EXOSKELETON (SCALES) OF FISHES

The scales of fishes are derived from the dermis and are therefore mesoderm in origin.
Identify the following parts:

1. Basal plate or Root – the dermal embedded, flat, bony base of the scale.
2. Spine – a shiny curved dermal outgrowth directed caudad and erupts from the
epidermis.
i. Consists of Dentine that is covered with a hard layer of vitrodentine. (Both are of
mesodermal origin).
3. Pulp Cavity – cavity found at the center of the basal plate and spine.

This is a CYCLOID SCALE.

Observe that the scale is roughly circular, fluted, thin and flexible. Note that the scale is
made up of concentric ridges. The expected free half is smooth and cleft. The
embedded portion of the scale which constitutes the other half if fluted.

This is a CTENOID SCALE.

Observed that like the cycloid scale, the ctenoid scale is also thin and provided with
ridges. The BASAL EMBEDDED PORTION is scalloped. The free edge, on the other
hand, hears numerous comb-like or tooth-like projections called CTENIDIA or TEETH.
Both cycloid and ctenoid scales consist of a thin layer of cellular lamellar bone.

These are GANOID SCALES.

Observe that the scale is rhomboidal in shape and covered by a hard, shiny, translucent
material called GANOIN, which is mesodermal in origin. The edges are darkly stained
due to the presence of ganoin.

EXOSKELETON OF A REPTILE (TURTLE)

Carapace and Plastron.

Identify the following parts:

Dorsal (outer) view of the Carapace

Examine the large, thin horny, epidermal scutes covering the surface of the carapace.
Its boundaries are marked by grooves. The scutes are arranged in three groups:

1. Neural scutes – median row of five scutes.

2. Costal scutes – a lateral row of four pairs of scutes.
3. Marginal scutes – a circular row of 25 scutes consisting of
4. Nuchal scute – an anterior, smaller, median unpaired scutes.
5. Pygal scute – two median posterior scutes.

NOTE: Observe that the scutes can be removed from the carapace but its boundaries
are not the same as that of the underlying plates. Scutes are epidermal, therefore
ectodermal in embryonic origin.

Ventral Side of the Carapace

Observe the continuation or extension of the marginal scutes covering the

margin of the underside, called INFRAMARGINAL SCUTES. The ventral surface is
made up of heavy bony plates, which are dermal or mesodermal in origin. The plates
are fused to the vertebrae or ribs and are bounded by jagged sutures.

1. Marginal plates – a circle or marginal row of 24 plates.

2. Nuchal plate – an anterior, large, unpaired median plate.
3. Marginal plates – a total of eleven paired marginal plates.
4. Pygal plate – an unpaired median posterior plate.

Dorsal (inner) View of the Plastron

Like in the carapace, the plastron is also made up of bony dermal plates
covered by horny epidermal scutes bounded by sutures. Turn the plastron dorsal (inner)
side up and study of the following parts:

1. Epiplastra – the most anterior small pair of plates.

2. Entoplastron – an unpaired median plate posterior to the epiplastra and provided
with a posteriorly projecting point.
3. Hyoplastra – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the entoplastron.
4. Hypoplastra – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the hyoplastra.
5. Xiphiplastra – a pair of squarish plates immediately posterior to the hypoplastra.

NOTE: Observe the irregular INFRAMARGINAL SCUTES that cover the bridges.

Ventral (outer) View of the Plastron

1. Gular scutes – the most anterior and smallest pair of scutes.

2. Humeral scutes – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the gular
scutes.
3. Pectoral scutes – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the humeral.
4. Abdominal scutes – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the
pectoral.
5. Femoral scutes – a pair of squarish scutes immediately posterior to the
abdominal.
6. Anal scutes – a pair of small scutes immediately posterior to the femoral.

EXOSKELETON OF A REPTILE (SNAKE)

This is the head of a snake

Identify the following structures:

1. Head – covered with epidermal scales, namely:

a. Frontal plate – central and unpaired
b. Parietals – two large plates posterior to the frontal
c. Supraorbitals – paired plates, somewhat oblongated and situated between
the frontal plates and eyes.
d. Prefrontals – paired plates anterior to the frontal.
e. Internasals – paired, anterior to the prefrontals and between the nasals.
(NOTE: In some species, this is separated by a small median plate known
as AZYGOS.)
f. Rostral – unpaired plate, covering the extremity of the snout.
g. Nasals – plates surrounding the paired nostrils.
h. Orbitals – small plates surrounding each eye. The number depends on the
kind of species.
i. Superior and Inferior labials – situated on the edge of the upper and lower
lips, respectively.
j. Temporals – situated posterior to the orbitals and above the superior
labials.
2. Bony and tail – are entirely covered with epidermal scales.
The scales of the ventral surface of the body are short and wide slightly overlapping and
called GASTROSTEGES, while those of the tail are in two rows, more or less united
and are called UROSTEGES. The last Gastrostegite is called the ANAL PLATE. The
scales of the dorsal upper of the body and tail are smaller, oblongated and keeled with a
longitudinal median ridge and are slightly overlapped. The scales are usually arranged
in rows.

EXOSKELETON OF AVES (CHICKEN)

The body of birds is almost covered entirely with feather. The hindlimbs are covered
with epidermal scales and provided with claws. The mouth is modified into horny beaks.
Feathers are found in areas of the skin called FEATHER TRACT or PTERYLAE, while
the featherless areas found in between are called APTERYLAE.
Identify the parts:

There are there general types of feathers:

1. Filoplume or Hair feather – fine hair that can only be seen in the young and
plucked bird.
a. Main axis – a long slender shaft that is embedded in the skin and
surrounded at its base by the FEATHER FOLLICLE or ROOT.
b. Terminal barbs – soft ray that are borned at the distal end of the main
axis. It is also provided with side rays called BARBULES, without hooklets.
2. Plumule or Down feather – fluffy covering found in young birds between the
bases of the contour feather in adult birds, consisting of:
a. Quill or Calamus – a basal, short, hollow stem, which is embedded in the
integument.
b. Barbs – the numerous soft rays that arise in a circle from the free end of
the quill.
c. Barbules – minute or tiny side rays arising from each side of the barbs.
3. Contour feather – covers and gives outline to the body. Arises from the feather
tracts or pterylae. Classified into two specific types, namely:
a. Flight feather – primarily used for flying.
1. Quill – the central axis which bears on each side a web-like, flat
expansion called the VANE.
2. Calamus – the lower bare and hollow part of the quill.
3. Inferior umbilicus – the opening on the proximal end of the quill and
is inserted into the feather follicle.
4. Superior umbilicus – a ventral opening at the beginning of the vane
and serves as a point where the AFTERFEATHER, a less-
developed tuft of accessory feather arises.
b. Shaft or rachis – the solid part of the quill that supports the vane
c. Vane – expanded portion of the quill which is divided into an:
1. Outer vane – narrower side of the feather
2. Inner vane – wider side of the feather.
3. Barbs – parallel, obliquely placed rays that adhere to each other
and arise from the rachis.
4. Barbules – side rays originating from each side of the barb.
5. Hooklets/Barbicels – tiny hooks situated on the lower part of each
distal barbules, resulting in the barbs being hooked together.
6. Umbilical groove – a median ventral groove that extends from the
superior umbilicus to the tip of the rachis.
4. Covert Feather – primarily used to cover the body.

EXOSKELETON OF MAMMAL (CAT)

The body of mammals is almost entirely covered with HAIRS. The exposed part of the
hair is called the SHAFT. The embedded part is called the ROOT.

This is a light or white hair or hair of any other mammal under HPO.
Identify the following parts of a hair.

1. Cuticle – form the surface layer of the hair.

2. Medulla – median innermost layer of the hair. NOTE: the medulla is often absent,
especially in smaller hairs.
3. Cortex – between the cuticle and medulla.