both blocks have attained equilibrium. In this model, water flows out of the way so the blocks
can attain their equilibrium positions. In the case of the Earth, the plastic asthenosphere flows out of the way to let
the different types of lithosphere attain their equilibrium positions.

Figure 1. A simple model showing that

Figure 2. A graph showing the
percentage of the Earth's
surface at different elevations
above sea level, or depth below
the sea.
the surface of a thick pine block sits
higher than the surface of a thin, dense
oak block when both are placed in water.
Figure 3. The crustal portion of continental lithosphere differs markedly from that
of oceanic lithosphere. Evolution and
Structure of the Ocean
Basins

Ocean basins are places on Earth covered with salt water. They are actively changing due to tectonic activities.
They are formed through seafloor spreading from volcanic rocks released from the fissures along the mid-ocean
ridges. The ocean basins have evolved through time. They undergo different stages in their development. Every
ocean basin on the planet at present is in its own stage of development.
1. Embryonic. Continents are starting to separate resulting in the formation of rift valleys. An example is the
Great Rift Valley in Eastern Africa.
2. Juvenile. Seafloor basalts begin forming as continental margins separate. Rift valley deepens and is
flooded by seawater. Spreading begins and mid ocean ridge is formed. An example is the Red Sea, a sea
water inlet of the Indian Ocean that lies between Africa and Asia.
3. Mature. Broad ocean basin widens, trenches develop, and subduction begins. Ocean basin with spreading
center and continental margins are prominent features. An example is the Atlantic Ocean.
4. Declining. Subduction narrows much of the seafloor and oceanic ridge due to converging tectonic plates.
This results in the formation of trenches, volcanic island arcs, and coastal mountain ranges. An example is
the Pacific Ocean.
5. Terminal. Ocean basin becomes narrow and becoming shallow due to sedimentation. Young mountains
ranges are formed along the sides. Examples include the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf.
6. Continental collision. The remaining seafloor is eliminated and continents collide, forming a continental
mountain chain. High mountain belts like the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau form.

Since ocean basins are created by tectonic activities, they also have different surface features like the
continental crust. Though covered with water, images of the ocean topography were obtained through different
technologies like seismic surveying, side-scan sonar, and measurement of the height of sea surfaces by satellites.
Through the images, oceanographers are able to describe the structure of the ocean basin. The geographic features
of the ocean basin include:
1. Continental shelf. It is the continental landmass that is covered by the sea. The continental shelf slopes
gently away from the land. It is covered by the shallow sea less than 200 m deep. Its environment is rich in
biodiversity since the depth can still be reached by sunlight which is essential for food chain.
2. Continental slope. It is at the edge of the continental shelf where the seafloor suddenly drops. The slope is
much steeper than that of the continental shelf. This is the site where landslide, turbidity currents, and
sediment slumps are active. Massive underwater canyons and gorges cut through the slope. This is created
by currents carrying sediments from the continental slope down to the deep sea.

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3. Continental rise. It is located at the base of the continental slope where the gradient is shallower.
Sediments that move down from the continental shelf pile up at the base of the slope and is gently
sculptured by slow moving current, which travels along the contours of the slope.
4. Abyssal plains. These are characterized by a vast expanse of terrain that is flat, cold, and dark since light
can no longer penetrate through this depth. Only sediments of ultra-fine particles of clay together with
microscopic marine organisms can reach this depth. Turbidity currents carry the sediments from the
continental slope to this region where sediments spread out to form thin layers on the seafloor. Layers have
very distinct division of mud and clay and this becomes useful in dating geologic events. With the absence
of light in this region, there are exotic life forms that can survive the extreme environment. They make use
of chemicals from deep water vents as energy source.
5. Deep ocean trenches. These are the deepest parts of the ocean with depths that may exceed 10,000 meters.
Most trenches are found along the margins of the Pacific Ocean. The Challenger Deep found in the Mariana
trench in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest known point in the ocean with a depth of 10 898 to 10 916 meters.

Figure 4.Structure of the ocean basin.

Major Features of the Ocean Basins

If all water were drained from the ocean basins, a great variety of features would be seen, including linear
chains of volcanoes, deep canyons, extensive plateaus, and large expanses of monotonously flat plains. In fact, the
scenery would be nearly as diverse as that on the continents.

During the past 70 years, oceanographers using mod- ern depth-sounding equipment have gradually mapped
significant portions of the ocean floor. From these studies they have defined three major regions: continental
margins, deep- ocean basins, and oceanic (mid-ocean) ridges.

1. The continental margin is the portion of the seafloor adjacent to major landmasses. It may include the
continental shelf, the continental slope, and the continental rise.

Although land and sea meet at the shoreline, this is not the boundary between the continents and the ocean
basins. Rather, along most coasts a gently sloping platform of material, called the continental shelf, extends
seaward from the shore. Because it is underlain by continental crust, it is considered a flooded extension of the
continents.

The boundary between the continents and the deep- ocean basins lies along the continental slope, which is a
relatively steep drop-off that extends from the outer edge of the continental shelf to the floor of the deep ocean.
Using this as the dividing line, we find that about 60 percent of Earth’s surface is represented by ocean basins
and the remaining 40 percent by continents.

In regions where trenches do not exist, the steep continental slope merges into a more gradual incline known
as the continental rise. The continental rise consists of a thick accumulation of sediments that moved downslope
from the continental shelf to the deep-ocean floor.

2. Between the continental margins and oceanic ridges lie the deep-ocean basins. Parts of these regions consist of
incredibly flat features called abyssal plains. The ocean floor also contains extremely deep depressions that are
occasionally more than 11,000 meters (36,000 feet) deep. Although these deep-ocean trenches are relatively
narrow and represent only a small fraction of the ocean floor, they are nevertheless very significant features.
Some trenches are located adjacent to young mountains that flank the continents. For example, in Figure 1.20
the Peru– Chile trench off the west coast of South America parallels the Andes Mountains. Other trenches
parallel linear island chains called volcanic island arcs.

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Dotting the ocean floor are submerged volcanic structures called seamounts, which sometimes form long,
narrow chains. Volcanic activity has also produced several large lava plateaus, such as the Ontong Java Plateau
located northeast of New Guinea. In addition, some submerged plateaus are composed of continental-type crust.
Examples include the Campbell Plateau southeast of New Zealand and the Seychelles Bank northeast of
Madagascar.

3. The most prominent feature on the ocean floor is the oceanic ridge, or mid-ocean ridge. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
and the East Pacific Rise are parts of this system. This broad elevated feature forms a continuous belt that winds
for more than 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) around the globe in a manner similar to the seam of a baseball.
Rather than consisting of highly deformed rock, such as most of the mountains on the continents, the oceanic
ridge system consists of layer upon layer of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted.

PLATE MOVEMENTS
Most Essential Learning Competency: Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of
folds, faults, trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain ranges.

Plate Tectonics Theory

In 1965, Canadian geophysicist, Tuzo Wilson, unified the continental drift theory and the seafloor spreading
theory into what we know today as the plate tectonics theory. At present, the plate tectonics theory has been widely
recognized as the scientific explanation about the formation and evolution of Earth’s surface features. This theory
describes the movement of the lithosphere in simple and clear terms. It states that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided
into seven major plates and some minor ones that move smoothly across the Earth at a rate of 1 to 16 cm a year.
The plate tectonics theory may be used to explain the continuous change of the Earth’s surface through time, the
occurrence of earthquakes in some places, the volcanic activities that take place in certain regions, and the current
location of mountain ranges.

Plate movements are responsible for changing and shaping the Earth’s lithosphere. Tectonic plates are most
active along plate boundaries. Different geologic processes occur in these regions of the Earth that cause the
formation of different surface features.

1. Subducting plates. At the convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crusts go under another plate and sink into the
asthenosphere. The sinking plates melt and turn to magma which then gives rise to new volcanoes and volcanic
island arcs. Subduction zones that are mostly on the seafloor and deep trenches are found in this region. The
subduction process causes major earthquakes and volcanic activities.

2. Spreading plates. Plates may split in both continents and oceanic crusts. When a plate starts splitting apart in
the middle of the continent, the crust becomes stretched. Fissures appears, and the crustal block collapses
downward. The result is the rift valley. A rift valley is an extremely long depression that develops along divergent
boundaries. Rift valleys may give rise to new oceans. On the other hand, when plates separate in the oceanic crust,
mid-ocean ridges are formed. Mid-ocean ridges are also known as submarine mountain ranges. They are formed
when magma goes into the ocean floor, solidifies into lava, and forms new oceanic crusts.

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3. Converging plates. They can also fold or form faults on the crustal rocks. Collision of two plates causes them
to exert great pressure on each other. When the margins of both plates crumple or fold, mountain ranges are created.
But when the rocks cannot withstand the pressure, they break or fracture. This results in the formation of faults.
When these faults move, earthquake occurs. This process results in the formation of block mountain.

REFERENCES:
Marshak, S., & Rauber, R. (2017). Earth science (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Tarbuck, E., & Lutgens, F. (2015). Earth Science (14th ed.). United States: Pearson Education, Inc.
Felicerta, Corazon N. (2017). Breaking Through Earth Science for Senior High School. C&E Publishing, Inc.
Olivar II, Jose T., Rodolfo, Raymond S., Cabria, Hillel B. (2016). Exploring Life Through Science Series.
Senior High School. Earth Science. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.