Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

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Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Review

A review of shape memory alloy research, applications

and opportunities
Jaronie Mohd Jani a,b,⇑, Martin Leary a, Aleksandar Subic a, Mark A. Gibson c
a
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3083, Australia
b
Institute of Product Design and Manufacturing, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
CSIRO Process Science and Engineering, Private Bag 33, Clayton South MDC, Victoria 3169, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Shape memory alloys (SMAs) belong to a class of shape memory materials (SMMs), which have the ability
Received 17 September 2013 to ‘memorise’ or retain their previous form when subjected to certain stimulus such as thermomechan-
Accepted 16 November 2013 ical or magnetic variations. SMAs have drawn significant attention and interest in recent years in a broad
Available online 17 December 2013
range of commercial applications, due to their unique and superior properties; this commercial develop-
ment has been supported by fundamental and applied research studies. This work describes the attri-
Keywords: butes of SMAs that make them ideally suited to actuators in various applications, and addresses their
Shape memory alloy
associated limitations to clarify the design challenges faced by SMA developers. This work provides a
Shape memory materials
Automotive
timely review of recent SMA research and commercial applications, with over 100 state-of-the-art pat-
Aerospace ents; which are categorised against relevant commercial domains and rated according to design objec-
Biomedical tives of relevance to these domains (particularly automotive, aerospace, robotic and biomedical).
Robotics Although this work presents an extensive review of SMAs, other categories of SMMs are also discussed;
including a historical overview, summary of recent advances and new application opportunities.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The technology push, towards ‘smart’ systems with adaptive
and/or intelligent functions and features, necessitates the in-
creased use of sensors, actuators and micro-controllers; thereby
resulting in an undesirable increase in weight and volume of the
associated machine components. The development of high ‘func-
tional density’ and ‘smart’ applications must overcome technical
and commercial restrictions, such as available space, operating
environment, response time and allowable cost [1]. In particular,
for automotive construction and design: increased mass directly
results in increased fuel consumption, and automotive suppliers
are highly cost-constrained. Research on the application of smart
technologies must concentrate on ensuring that these ‘smart’
systems are compatible with the automotive environment and
existing technologies [1]. The integration and miniaturisation of
integrated micro-controllers and advanced software has enabled
considerable progress in the field of automotive sensors and con-
trol electronics. However, the technical progress for automotive
actuators is relatively poorly advanced [2]. Currently, there are
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3083, Australia. Tel.: +61 405552605.
E-mail addresses: jaronie@iprom.unikl.edu.my (J. Mohd Jani), martin.leary@
rmit.edu.au (M. Leary), aleksandar.subic@rmit.edu.au (A. Subic), mark.gibson@
csiro.au (M.A. Gibson).
about 200 actuation tasks are performed on vehicles with conven-
tional electro-magnetic motors, which are potentially sub-optimal
for weight, volume and reliability [3].
Shape memory alloy (SMA) or ‘‘smart alloy’’ was first discovered
by Arne Ölander in 1932 [4], and the term ‘‘shape-memory’’ was
first described by Vernon in 1941 [5] for his polymeric dental
material. The importance of shape memory materials (SMMs)
was not recognised until William Buehler and Frederick Wang re-
vealed the shape memory effect (SME) in a nickel-titanium (NiTi)
alloy in 1962 [6,7], which is also known as nitinol (derived from
the material composition and the place of discovery, i.e. a combi-
nation of NiTi and Naval Ordnance Laboratory). Since then, the de-
mand for SMAs for engineering and technical applications has been
increasing in numerous commercial fields; such as in consumer
products and industrial applications [8–10], structures and com-
posites [11], automotive [2,12,13], aerospace [14–17], mini actua-
tors and micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) [16,18–21],
robotics [22–24], biomedical [16,18,25–30] and even in fashion
[31]. Although iron-based and copper-based SMAs, such as Fe–
Mn–Si, Cu–Zn–Al and Cu–Al–Ni, are low-cost and commercially
available, due to their instability, impracticability (e.g. brittleness)
[32–34] and poor thermo-mechanic performance [35]; NiTi-based
SMAs are much more preferable for most applications. However,
each material has their own advantage for particular requirements
or applications.

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.11.084
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1079

In this work, a brief summary of SMA, its design feasibility and

the variety of SMA applications are compiled and presented. SMA
applications are divided into several sections based on the applica-
tion domain, such as automotive, aerospace, robotics and biomed-
ical, as well in other areas. Most of the work presented here has an
emphasis on NiTi SMAs, but other forms or types of smart materi-
als such as high temperature shape memory alloys (HTSMAs),
magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs), SMM thin film (e.g. NiTi
thin film) and shape memory polymers (SMPs) are also discussed.
However, intensive topics such as metallurgy, thermodynamics
and mechanics of materials will not be addressed in detail.

2. Shape memory alloy overview

SMAs are a group of metallic alloys that can return to their ori-
ginal form (shape or size) when subjected to a memorisation pro-
cess between two transformation phases, which is temperature or
magnetic field dependent. This transformation phenomenon is
known as the shape memory effect (SME).
The basic application of these materials is quite simple, where Fig. 1. SMA phases and crystal structures [36–38].
the material can be readily deformed by applying an external force,
and will contract or recover to its original form when heated be-
yond a certain temperature either by external or internal heating
(Joule heating); or other relevant stimuli such as a magnetic field
for MSMAs.

2.1. Shape memory effect and Pseudoelasticity

Practically, SMAs can exist in two different phases with three

different crystal structures (i.e. twinned martensite, detwinned
martensite and austenite) and six possible transformations
[36,37] (see Fig. 1). The austenite structure is stable at high tem-
perature, and the martensite structure is stable at lower tempera-
tures. When a SMA is heated, it begins to transform from
martensite into the austenite phase. The austenite-start-tempera-
ture (As) is the temperature where this transformation starts and
the austenite-finish-temperature (Af) is the temperature where
this transformation is complete. Once a SMA is heated beyond As
it begins to contract and transform into the austenite structure,
i.e. to recover into its original form. This transformation is possible
even under high applied loads, and therefore, results in high
actuation energy densities [38]. During the cooling process, the
transformation starts to revert to the martensite at martensite-
start-temperature (Ms) and is complete when it reaches the
martensite-finish-temperature (Mf) [6] (see Fig. 2). The highest
temperature at which martensite can no longer be stress induced
is called Md, and above this temperature the SMA is permanently
deformed like any ordinary metallic material [39]. These shape
change effects, which are known as the SME and pseudoelasticity
(or superelasticity), can be categorised into three shape memory
characteristics as follows:
(1) One-way shape memory effect (OWSME):
The one-way SMA (OWSMA) retains a deformed state after
the removal of an external force, and then recovers to its ori-
ginal shape upon heating.
(2) Two-way shape memory effect (TWSME) or reversible SME:
In addition to the one-way effect, a two-way SMA (TWSMA)
can remember its shape at both high and low temperatures.
However, TWSMA is less applied commercially due to the
‘training’ requirements and to the fact that it usually pro-
duces about half of the recovery strain provided by OWSMA
for the same material [40–42] and it strain tends to deterio-
rate quickly, especially at high temperatures [43]. Therefore,
OWSMA provides more reliable and economical solution
Fig. 2. Flexinol NiTi SMA (HT) phase transformation [57].
[44]. Various training methods have been proposed
[42,45–49], and two of them are: Spontaneous and external
load-assisted induction [50].
(3) Pseudoelasticity (PE) or Superelasticity (SE):
The SMA reverts to its original shape after applying mechan-
ical loading at temperatures between Af and Md, without the
need for any thermal activation.
In addition to the ‘material TWSME’ above, a biased OWSMA
actuator could also act as a ‘mechanical TWSME’ at a macroscopic
(structural) level; which is more powerful, reliable and is widely
implemented in many engineering applications [18].
The SME is a diffusionless solid phase transition between
martensitic and austenitic crystal structures [49,51–53]. There
are other transformations associated with shape memory such as
rhombohedral (R-phase), bainite [49,54] and the ‘rubberlike
behaviour’ (RLB) in martensite stage [55,56], which are not dis-
cussed in detail, in this work.
Hysteresis is a measure of the difference in the transition tem-
peratures between heating and cooling (i.e. DT = Af Ms), which is
generally defined between the temperatures at which the material
is in 50% transformed to austenite upon heating and in 50% trans-
formed to martensite upon cooling [53]. This property is important
and requires careful consideration during SMA material selection
for targeted technical applications; e.g. a small hysteresis is re-
quired for fast actuation applications (such as MEMSs and robot-
ics), larger hysteresis is required to retain the predefined shape
within a large temperature range (such as in deployable structures
1080 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
and pipe joining) [58]. In addition, the transition temperatures
referred to identify the operating range of an application. These
transition temperatures and the hysteresis loop behaviour are
influenced by the composition of SMA material, the thermome-
chanical processing tailored to the SMA and the working environ-
ment of the application itself (e.g. applied stress) [44]. These
transition temperatures can be directly measured with various
techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), dila-
tometry, electrical resistivity measurement as a function of tem-
perature, and can be indirectly determined from a series of
constant stress thermal cycling experiments [43].
Some of the SMAs physical and mechanical properties also vary
between these two phases such as Young’s modulus, electrical
resistivity, thermal conductivity and thermal expansion coefficient
[37,59,60]. The austenite structure is relatively hard and has a
much higher Young’s modulus; whereas the martensite structure
is softer and more malleable; i.e. can be readily deformed by appli-
cation of an external force [34,37] (see Table 1).
When an external stress is applied below the martensite yield
strength (approximately 8.5% strain for NiTi alloys and 4–5% for
copper-based alloys [34,57,61]), the SMA deforms elastically with
recoverable strain. However, a large non-elastic deformation (per-
manent plastic deformation) will result beyond this point. Most
applications will restrict the strain level; e.g. to 4% or less, for NiTi
alloys [35,57].
2.2. History of SMA development
In 1932, the solid phase transformation in SMA was first discov-
ered by Ölander [4], a Swedish physicist who determined that the
gold-cadmium (Au–Cd) alloys could be plastically deformed when
cool, and returned to its original configuration when heated. Later
in 1938, Greninger and Mooradian [62] first observed the SME for
copper-zinc (Cu–Zn) alloys and copper-tin (Cu–Sn) alloys. The fun-
damental phenomenon of the memory effect governed by the ther-
moelastic behaviour of the martensite phase was widely reported a
decade later by Kurdjumov and Khandros [63] in 1949 and also by
Chang and Read [64] in 1951. Similar affects in other alloys such
In–Tl and Cu–Al–Ni were also observed in the 1950’s. These discov-
eries had captured the interest of many researchers and inventors,
but practical and industrial applications could not be realised due
to their material high costs, manufacturing complexity and unat-
tractive mechanical properties.
Although the NiTi alloy was discovered by William Buehler in
1959 [7], the potential to commercialise SMA applications was
only became available after the SME in NiTi alloy was revealed
by William Buehler and Frederick Wang in 1962 [6,7]. Nitinol
alloys are cheaper to produce, easier and safer to handle, and have
better mechanical properties compared to other existing SMAs at
that time [6,53]. The first commercial success for a SMA application
was the Raychem Corporation’s CryoFit™ ‘‘shrink-to-fit’’ pipe
Table 1
Commercial NiTi SMA physical properties [34,46].
Property Symbol Units
Corrosion Resistance – –
Density qD kg/m3
Electrical Resistivity (approx.) qR lX cm
Specific Heat Capacity c J/kg K
Thermal Conductivity k W/m K
Thermal Expansion Coefficient a m/m K 1
Ultimate Tensile Strength rUTS MPa
Young’s Modulus (approx.) E GPa
Yield Strength rY MPa
Poisson’s Ratio m –
Magnetic Susceptibility v lemu g
coupler in 1969 for the F-14 jet fighter built by the Grumman Aero-
space Corporation and followed subsequently by the orthodontic
bridge wires by George B. Andreasen in 1971 [7].
Since the 1980’s, the commercial application of NiTi alloys has
developed in many areas due to the greater demands for lighter
and more compact actuators, especially in the biomedical sector
(see Figs. 4 and 3).
2.3. Recent developments
In the 1990’s, the term shape memory technology (SMT) was
introduced into the SMM community [65]. SMA application design
has changed in many ways since then and has found commercial
application in a broad range of industries including automotive,
aerospace, robotics and biomedical [16,18,23,66–69]. Currently,
SMA actuators have been successfully applied in low frequency
vibration [70] and actuation applications. Therefore, much system-
atic and intensive research work is still needed to enhance the per-
formance of SMAs [71,72], especially to increase their bandwidth,
fatigue life and stability [73].
Recently, many researchers have taken an experimental ap-
proach to enhance the attributes of SMAs, by improving the
material compositions (quantifying the SMA phase transition tem-
perature [74–78]) to achieve a wider operating temperature range,
and better material stability, as well as to improve the material re-
sponse and stroke with better mechanical design (or approach),
controller systems and fabrication processes. Research into alter-
native SMMs, forms or shapes, such as MSMA, HTSMA, SMP, shape
memory ceramic, SMM thin film or a combination of them (i.e. hy-
brid or composite SMMs), are also intensively being conducted,
and the number of commercial applications is growing each year
(see Fig. 4). More details of recent applications and development
of SMA are described in the subsequent sections.
A literature analysis has been carried out using the Scopus and
USPTO search engines with search keywords of ‘shape memory al-
loy’ or ‘nitinol’ for related areas are presented in Figs. 3 and 4.
BCC research [79] reported that the global market for smart
materials was about USD19.6 billion in 2010, estimated to ap-
proach USD22 billion in 2011 and forecasted to reach over
USD40 billion by 2016 with a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 12.8% between 2011 and 2016. The largest application
segment of the market is actuators and motors, with sales of nearly
USD10.8 billion (55% of the total market) in 2010 and forecasted to
reach USD25.4 billion (approximately 64% of the market) by 2016
with CAGR of 15.4% between 2011 and 2016 (see Fig. 5).
3. Designing with SMAs
To date, more than 10,000 United States patents and over
20,000 worldwide patents have been issued on SMAs and their
Value
Martensite Austenite
Similar to 300 series SS or Ti-alloy
6450–6500
76–80 82–100
836.8 836.8
8.6–10 18
6.6  10 6 11.0  10 6
895 (Fully annealed)/1900 (Hardened)
28–41 75–83
70–140 195–690
0.33
2.5 3.8
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1081

Fig. 3. SMA publications and US patents from January 1990 to June 2013.

due to their unique characteristics and ability to react directly to

environmental stimuli [81]; thus promoting the development of
more advanced and cheaper actuators with a significant reduction
in mechanical complexity and size [2,85]. For instance, the NiTi
SMA displays one of the highest work density at 10 J cm 3 (see
Table 2), which is a factor of 25 times greater than the work density
of electric motors [19] and is able to lift more than 100 times of its
weight [86]. Furthermore, the NiTi SMA is bio-compatible [29,87],
exhibits high wear resistance [34,53], and the tribological behav-
iour has been investigated and compared to many conventional

Fig. 4. Number of ‘‘Shape Memory Alloy’’ articles and patents by years-group.

applications, but the realisation of viable products from all this

intellectual property has thus far been limited [61,80,81]. The rea-
son for this lies primarily with the lack of understanding by scien-
tists and engineers on both the technical limitations of SMAs and
the methods to apply SMAs in a robust manner to achieve technical
requirements of longevity and stability [69,80–83].

3.1. SMA design advantages

Recent research work has shown that SMA actuators provide an

excellent technological opportunity to replace conventional actua-
tors such as electric motors, pneumatics and hydraulics [15,84], Fig. 5. Global market forecast for smart materials for 2010–2016 [79].
1082 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

engineering materials such as steels, Ni-based and Stellite alloys
[19,88–90].
With reference to Table 2, the NiTi SMA is the obvious choice for
designers for actuators that provide significant displacement and
forces, with no critical requirements for a short response time or
high efficiency. This makes NiTi SMA an attractive candidate for
a variety of industrial applications, ‘smart’ structures and ‘intelli-
gent’ systems [94,95]. A composite airframe with a combination
of piezoelectric crystals, as the vibration sensors, and NiTi as the
actuators to counteract the vibration, is a good example of a ‘smart’
structure application [81].
Commonly, designers make use of the benefit of the engineering
effects described above to design their applications, where the SME
is primarily employed for actuation and pseudo-elasticity for
vibration isolation and dampening (see Table 3). For example, the
two unique pseudoelastic behaviours of SMA, provide a valuable
advantage in dampening vibrations, where its non-linear behav-
iour allows vibration isolation and a large deformation recovery,
and its hysteresis behaviour dissipates the energy [96,97]. SMAs
are also capable of actuating in a fully three-dimensional manner,
allowing the fabrication of actuation components which can ex-
tend, bend, twist, in isolation or combination; and can be used in
various configurations and shapes such as helical springs, torsion
springs, straight wires, cantilever strips, and torsion tubes
[13,98]. SMAs can provide a highly innovative approach to solve
a wide range of engineering problems and may in fact be the only
viable technical option for complex applications, due to their attri-
butes and unique advantages.
An overview of the features and possibilities of SMA actuators is
provided in Fig. 6, which characterises the SMA actuators accord-
ing to their relevant requirements and can be considered as a use-
ful checklist for the development of SMA applications [99]. A series
of charts to aid the selection of SMAs (NiTi, Cu–Zn–Al and Cu–Al–
Ni) is also presented by Huang [35], based on a number of perfor-
mance indices and criteria [100], with special reference to the un-
ique features of SMA actuators.
3.2. SMA design challenges
The challenges in designing SMA applications are to overcome
their limitations, which include a relatively small usable strain,
low actuation frequency, low controllability, low accuracy and
low energy efficiency. The major obstacle is the low operational
frequency and narrow bandwidth of SMA materials, which have
a relatively high heat capacity and density, and as a result they
experience difficulty in transferring the heat rapidly into and more
importantly out of the active element, which leads to a severe
bandwidth problem. In several studies [101–103], it has been
shown that rapid heating of SMA actuators can be achieved easily
with several methods, such as applying large electrical currents
(Joule heating) to increase the heating rate. However, without
proper monitoring and control this may overheat and damage
the actuator. Nonetheless, the most significant concern in band-
width limitation is the very slow cooling process, where the heat
energy removal rate is limited by the mechanisms of heat conduc-
tion and convection. The size and shape of the SMA actuator affects
the actuator response time, where actuators with smaller diameter
heat faster due to their higher resistivity, and cool faster due to
their higher surface-to-volume ratio [57,104]. Therefore changing
the wire diameter could change the application bandwidth dra-
matically (see Table 4). In addition, the preloading stress, loading
condition and amplitude of activation potential also influence the
response time of SMA actuators [105]. Several strategies have been
developed to improve the control of the heating process [35,106]
and to expedite the cooling process with active cooling such as
forced air [105,107,108], flowing liquids [105,109–111], thermo-
electric modules (i.e. Peltier or semiconductor heat pumps) [112–
117], heat sinks [103,105,118] and conductive materials
[85,119,120]. Table 4 shows the ratio of actuation speed improve-
ment with several cooling methods [57].
Higher cooling rates are obtained when cooling with a fluidic
medium, but this requires a special design to prevent any leakage
to the environment. A small amount of air circulation around the
wire is sufficient to obtain a substantial improvement compared
to the natural convection case, however, several studies have also
indicated that increasing the air flow would only produce a minor
effect on the cooling performance and has several drawbacks such
as higher energy consumption and noise production [84]. There-
fore, active cooling is not practical in numerous situations since
it contributes to increases in cost, weight, physical volume, as well
the mechanical and control complexity [38,106]. Alternatively,
bandwidth improvement with passive cooling is also achievable

Table 2
Comparison of actuator performance [91–93].

Actuator type Stress (MPa) Strain (%) Efficiency (%) Bandwidth (Hz) Work per Volume (J/cm3) Power per Volume (W/cm3)
NiTi SMA 200 10 3 3 10 30
Piezoceramic 35 0.2 50 5000 0.035 175
Single crystal piezoelectric 300 1.7 90 5800 2.55 15,000
Human Muscle 0.007–0.8 1–100 35 2–173 0.035 0.35
Hydraulic 20 50 80 4 5 20
Pneumatic 0.7 50 90 20 0.175 3.5

Table 3
Summary of various SMA properties and their effects [15].

SMA traits Practical consequences

Shape memory effect
Pseudoelasticity
Hysteresis
High actuation stress (400–700 MPa)
High actuation strain (ca. 8%)
High energy density (ca. 1200 J/kg)
Three-dimensional actuation
Actuation frequency
Energy efficiency (10–15%)
Transformation – induced plasticity
Material can be used as an actuator, providing force during shape recovery
Material can be stressed to provide large, recoverable deformations at relatively constant stress levels
Allows for dissipation of energy during pseudo-elastic response
Small component cross-sections can provide substantial forces
Small component lengths can provide large displacements
Small amount of material required to provide substantial actuation work
Polycrystalline SMA components fabricated in a variety of shapes, providing a variety of useful geometric configurations
Difficulty in achieving high component cooling rates limits use in high frequency applications
Amount of thermal energy required for actuation is much larger than mechanical work output
Plastic accumulation during cyclic response eventually degrades material and leads to failure
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Fig. 6. SMA actuator element features [99].
Table 4
Cooling methods [57].
Cooling methods Improvement in speed
Increasing Stress 1.2:1
Using higher temperature wire 2:1
Using solid Heat Sink materials 2:1
Forced air 4:1
Heat conductive grease 10:1
Oil immersion 25:1
Water with Glycol 100:1
Note: Typical heating (joule heating) and cooling time (passive cooling) for HT-type
(90 °C) Flexinol wire at standard environmental condition (i.e. static air, vertical
position and atmospheric pressure):
 Ø0.05 mm: Heating (85 mA) = 1 s, Cooling = 0.3 s.
 Ø0.51 mm: Heating (4000 mA) = 1 s, Cooling = 14 s.
via improvements in mechanical design and control systems, such
as the application of an agonistic-antagonistic system [83,121],
high surface-to-volume ratio design (e.g. thin film SMA), and con-
troller optimisation (e.g. gain optimisation [106]). An assessment
of transient cooling opportunities has been completed by Huang
et al. [122].
The second challenge is the low associated energy efficiency.
Theoretically the maximum energy efficiency of SMAs is in the
range of 10–15% [123], which may fall to 10% [124] based on the
Carnot cycle efficiency in some studies, and is often less than 1%
in practical applications [16]. Hence SMA actuator applications
must be limited to areas where energy efficiency is not an issue,
and it should be noted that there is a difference between SMA effi-
ciency and actuator efficiency (i.e. efficiency of the entire system
versus efficiency of SMA wire) [125]. Mechanically, SMA actuators
come in various loading configurations. Most of the proposed actu-
ator designs are based on a SMA spring as the active element,
where large macroscopic displacements can be generated out of
a relatively small microscopic strain. However, the stress distribu-
tion over the cross-section of the SMA spring is not constant, and
therefore requires greater material volume to generate the same
force, which has a negative effect on the efficiency and the band-
width of the actuator (i.e. for the same output, a larger material
1083
volume has to be heated and cooled) [60,84]. Therefore, straight
SMA wires are more advantageous due to the optimal use of mate-
rial (i.e. more work generated from a minimal amount of SMA
material) and the loading in tension configuration (see Table 5).
The next challenge is the durability and reliability of SMA actu-
ators when subjected to multiple transformation cycles, which is
significantly important to be assured of long-term stability, func-
tionality and safety for any applications such as in ‘automotive
safety systems’ [66]. Many factors influence the long-term perfor-
mance and reliability of SMA actuators such as maximum temper-
ature, stress, strain and the number of transformation cycles
accumulated. SMAs have been shown to exhibit a softening of
behaviour (i.e. reducing the amount of recoverable strain) as the
actuator is cycled, either by heating and cooling the SMA under
load [77,126–128] or by mechanically cycling the wire in its
super-elastic state [129]. Many researchers have concluded that
thermal effects are highly relevant in determining fatigue-life,
particularly for the NiTi SMA [130–138]. For fatigue-limited appli-
cations, the SMA actuator temperature should be controlled pre-
cisely and overheating the SMAs reduces the fatigue life
considerably [73]. Recent studies [77,128,139] have also shown
that SMA actuators with constant loading, which are higher than
the recommended load (stress), experienced a reduction in stroke
(strain) as the number of cycles increased. It was also reported that
overstraining of the SMA material also degraded performance,
either in tension [140], torsion [141] or bending [142,143]. Increas-
ing both stress and strain reduces the lifetime of SMA materials,
and it is therefore essential to select the appropriate working
Table 5
Comparison of loading configuration for SMA actuators [84].
Loading configuration Efficiency (%) Energy density (J/kg)
Tension 1.3 446
Torsion 0.23 82
Bending 0.013 4.6
Note: The values in this table are calculated based on a pure elastic deformation
which is only a rough estimate for comparing the three loading configurations.
1084 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

[152,153], fabrication processes [154,155], thermomechanical

treatments [156–159] and mechanical design optimisation [83]
are not discussed in this work.

4. Other forms or types of shape memory materials

Other forms or types of SMMs have been explored due to some

Fig. 7. Fatigue lifetime for Smartflex 76 under different stress–strain [140].
boundary conditions to obtain high fatigue resistance and high
reliability from SMA materials (see Fig. 7) [140]. In terms of fatigue
performance, SMA wires were reported to be better than SMA
springs, where the recovery force and strain of SMA springs de-
creased by 30% after 1000 cycles and by 60% after 10,000 cycles
[144]; in addition, the SMA springs deflection against the bias force
degraded by at least 20% after ageing at 95 °C for 2000 h [145].
Therefore, SMA actuators should be prevented from overheat-
ing, overstressing and overstraining for long durations. Generally,
to guarantee the applications are designed to perform safely over
a large number of cycles (about 106 cycles) before reaching yield
point and mechanical breakage, the active elements should pre-
vented from overheating; and not allowed exceed the recom-
mended fatigue strength and strain of the SMA material (i.e.
maximum load of 350 MPa [35], safe design load at 100 MPa [84]
and 3–4% strain [35,57,146]). The advancement in materials devel-
opment and processing has reduced degradation and fatigue, and
as a result over millions of cycles are readily achievable with
appropriate training and usage [57]. Application of electronics con-
trollers such as temperature sensors [147], position feedback [148],
resistance feedback [149,150], limit curve [151], and adaptive
resetting [83] are capable to resolve the overstress and overheating
problems in commercial applications. Other methods to enhance
the fatigue life of SMAs such as improvement of materials
obvious limitations or disadvantages of SMA, such as high manu-
facturing cost, limited recoverable deformation, limited operating
temperature and low bandwidth. Some of the SMMs can be catego-
rised in multiple forms or types, such as Co–Ni–Ga and Ni–Mn–Ga
can be categorised as HTSMA and MSMA, and Ni–Ti–Pt/Pd also can
be fabricated as SMM thin film.
4.1. High temperature shape memory alloys
Extensive research for HTSMAs with other ternary additions to
the NiTi SMA (e.g. Au, Hf, Pd, Pt and Zr) has been undertaken
[43,160,161], due to the increasing demands for high-temperature
applications. Practically, HTSMAs are defined as SMAs that are
operating at temperatures above 100 °C, and can be categorised
into three groups based on their martensitic transformation ranges
[43] (see Table 6).
Unfortunately, most HTSMAs are very difficult to process and to
train due to their limited ductility or poor fatigue resistance at
room temperature, and making them very expensive to manufac-
ture. Therefore, alternative low cost materials or compositions
such as copper and cobalt have been researched. At present, only
TiNiPd, TiNiPt, NiTiHf, NiTiZr and CuAlMnNi alloys are useful at
100–300 °C, and the rest of them had significant challenges to
commercial application and require further work [43].
4.2. Magnetic shape memory alloys
Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs), which are also known
as ferromagnetic shape memory alloys (FSMAs) can actuate at
higher frequencies (up to 1 kHz) because the actuation energy is

Table 6
HTSMA groups and their properties [43,162–164].

Group Alloy composition Transformation Thermal hysteresis (°C) Strain (%) Recovery (%) Comments
temperature range (°C)
100–400 °C Ti–Ni–Pd 100–530 20–26 2.6–5.4 90PE-100 High work output, most commercial ready and high
materials cost
Ti–Ni–Pt 110–1100 31–55 3–4 100
Ni–Ti–Hf 100–400 60 3 100 Reasonable SME, large hysteresis and relatively low
materials cost
Ni–Ti–Zr 100–250 54 1.8 100
Cu–Al–Ni 100–400 21.5 3–5PE 80–90PE Low cost, poor to reasonable SME, and brittle in tension
(Cu–Al–Ni)
Cu–Al–Nb 59–170 5.5–7.6 –
Co–Al 100–400 121 2 90 Good workability, large hysteresis and high temperature
PE (Co–Ni–Al)
Co–Ni–Al 15.5 5PE 100PE
Ni–Al 100–300 - - - Low materials cost, low hysteresis and poor tensile
ductility
Ni–Mn 100–670 20 3.9 90
Ni–Mn–Ga 100–400 85 10 70
Zr–Cu 100–600 70 8 44 Good ductility and workability, but poor SME
Ti–Nb 100–200 50 2–3 97–100 Good ductility and SME, but suspect to oxidation and
contain Uranium (U–Nb)
U–Nb 100–200 35 7
400–700 °C Ti–Pd 100–510 40 10 88 Good ductility (Ti–Pd), but high materials cost (Ti–Pt)
Ti–Au 100–630 35 3 100
>700 °C Ti–Pt–Ir 990–1184 66.5 10PE 40PE High yield strength.
Ta–Ru 900–1150 20 4 50 Stable microstructural, but poor oxidation resistance
and small hysteresis
Nb–Ru 425–900 4.2 88

Note: PE = Pseudoelastic.
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1085

transmitted via magnetic fields and is not hindered by the rela- Table 7
Micro-actuators comparison [172–174].
tively slow heat transfer mechanism [165]. FSMA strain rate is
quite comparable to magnetostrictive and piezoelectrics active ele- Micro-actuators Maximum energy Maximum Efficiency
ments, but at strains as large as SMAs (see Fig. 8, [43]). FSMA can density (J/m3) frequency (Hz) (%)
also provide the same specific power as SMAs, but deliver it at NiTi thin film 2.5  107 <100 1
higher frequencies (see Fig. 8, [43]). The maximum strain of FSMA Electrostatic 1.8  105 <10,000 50
Electromagnetic 4.0  105 <1000 <1
is 32 times more than the giant magnetostrictive Terfenol-D
Piezoelectric 1.2  105 <5000 30
(TbDyFe2), and the trade-off for greater strain is 46 times lower Bimetallic 4.0  105 <100 0.01
for lower elastic modulus (stiffness) [166]. Consequently, FSMAs Thermo- 5.0  105 <100 10
are suitable to fill the technological gaps between SMAs and mag- pneumatic
netostrictive materials, and would be a niche for motor and valve Conductive 3.4  106 <1000 60
polymer
applications [167] that require significantly larger displacement
at lower actuation force [166].
However, in general MSMA also experience similar design addition, SMPs can sustain two or more shape changes [181–
issues as described above for SMAs [168]. Furthermore, MSMAs 183] when triggered by thermal (heating [184] or cooling [185]),
are very brittle, stiff and only operable at low temperature electricity [186], magnetic field [187], light [188] or solutions
[166,169,170]. Therefore, MSMAs are difficult to shape and to form, [189] (e.g. chemical [184] or water [190,191]). Generally, there
and are not suitable for many present applications at present are three categories of SMPs [46], and most of them are naturally
which require high temperatures and high force. Fundamental either thermo- or chemo-responsive [184]. When one considers
research continues to develop a better understanding of the consti- the vast commercial application of polymer products, it is apparent
tutive behaviour of these MSMAs (such as Ni–Mn–Ga, Fe–Pd and that SMPs have significant commercial application [181,192–194],
Ni–Mn–Al) in order to further improve the materials. such as smart fabrics [195], self-repairing (or seal-healing) plastic
components [196], spacecraft sails [197], biomedical devices
[179,198–200] and intelligent structures. Some of the characteris-
4.3. Shape memory material thin film
tics of SMPs are summarised in Table 8.
There are three basic working mechanisms for the SME in poly-
SMM thin films evolved from the advancement of fabrication
meric materials: Dual-state mechanism, dual-component mecha-
technology, where SMMs are deposited directly onto micro-
nism (DCM) and partial-transition mechanism (PTM) [184]. The
machined materials or as stand-alone thin films to become mi-
recovery precision of more than 99% makes SMPs suitable for
cro-actuators [86,171–175]. Moreover, in the rapidly growing field
highly demanding applications [180]. Similar to SMAs, the SME
of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMSs), NiTi thin films
of SMPs varies depending on the composition of the material used,
have become the actuator of choice at the micro-scale level, due to
i.e. weight fraction of the switching segments and the molecular
the attributes as described earlier (i.e. higher actuation force and dis-
weight of the polymer-chain employed. The biodegradable nature
placement), but at relatively low frequency (up to 100 Hz) and effi-
of certain SMPs provide advantages over metal implants, where
ciency as well as the non-linear behaviour [20,172–174] (see
the removal of the implant after regeneration can be avoided, thus
Table 7). The versatility of NiTi thin film with multiple degrees of
gentler, more effective and more economical treatments can be of-
freedom and compact structure, expand the potential of NiTi in bio-
fered. However, despite the advantages described above, SMAs are
medical, aerospace, automotive, and consumer products applications.
still preferred for applications that require higher actuation forces
Miniature NiTi actuated devices based on sputtered NiTi films are
and faster response.
anticipated to capture a huge slice of the commercial market, espe-
cially for medical micro-devices and implantable applications [172].
4.5. Miscellaneous
4.4. Shape memory polymers
A summary of existing shape memory materials are described
Shape memory polymers (SMPs) are relatively easy to manufac- in Table 9 below.
ture and fast to train (or program) as well being able to be tailored
for a variety of applications. SMPs are claimed to be a superior 5. Shape memory alloy applications
alternative to SMAs for their lower cost (at least 10% cheaper than
SMAs), better efficiency, biodegradable and probably by far surpass Generally, the shape memory applications can be divided into
SMAs in their mechanical properties (see Table 8) [176–180]. In four categories according to their primary function of their

Fig. 8. Maximum strain and specific energy versus maximum bandwidth for different classes of active materials [43].
1086 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Table 8
Comparison of SMP and SMA properties [177,178].
Property
3
Density (g cm )
Transition breath (°C)
Phase transformations
Strain (%)
Young’s modulus (GPa) at T < TTrans at T > TTrans
Deform stress (MPa)
Recovery stress (MPa)
Recovery speeds (s)
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Bio-compatibility and degradability
Corrosion performance
Condition at high temperature
Condition at low temperature
Cost
Shape training
Fabrication/processing condition
memory element as shown in Table 10 [34,201]; where the SME
can be used to generate motion and/or force, and the SE can store
the deformation energy. [44].
The unique behaviour of NiTi SMAs have spawn new innovative
applications in the aerospace, automotive, automation and control,
appliance, energy, chemical processing, heating and ventilation,
safety and security, and electronics (MEMS devices) industries.
Some of these applications apply similar methods, concepts or
techniques, which are also applicable for other areas; such as the
NiTi thermovariable rate (TVR) springs, which are used to control
the opening door in the self-cleaning oven, is also used to offer
smooth gear shifting for Mercedez-Benz automatic transmissions,
for domestic safety devices to control the hot water flow (e.g.
MemrysafeÒ antiscald valves from Memry Corporation), and for
industrial safety valves to prevent flammable and dangerous
gasses from flowing (e.g. FirechekÒ from Memry Corporation)
[44,201–203] (see Fig. 9). More interesting, these actuators can
act as both a sensor and an actuator in these applications [202].
Selected state-of-the-art and relevant SMA applications and
patents are presented in this section, particularly from the automo-
tive, aerospace, robotics and biomedical domains. A brief summary
of other related SMA applications and discoveries till mid 2013 are
summarised in the appendices.
5.1. Automotive applications
In modern vehicles, the number of sensors and actuators are
increasing tremendously due to the demand for safer, more com-
fortable vehicles, with better performance. The emerging drive-
by-wire technology, offers a wide range of opportunities for SMA
actuators as an alternative to electromagnetic actuators in automo-
tive applications [2,13,67]. The existing and potential SMA applica-
tions for passenger vehicles are presented in Table 11, which
categorises them according to vehicle functional areas [67]. Most
of the selected components are occasionally functioning as linear
actuators (e.g. rear-view mirror folding, climate control flaps
adjustment and lock/latch controls) and as active thermal actua-
tors (e.g. engine temperature control, carburetion and engine lubri-
cation, and powertrain clutches) [13,204]. However, due to the
SMAs attractive morphing capability (active and adaptive struc-
tures), the applications are also expanding into other areas, such
as aerodynamics and aesthetics applications (see Table 11).
The mechanical simplicity and compactness (miniaturisation
possibilities) of SMA actuators reduce the scale, weight and cost
of automotive components significantly and provide substantial
performance benefits in comparison to conventional actuators as
demonstrated by the example provided by Neugebauer et al.
SMP SMA
0.9–1.25 6–8
10–50 5–30
Glass transition Martensitic transformation
Up to 400, and possibly above 800 Up to 8%
0.01–3 (0.1–10)  103 83 (NiTi) 28–41
1–3 50–200
1–3 150–300
<1 s to several min. <1 s
0.15–0.30 W/m K 18 (NiTi, Austenite)
High Not all biocompatible. Not biodegradable
Excellent Excellent
Soft Hard
Hard Soft
Cheap (ca. USD10/lb) More expensive (ca. USD250/lb)
Easy and fast Difficult
<200 °C, low pressure >1000 °C, high pressure
[206] (see Table 12). The versatility of SMA actuators to adapt with
other design mechanisms and techniques such as ‘pantograph’ for
the electrically actuated antiglare rear-view (EAGLE) mirror by
Luchetti et al. [207]; make it an excellent actuator for automotive
applications (see Fig. 10).
General Motors (GM) claim that their engineers have been
working with SMA applications since the mid-1990s, and it would
be likely first implemented on their 2013 model-year cars [208]. So
far GM has earned 247 patents and recently the seventh-genera-
tion of the Chevrolet Corvette was to be the first vehicle with a
SMA actuator to actuate the hatch vent that releases air from the
trunk for easier closing of the trunk lid [3]. Some of their future
technologies with SMAs are an electric generator to generate elec-
tricity from exhaust heat, a situation-dependent active louver to
control the airflow into the engine compartment, on-demand air
dam to reduce aerodynamic drag at highway speeds and an adap-
tive ‘grab handle’ to ease the opening vehicle doors [209,210] (see
Fig. 11).
Several other SMA applications that have been developed for
the automotive industry are the SMA activated automotive tumble
flaps [211] to replace conventional electromagnetic and pneumatic
effectors, an automatic pedestrian protection system (pop-up bon-
net) to minimise pedestrian injuries during impact collisions [212],
a cost effective side mirror actuator [213,214,216], and a micro-
scanner system for optical sensing of an objects distance and angle
with a FSMA actuator [217] (see Table 11).
Currently, there are many potential applications that have been
suggested and these can be found in the patent literature as listed
in this work, but only very few of them have actually been imple-
mented or seem technically and economically feasible due to the
limited range of SMA transformation temperatures. However,
other limitations such as lifetime, hysteresis width, and stability
also have to be considered, especially when dealing with extreme
conditions and very stringent requirements (e.g. safety), such as
summarised in Table 13 (see Fig. 12). One of the challenges specific
to automotive applications is the compatibility of SMA with auto-
motive batteries, this challenge is directly assessed by Leary et al.
[215].
The majority of these feasible applications are covered with the
commercially available binary NiTi SMA, where its operational
temperature range lies approximately within the standard range
of environmental temperature extremes to which a passenger
vehicle may be exposed during service (i.e. between 40 °C to ap-
prox. +125 °C, see Table 13 and Fig. 13 [12,13]). The standard bin-
ary NiTi SMA with transformation temperatures from 50 °C to
approximately +110 °C [34] performs well for multiple cycles with-
in locations of vehicle within this temperature range [13], but not
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Table 9
Materials with SME [19,43,166,178].
Materials Examples
Metals SMA:
 NiTi-based alloys: NiTi, NiTiCu, NiTiPd, NiTiFe, NiTiNb, NiFeGa, NiTiCo
 Cu-based alloys: CuZn, CuZnAl, CuAlNi, CuAlNiMn, CuSn . . .
 Fe-based alloys: FePt, FeMnSi, FeNiC . . .
 Ag-based alloys: AgCd . . .
 Au-based alloys: AuCd . . .
 Co-based alloys: CoNiAl. . .
MSMA/FSMA:
NiMnGa, FePd, NiMnAl, FePt, Dy, Tb, LaSrCuO, ReCu, NiMnIn, CoNiGa. . .
HTSMA:
TiNiPd, TiNiPt, NiTiHf, NiTiZr, ZrRh, ZrCu, ZrCuNiCo, ZrCuNiCoTi, TiMo, TiNb,
TiTa, TiAu, UNb, TaRu, NbRu, FeMnSi and etc.
Polymers PTFE, PU, Poly-caprolactone, EVA + nitrile rubber, PE, Poly-cyclooctene, PCO–
CPE blend, PCL–BA copolymer, Poly(ODVE)-co-BA, EVA + CSM, PMMA,
Copolyesters, PET-PEG . . .
Ceramics ZrO2 (PSZ), MgO, CeO2, PLZT, PNZST . . .
Others SMM thin film:
NiTi, SMP and etc.
in locations with higher temperatures such as under the engine
hood. The SMAs should have an Mf temperature well above the
maximum operating temperatures (see the red dotted lines in
Fig. 13) in order to work properly [13]. The comparison of the
transformation temperature ranges of the most common SMAs un-
der development in Fig. 13 shows that the cheaper Cu–Al–Ni SMAs
can perform the transformation with temperatures up to 200 °C,
but these SMAs are brittle, unstable, have low fatigue strength
and not suitable for multiple cyclic operations [13,32,34,44,160].
A wide selection of HTSMAs are available, but these materials are
still expensive for automotive applications [13].
5.2. Aerospace applications
Since the success of the SMA coupling for hydraulic lines in the
F-14 fighter jets in the 1970s [219], the unique properties of SMAs
have gathered greater interest in aerospace applications
[16,17,96,220], which are subjected to high dynamic loads and
geometric space constraints. A few examples of these applications
are actuators [15,221], structural connectors, vibration dampers,
sealers, release or deployment mechanisms [222–226], inflatable
1087
Notes
The best choice is NiTi SMA
E.g. NiTi-based:
Frequency: 63 Hz, dia. 100 lm with natural cooling (Very Slow).Strain:
max. 10% (High), Recommended: 4%.Stress: up to 500 MPa (High),
Recommended: 100 MPa.Max. operating temp: ca. 100 °C (Low).
NiMnGa was first discovered in 1984 [411] and have received increasing
interest since the principle of the MSMA was presented by Ullakko et al.
[412,413]
E.g. NiMnGa:
Frequency: max. 2 kHz (High), Recommended: 500 Hz
Strain: max. 10% (High), Typical: 6%
Stress: max. 9 MPa (Low), Typical: 3.4 MPa
Young modulus: 0.5 GPa (Very Low)
Max. operating temp: 72 °C. (Low), full austenite transition at 48 °C.
So far, TiNiPd and TiNiPt produced the best results and commercially ready
E.g. TiNiPd [414]:
Frequency: <1 Hz with natural cooling (Very Slow)
Strain: 1.5–4.0% (Med)
Stress: max. 295 MPa (High)
Max. operating temp: 83–513 °C (Very high)
First publication described SME in polymers was in 1941 [5] that is much
earlier than SMA
E.g. PU-based:
Frequency: max 1 Hz (Very Slow)
Strain: >800% (Very High)
Stress: 3 MPa (Low)
Shape memory ceramics has limited shape memory effect (below 0.5 %)
[33,415,416]
E.g. PNZST:
Frequency: ca. 1 kHz (High)
Strain: <1% (Very low)
Stress: max. 100 MPa (High), Typically: 35 MPa.
Operating temp: 200–500 °C (Very high).
This technology is based on smart materials applied to a thin film to
produce SME for MEMS applications [174]
E.g. NiTi-based:
Frequency: <100 Hz (Med)
Strain: max. 10% (High), Typically: 7%.
Stress: up to 500 MPa (High), Recommended: 100–350 MPa.
Max. operating temp: ca. 100 °C (Low).
structures [227,228], manipulators [229,230], and the pathfinder
application [96,231].
In the 1990s, aerospace researchers focussed on active and
adaptive structures toward morphing capability and system-level
optimisation under various flight conditions, such as in the Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) program for aircraft
‘smart wings’ [232], the Smart Aircraft and Marine Propulsion Sys-
tem Demonstration (SAMPSON) program for jet engines [233], and
a number of other programs [234–237]. Boeing has developed an
active serrated aerodynamic device with SMA actuators, which is
also known as a variable geometry chevron (VGC) and has been in-
stalled on a GE90-115B jet engine (for the Boeing 777-300 ER com-
mercial aircraft). This device has proven to be very effective in
reducing noise during take-off by maximising the chevron deflec-
tion, and also increasing the cruise efficiency by minimising the
chevron deflection during the remainder of the flight [238–240]
(see Fig. 14). The high temperature requirement for a core exhaust
chevron design was resolved by the identification, testing, and
validation of the new TiNiPt HTSMA at the NASA Glenn Research
Center [241,242].
Following the VGC success, more SMA based technology
programs have been initiated by Boeing, DARPA, NASA and other
1088
Table 10
Shape memory application categories [34,44,201].
Category
Free recovery
Constrained recovery
Actuator or work production
(Force actuator, proportional
control and two-way-effect
with external reset force)
Superelasticity
related research agencies, which have been reviewed by Calkins
and Mabe [243], such as in the smart inlet that could provide
fighter aircrafts with a variable engine inlet capability, the
J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Description Examples
The sole function of the memory element is to cause motion or strain NiTi eyeglass frames (TiFlex™, TITANFlexÒ) and Simon IVC
on the applications filter
Working principle: The memory element is stretched and then
released (no load applied). It remains in stretched condition until
heated above the transition temperature and shrink back to its
original form, and subsequent cooling below the transition
temperature does not cause any macroscopic shape change (e.g.
OWSMA)
The memory element is prevented from changing shape and Hydraulic couplings, fasteners and connectors: CryoFit™,
thereby generates a stress or force on the applications CryoconÒ, UniLokÒ, CryOliveÒ, CryoFlareÒ, CryoTactÒ,
PermacoupleÒ, Tinel LockÒ and BetaFlex™
Working principle: The memory element is prevented from
returning to its original form after being stretched and considerable
force generated if heated above the transition temperature
There is motion against a stress and thus work is being done by the Electrical actuators (VEASE™, SMArt Clamp™), thermal
memory element on the applications actuators (MemrysafeÒ, circuit breaker, window or louvre
opener, valves), and heat engines
Most of applications fall in this category. Can be either OWSMA or
TWSMA. Three types of actuators:
Force actuator:
The memory element exerts force over a considerable range of
motion, and often for many cycles
Proportional control:
The memory element used only part of its selected portion of shape
recovery to accurately position the mechanism, because the
transformation occurs over a range of temperatures rather than at a
single temperature
Two-way-effect with external reset force:
The memory element generates motion to overcome the opposing
force, and thus do work. The memory element contracts upon
heating to lift a load, and the load will stretch the heating element
and reset the mechanism upon cooling (e.g. TWSMA)
The applications are isothermal in nature and involve the storage of Eyeglass frame, orthodontic archwire, MammelokÒ breast
potential energy hook, guidewires, anchors and underwire brassiere
Fig. 9. NiTi thermovariable rate (TVR) springs applications [202,203].
reconfigurable rotor blade, which is highly robust, and the twist-
able rotor blade to optimise rotor aerodynamic characteristics.
Most recently, the variable geometry fan nozzle, which is based
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1089

Table 11
Existing and potential SMA applications in the automotive domain [13,67,205].

Parts References Parts References

ENGINE ROOM /UNDERHOOD BODY AND EXTERIOR
Radiator [417–420] Headlights/lamps [13,421,422]
Fan clutch [423] Wiper [13,424,425]
Engine control (sensors and actuators) [426] Sunroof/sunshade [418,427–429]
Start-up clutch [430] Door and locking mechanism [13,210,431–434]
Tumble flaps [211] Side mirror [213,214,216]
Fuel injector/fuel system [435–438] Boot [3,431]
Piston rings [439] Engine hood [212,440]
Booster/charger [13] Petrol cap [206]
Valves [13,441] Bumpers and crash structures [442–445]
Battery [446] Air dams [210,447]
DRIVETRAIN Grill/louver [210,417,418]
Transmission control [13,448,449] Spoiler [450]
Structural parts/panels [418,451–454]
SUSPENSION/STEERING/WHEEL AND TYRE INTERIOR/PASSENGER ROOM
Brake [449,455] Dashboard [444]
Absorber [13] Rear view mirror [207]
Tyre [456] Seats [442,453,457–463]
Airbags [464,465]
Structural parts/impact structures [444,451,466]

Table 12
Comparison of DC-Drive and SMA-Drive for fuel door actuator [206].

Parameters DC-Drive SMA-Drive

Actuation time (Complete cycle open-close) 3s 2–3 s

Installation space Compact Stretched along the air duct
Acoustics emission (from drive) Slight noise No noise
Mechanical complexity High Low
Mass Approx. 65 gm. Approx. 20 gm
Positioning accuracy ±1.5° ±2.25°
Energy consumption 1 W during flap movements 1 W permanent

on the VGC technology, has demonstrated to improve jet engine
performance.
Sofla et al. [235] have provided a comprehensive review of air-
craft wing morphing technologies, and they have also developed a
shape morphing wing design for small aircraft by applying antag-
onistic SMA-actuated flexural structural forms that enable the
changing of the wing profile by bending and twisting, to improve
the aerodynamic performance (refer Fig. 15). A preliminary design
study with finite element simulations presented by Icardi and Fer-
rero [236] has verified that an adaptive wing for a small unmanned
aircraft (UAV), which is totally driven by SMA devices, could bear
the aerodynamic pressure under any flight conditions, without
weight increase or stiffness loss compared to other conventional
actuators.
1090 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Fig. 10. EAGLE mirror prototype [207].
Fig. 11. Emerging General Motors’ SMA applications [3,209,210].
Fig. 12. Other SMA application in the automotive domain [211–213,217].
There has also been significant research in rotor technology
(rotorcraft) with SMAs conducted by several researchers, including
rotor blade twisting [229,244,245], rotor blade tracking tab
[220,246], rotor control [247] and rotor blade tip morphing [248].
SMAs have been used for many years in spacecraft as low-shock
release mechanisms because they can be actuated slowly by grad-
ual heating, can absorb vibration very well and can be fabricated in
simple and compact designs, which are most suitable for average
and smaller sized spacecraft (e.g. microsatellite) [96,250,251]. A
few samples of small devices with SMA are the QWKNUT [252],
FrangiboltÒ [253], Micro-Sep-Nut, and Rotary Latch; as described
in previous reviews [15,224,254].
As mentioned earlier, SMAs are suitable for vibration damper
and isolator applications due to their unique behaviour [96,97].
Considerable new research has been performed to study this in de-
tail [255–257], and a few patents have been filed to exploit these
advantages [258–260]. Several other proposed or developed SMA
applications for aerospace are the telescopic wing system [261],
wing span morphing [262], retractable landing gear [263], jet en-
gine components [264–268], morphing structures [269], flap edge
fence [270], aircraft related actuators [271] and aerostructures
[272–274] (see Table 14).
5.3. Robotic applications
Since the 1980s, SMAs have been used in a diverse range of
commercial robotic systems, especially as micro-actuators or arti-
ficial muscles [275–279]; as described by Furuya and Shimada [24]
and Sreekumar et al. [23]. Today, most of the SMA robotic applica-
tions are biologically inspired (i.e. biomechanics) and widely uti-
lised in biomedical areas but are also used extensively in other
fields as well. The primary challenges relevant to the robotics do-
main are: to increase the performance and miniaturisation of the
hardware platform and to increase the intelligence of the inte-
grated system (i.e. small, faster, reliable and autonomous). Several
technical issues have been highlighted and need to be resolved,
such as clamping difficulties, low electrical resistance, miniature
electrical connection (for micro-robots), small strain output, con-
trol issues and very low efficiency. However, some of these issues
have been tackled by selecting suitable modelling techniques, con-
trol techniques and feedback sensors. As an example, the resis-
tance feedback control is ideal for micro-robots as it eliminates
the necessity of additional sensors, although with limited accuracy
[23].
As mentioned earlier, the SMA actuators response rate depends
significantly upon its shape and size, and these have a high impact
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1091

Table 13
Typical automotive electronic components specifications [12].

Requirements Engine room Passenger room

Operating temperature 40 °C to +125 °C (+175 °C for some parts mounted to engine) 40 °C to +85 °C
Storage temperature +100 °C for 500 h 50 °C to 100 °C for 500 h
Thermal shock 100 Thermal cycles 20 Thermal cycles
Relative humidity 0–100% 95% @ +65 °C for 100 h
Shock 20 g Maximum 25 g
Drop test 4 ft. drop 4 ft. drop
Vibration 50–2000 Hz, 10 g RMS, 16 h 50–2000 Hz, 4 g RMS
Operating voltage 5 V, ±0.5 V 12 V, ±4.0 V
Reliability 95% Reliable for 10 years, 120 k miles 90% Reliable for 10 years, 100 k miles
Other Minimal radiated or conducted emissions. Not
susceptible to conducted/radiated emissions
Contaminant resistance Salt spray, engine oil, ATF, windshield washer fluid, ethylene, glycol, gasoline, power
steering fluid, battery acid, engine cleaner, methanol, mud and exhaust gases

Fig. 15. Wing morphing with antagonistic SMA actuators [235,249].

used to actuate the robotic finger, instead of using the conventional

Fig. 13. Operating temperature range for automobiles applications and the
transformation temperatures for selected commercially available and developed
SMAs [13,34,161,218].
Fig. 14. Boeing’s variable geometry chevron (VGC) [238].
on the overall size and degrees of freedom of the robotic device.
Resistive heating is generally used for small SMA actuators (up to
400 lm diameter), and indirect heating techniques are applied
for thicker actuators [23]. To increase the actuation frequency,
capacitors are incorporated with thicker actuators to obtained a ra-
pid heating response, and several cooling strategies can be adopted
as mentioned earlier, to enhance the cooling process, but these
would make the device bulkier [23]. Furthermore, to increase the
degrees of freedom of the robots, the number of actuators has to
be increased, which leads to complex control problems.
A new SMA actuator design for a prosthetic hand was intro-
duced by Chee Siong et al. [103], where two SMA actuators are
push–pull type and the biased spring type (see Fig. 16). The two
actuators are inserted from both ends of the outer stainless tube,
which functions as a heat sink and guide simultaneously. The cur-
rent passed asynchronously through the wires via electrode points,
which are located at the centre of the tube (where the wires join)
and each end of the tube. The two actuators are used to actuate the
robotic finger, which can almost replicate the actions of the human
finger actions (flexion and extension). A PWM controller is used to
pulse periodically high voltage in milliseconds to the actuators to
avoid overheating and excessive power usage.
In a recent review by Kheirikhah et al. [22], they divided the ro-
bots into several categories based on their locomotion styles and
applications such as crawler, jumper, flower, fish, walker, medical
and biomimetic robotic hand. Many robotics researchers are more
interested in developing biomemitics and humanoid robots. These
robots are useful in solving problems that are challenging for hu-
mans, by providing pertinent information from underwater, space,
air and land. Comprehensive details and challenges in developing
these robots are summarised by several researchers, focusing on
the actuation technologies, especially SMA actuators (see Table 15).
Tao et al. [280] designed a robotic fish with a caudal peduncle actu-
ator based on the concept of a FSMA hybrid mechanism that can
provide fast response and a strong thrust.
Mohamed Ali and Takahata [281] have developed passive (i.e.
without internal power source) micro-grippers (i.e. about 600 lm
displacement) that can be actuated wirelessly with a RF magnetic
field. The fabrication of the micro-gripper is similar to the wafer
fabrication processes in the semiconductor industry, where the
SMA actuator is bonded to or near an inductor-capacitor (LC) res-
onant circuit with photo-defined electroplating technology, and
1092 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

Table 14
Existing and potential SMA applications in the aerospace domain [14,15].

Parts References Parts References

FUSELAGE ENGINE
Aerostructure/composite body [274,467] Inlet [233,405,468]
Skin/panel [273] Nozzle [239,269,405]
Wing/fin/stabilizer Rotor [220,229,230,244,246]
Wing [232,235,249,261,262] LANDING GEAR [263]
Winglet [467] ELECTRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL
Vortex generator [469] Hydraulic lines [219]
Flap edge [270]
Structure/spars [470]

Fig. 16. Prosthetic hand powered by SMA actuators [103].

then micro-machined with a lEDM process. The working principle
of the micro-gripper is quite simple. The frequency-sensitive LC
resonant circuit is heated when a RF magnetic field passes through
it, and then transfers the heat energy to the SMA actuator for
activation. The opportunity to control multiple selections of
micro-SMA actuators is possible by applying different resonant fre-
quencies, either selectively or simultaneously to the actuators (see
Fig. 17).
A novel sensory system for robotics has been developed by
researchers at Northwestern University, Illinois applying the SE
characteristic of a NiTi SMA to create an artificial rat whisker,
utilising the rat’s sensing capabilities. The artificial whisker tech-
nology has the great potential to enhance robotic sensing capabil-
ities, and could be used to examine and navigate into small and
tight interiors, or to locate and identify micro-features on surfaces
[282].
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1093

Table 15
Existing and potential SMA applications in the robotics domain[22–24].

Categories References Categories References

BIOMIMETICS BIOMEDICAL ROBOTS
Crawling/snaking [471–479] Endoscopic [480–482]
Walking/jumping [476,483–486] HUMANOID ROBOTS
Rolling/skating [485,487] Fingers/hands [103,488–494]
Climbing [495,496] Head/facial expression [497,498]
Swimming [280,499–502] MISCELLANEOUS
Flying [284–286] Controller [147,278,503,504]
Others [505] Actuators [281]
Sensors [282]

Fig. 17. Micro-gripper with SMA actuator [281].

Several flying robots have been developed with SMAs, such as

the BATMAV [283,284] and Bat Robot [285]. Recently, a 44 cm
length dragonfly with a wingspan of 63 cm was developed by Festo
Group, equipped with four SMA actuators to control the move-
ments of its head from side to side and its tail up and down for
flight manoeuvre and stability. The ‘dragonfly’, also known as
‘BionicOpter’, has 13 degrees of freedom, can hover in mid-air
and manoeuvre in all directions [286] (see Fig. 18).
Fig. 18. Festo BionicOpter – inspiration dragonfly flight [286].
5.4. Biomedical applications
After the discovery of the SME in nitinol by Buehler et al. in
1962, they proposed to use this material for implants in dentistry,
and a few years later, the first superelastic braces made from a NiTi
alloy were introduced by Andreasen in 1971 [7,287,288]. SMA
made a significant breakthrough into biomedical domain after its
introduction in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) [26], and more
biomedical applications are developed and introduced into the
market after the approval of the Mitek surgical product (i.e. Mitek
Anchor) for orthopaedic surgery by US Food and Drug Administra-
tion (FDA) in September 1989.
Although NiTi alloys are significantly more expensive than
stainless steels, SMAs have exhibited excellent behaviour for bio-
medical applications such as high corrosion resistance [34,53],
bio-compatible [29,87], non-magnetic [37], the unique physical
properties, which replicate those of human tissues and bones
[27] (see Fig. 19), and can be manufactured to respond and
1094 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

for attaching tendon to bone, implants [290,291], aneurism

Fig. 19. The stress versus strain relationship for superelastic nitinol, stainless steel,
bone and tendon tissues [27].
change at the temperature of the human body [28]. The need for
precise and reliable miniature instruments to achieve accurate
positioning and functioning for complex medical treatments and
surgical procedures provides SMAs with substantial advantages
and great opportunities for further commercial success in this
area. SMAs are used in medical equipment and devices in many
fields including orthopaedics, neurology, cardiology and interven-
tional radiology [27]; and other medical applications include:
endodontics [289], stents [26], medical tweezers, sutures, anchors
treatments [292], eyeglass frames [9] and guide wires [293]
(see Table 16).
The superelastic behaviour of SMA, which fits the stress–strain
behaviour of human bone and tendons, makes it an excellent mate-
rial to meet some of the challenges presented by stenting opera-
tions. SMA stents are much more compliant to bends in the
vessels and contours in the lumen, whereas stainless steel stents
tend to force blood vessel straight. In addition, the superelastic
hysteresis behaviour of SMA can resist crushing during the normal
physiological process (provide radial resistive force) and exert a
small outward force on the vessel during recovery, which is ideal
for stenting applications [27] (see Fig. 20). The first SMA stent
was made by Dotter’s group in 1983 [294], and since then it has
evolved remarkably (from simple coiled wire form to the complex
laser cut structures), growing in the global market (nearly half of
stent products are fabricated from SMA and was forecast to reach
USD6.3 billion by 2010 [295]), and has expanded the usage to other
parts of the human body [26].

Table 16
Existing and potential SMA applications in the biomedical domain [25–28,30].

Fields References Fields References

ORTHODONTIC BIOMEDICAL/SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS
Braces/brackets [288,506,507] Catheters/snares [508,509]
Palatal arches [510] Scopes (Ureteroscopy, endoscopy, laparoscopy) [511–515]
Files [516]
Suture [517]
ORTHOPAEDIC MISCELLANEOUS
Head [518] Cardiology (Heart) [301,302]
Spine [519–523] Hepatology (Liver, gallbladder, biliary tree and pancreas) [524,525]
Bone [291,526,527]
Muscles [28] Otorhinolaryngology (Ear, nose and throat) [528–531]
Hands/fingers [103,532]
Legs [300,533] Gastroenterology (Gullet, stomach and intestine) [534–540]
VASCULAR
Aorta [541,542] Urology (Kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra and the male reproductive organs) [543–548]
Arteries [549]
Vena cava filter [550–554]
Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD) [555–557] Plastic, reconstructive and aesthetic surgery [558]
Vessels [559–561]
Valves [562–564] Ophthalmology (Eye) [565]
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Fig. 20. (a) Model of stent laser cut from nitinol tubing. (b) The radial resistance
force and chronic outward force as a function of superelastic hysteresis loop [27].
Today, catheter-based surgeries have become increasingly
popular due to the demand for MIS treatment, which will further
minimise operation trauma. The application of SMAs has improved
the active catheter capability to move accurately with larger bend-
ing angles, which enables novel diagnosis and therapy to be treated
[293,296,297]. A laser machined SMA actuator from NiTi tubing as
proposed by Tung et al. [298], allows for the creation of custom-
tailored SMA actuators with force, elongation and size characteris-
tics, which are not achievable with common straight wire or coil
spring actuators, leading to another viable option for developing
actuators for steerable catheters (see Fig. 21).
A micro-muscle fibre crafted from NiTi SMA coiled springs was
presented by Kim et al. [299], utilising many of the SMAs attributes
(resilience, high energy density, flexibility and scalability) to pro-
duce a novel mesh-worm prototype that employs a bio-inspired
antagonistic actuation for its body deformation and locomotion,
and this could make an excellent actuator candidate for meso-scale
applications. Similar work has also been done by Stirling et al.
[300], to develop an active, soft orthotic for the knee. They con-
cluded that even though SMA springs could provide the soft char-
acteristics as required and produce a large energy density; it was
not appropriate for this application due to the poor response time
and would be difficult to operate if not tethered to an external
power supply. However, it could be appropriate for applications
with a slower time scales or reduced forces requirements (see
Fig. 22).
An artificial myocardium was developed by Shiraishi et al. [301]
using a nanotech covalent type SMA fibre with a parallel-link
structured myocardial assist device, which is capable of supporting
natural contractile functions from the outside of the ventricle
without blood contacting the surface. The researchers concluded
that their system might be applied in patients with exertional
Fig. 21. SMA active catheter [297,298].
1095
heart stroke, as well as cardiac massage during a lifesaving emer-
gency for recovery from ventricular fibrillation. Recently, they have
developed another mechanical circulation support device using
SMA fibres for Fontan circulation to assist pulmonary circulation
in patients with congenital heart diseases (see Fig. 23) [302].
An ‘alterable stiffness’ implant might help the bone to heal
faster, thus able to bear weight earlier and avoid a follow-on oper-
ation. Currently, this alteration is only possible with a biodegrad-
able implant, ‘fixateur externe’ or a second surgery. Therefore, an
‘alterable stiffness’ implant made of NiTi-SMA has been developed
to alter the stiffness of the implant with contactless heat induction
[291] (see Fig. 24).
In the last few years, there have been concerns from medical
practitioners and researchers about the fatigue and fracture behav-
iour of SMA materials, and several observations and follow-up pro-
cedures were conducted to understand these behaviours and to
design better biomedical applications in the future [27,303,304].
The concern of biocompatibility of the NiTi SMAs has also been
raised due to the known toxic, allergenic and carcinogenic proper-
ties of nickel, and an alternative material composition has been
considered [291,305,306]; such as the new ideas of shaping the tis-
sues with SMPs and SMHs [457].
6. Opportunities and future direction of SMA applications
The commercial and research interest in SMMs, particularly in
SMAs are rapidly increasing, and many potential new applications
have been proposed, such as listed in Table 17 [307]. The chance of
success of a new idea can be evaluated and ranked into three dif-
ferent categories of applications, i.e. substitution, simplification
and novel applications [218]. Applications with higher novelty
and good competitive price are more interesting and have a better
chance to penetrate the market. A few successful mass produced
SMA applications in the market are the underwire brassiere, the
mobile-phone antenna, eyeglass frames, the SMA pneumatic valves
developed by Alfmeier Präzision AG (now Actuator Solutions
GmbH) for the lumbar support device in car seats and the Xlinea™
autofocus (AF) module for smart phones [201,308,309]. However,
the percentages of commercially successful SMA applications are
still considered to be low [61,80,81].
6.1. Future trends in SMAs
The future trends in SMAs can be expected at three different
levels [218]: (1) development of new or improved SMAs, (2) com-
bination of the functional properties of SMAs with the structural
properties of other materials (e.g. hybrid or composite SMMs),
and (3) search for new markets.
1096 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

Fig. 22. Muscle like NiTi SMA [299,300].

Fig. 23. Artificial heart support devices with SMA fibre [301].

The developments of new or improved SMAs have significantly
enhanced SMAs attributes and performances (see Fig. 25). Many
researchers are recently interested in ‘programming’ the SMMs
by locally embedding multiple shape memories into SMMs with
various techniques to set the temporary shapes without perma-
nently changing the material properties, instead of utilising the
traditional ‘training’ method [310,311]. For example, a new process
known as multiple memory material technology (MMMT) devel-
oped by researchers at University of Waterloo, Canada has trans-
formed SMAs into multiple shapes at various temperatures [310].
A new single-crystal SMA (SCSMA) made of copper–aluminium–
nickel (CuAlNi) developed by TiNi Aerospace has exhibited better
performance over NiTi SMA, i.e. higher operation temperature
(>200 °C), fully resettable (repeatable with 100% recovery), up to
one million of cycles operation, greater strain recovery (9%), wider
tranformation temperature range ( 270 °C to +250 °C) and very
narrow loading hysteresis (<25 °C) [312]. Another new developed
ferrous-based SMA known as NCATB alloy has exhibited maximum
superelastic strain of about 13.5% and a very high tensile strength
of 1200 MPa [313]; and a new developed FSMA made from NiMn
alloy has also been used for actuation, sensing, magnetic refrigera-
tion, active tissue scaffolding and energy harvesting [314–316].
Recently, the performances and functionality of SMAs has been
augmented by integrating SMAs with other materials to form
shape memory hybrids (SMHs) or shape memory composites
(SMCs). Various combinations of SMAs and other materials have
improved the material performance such as higher damping capac-
ity and toughness [318,319], active stiffening [320], triple-state
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1097

cost compared to structural steel, much slower response time

and larger power consumption requirement for activation due to
the larger cross-section of the structure, and difficulties in both
machining and welding [326]. Other new potential industries for
SMA applications are oil and gas industry [310,327], industrial
and manufacturing [8], sports [328–330] and arts [331] (see
appendices).
The future of SMAs is full of potential as SMAs becoming more
multifunctional and capable to perform more active roles in com-
plex systems [317].

6.2. Future directions of SMA applications

Many potential areas and topics of research have been proposed

Fig. 24. An ‘alterable stiffness’ implant [291]. [332], but most of the research on SMAs that has been conducted has
focused mainly on the metallurgical properties, and less on the
design perspective. It was concluded that to utilise the SMA applica-
tions, closer collaboration between material scientists and engineer-
Table 17
ing designers is essential, due to the available information offered by
Potential SMA applications [307].
material scientists is not transparent and difficult to digest directly
Configuration Potential applications (i.e. too specialised in material science and technology) by the design
SMA tendons, wires and cylinders Adaptive control and actuation of engineers [80,82,332]. Therefore, the challenges in designing SMA
aircraft flight surfaces actuators are not mainly the SMA limitations, but also how to convey
Embedded SMA wires Shape-adaptive composite materials
the information effectively. As example, Spaggiari et al. [333] de-
SMA actuators Transmission line sag control and ice
removal from overhead power lines
scribed that the three main challenges for SMA actuator design
SMA energy absorbers and tendons Earthquake-resistant building and are: (1) obtaining a simple and reliable material model, (2) increas-
bridges, bridge and structural repairs ing the stroke of the actuator, and (3) finding design equations to
SMA dampers Engine mountings, structural guide the engineer in dimensioning the actuator.
supports
For this reason, the development of an effective information
SMA wires, wings, legs, actuators, etc. Mobile micro-robots, robot arms and
grippers platform or database for SMA applications is important to reduce
SMA wires, composites, etc. Prosthetics, artificial muscles the development time and cost, to minimise the risk of failure
products and to identify potential applications effectively with
patents screening and analysis (see Fig. 26) [80]. An optimum
design of SMA actuators could be realised by providing design
engineers with appropriate design procedures and guidelines
[13,80,82,332,333].
Actually, there is no lack in vision or ideas for creating the SMA
applications, but there is a serious problem in making it market-
able [334]. Involvement of marketing personnel in SMM communi-
ties is also essential in shaping SMA applications to adapt to the
commercial market with different approaches and strategies,
where ‘smart marketing’ is the key to an unconditional break-
through [218]. A few standards and requirements for SMMs have
been drafted by several SMM communities as guidelines in various
fields and applications, such as for terminology, testings, fabrica-
tions and treatments [335].
Furthermore, the importance of incorporating modern com-
puter design and analysis tools such as CAD and FEA into develop-
ing innovative and reliable SMA applications has led to an interest
in more accurate 3D constitutive models, which are calibrated
Fig. 25. Comparison stress and strain of new developed SMA with other materials from carefully obtained material characterisation and experimen-
[100,317].
tal data. These are considered essential to speed up the develop-
ment process, especially for preliminary studies and validation of
changing [321] and self-healing capability [196]. An advanced
high risk and/or expensive projects.
composite structure constructed from CFRP composites with
embedded SMA wires has also been employed as a structural
health monitoring (SHM) system (i.e. for sensing and damage 7. Discussion
detection) with structural ice protection capacity [322].
The unique properties of SMAs result in high damping, com- Although, more than 10,000 US SMA related patents have been
bined with the capability to resist extreme, repetitive and various proposed in many sectors [61,81,336] (see Fig. 4), only the four ma-
loading conditions (e.g. earthquake), substantially make SMAs jor sectors are presented in this work, due to the huge classification
highly compatible with for civil engineering applications, espe- of sectors and applications. The most recent developments of
cially in damping and vibration control [323,324]. Several potential SMMs, others than SMAs are also omitted; due to the objective
SMA applications in bridge and building structures are bearings, of this review is to focus on SMAs. After the first commercially suc-
columns, beams, and connecting elements between beams and col- cess SMA application as pipe coupler in 1969 [7], the demand for
umns [325]. However, there are still limitations such as greater SMAs are increasing after 1980s, especially in the biomedical sec-
1098 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113
Fig. 26. Current situation and proposed approach for SMA in product design [80].
tor (see Fig. 3). Consequently, major manufacturers such as ATI
Wah Chang Corporation, Dynalloy Inc., Johnson-Mattheys, Mem-
ory-Metalle GmbH, Memry Corporation, SAES Group and Toki Cor-
poration have continued to grow in both size and knowledge base.
The advancement in the process and manufacturing technolo-
gies (see Appendix D) has led to an increase in production quantity
and quality, and at the same time reduced the material price. New
SMA materials (e.g. MSMAs and HTSMAs) or forms (e.g. NiTi thin
films, composites or hybrids) have been researched, and more
promising attributes and enhancements are being offered (see Sec-
tion 6), and further outweigh their challenges (see Section 3.2).
The current research or development trends of SMAs, in the se-
lected sectors are (see Section 5):
(a) Automotive and aerospace:
 Self-healing and sensing structures/components (e.g.
smart tyre and airbags).
 Morphing capability for aerodynamic and aesthetic
features.
 High temperature actuators.
 Noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) dampers/isolators.
 Rotary actuators.
(b) Robotics:
 Micro and fast actuators.
 Efficient, stable and accurate actuators.
 Rotary actuators.
(c) Biomedical:
 Artificial muscles.
 Shape memory implants.
 Toxic (i.e. Nickel) free SMAs.
The self-healing capability of SMHs (i.e. combination of SMAs
and SMMs, particularly SMPs) [196,337–339] has potentially cre-
ated new applications, such as healable composites, coatings and
brake pads. The potential of SMAs to work as both sensor and actu-
ator simultaneously is favourable for miniature actuators. The fab-
rication of mini- and micro-actuators such as NiTi thin films (see
Section 4.3) is possible, with the new fabrication technologies,
which further enhanced SMAs attributes and functionality.
8. Conclusions
In general, the important designing factors to be considered for
SMA applications are as listed below:
 Operating temperature range for the actuator: Selection of
SMA material and heat transfer technique to be considered.
 Force required for deforming the actuator: Selection of SMA
shape, size, loading configuration and design technique to
be considered.
 The required speed of the actuator: Selection of SMA mate-
rial, shape, size and cooling technique.
 The stroke required: Selection of SMA material, shape, size,
loading configuration and design technique to be
considered.
 Type of sensors and controller to incorporate with the actu-
ator (e.g. position, temperature, force or resistance) to
ensure long life and stability.
 Durability and reliability of the actuator: Selection of SMA
material, size, loading configuration and number of cycles
to be considered.
Proposed actions to be taken to increase the commercialisation
of SMA applications:
 Good collaboration within the SMM community (i.e.
between material scientists, engineering designers and
marketing personnel) and utilisation of information plat-
form or database to share the knowledge of SMAs and
designing SMA applications.
 Utilisation of new SMA materials, including hybrid or
composite SMMs to enhance its performance and
functionality.
 Exploration of new markets for SMA applications.
 Incorporation of modern computer design and analysis
tools such as CAD and FEA into the design and develop-
ment process.
Future development
The identified future development for SMA applications:
 Development of more efficient and effective information
platform or base for knowledge sharing within SMM
communities.
 Development of new materials (including composites
and hybrid SMMs), fabrication technologies and treat-
ment processes for SMAs, which are more stable, more
durable and can be utilised in a broad range of
industries.
 Development of new design approaches or guidelines for
creation of novel SMA applications, in existing and new
markets.
 Development of robust computational models of SMA
behaviour.
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1099

 Development of integrated actuator systems (with com- SMA actuators (continued)

pact, fast and intelligent controllers).
Actuators and motors
Description Remarks Year Inventor/
researcher
Appendix A. SMA actuators
maintaining a strain
Actuators and motors martensite strain on
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ the SMA element at
researcher <3%
An actuation system to Control 1998 Mukerjee
Self-regulating actuator Linear type. 1985 Morgan
control multiple SMA system and
that cut-off the power Self- and Yaeger
elements in a matrix Christian
when reach its stroke. regulated [340]
configuration that [346]
Also protect actuator
reduces the electrical
and connected
connections by 50%
mechanism from
A linear actuator to Linear type 1999 Foss and
damage due to jam or
translate an object Siebrecht
malfunction
from one position to [347]
An actuator with Linear type 1986 Hosoda
another by the action
multiple SMA wires et al. [341]
of a SMA flat spring
arranged around a
attached at one end to
resilient member
a heating device and to
(such as spring) to
the object at the other
increase bandwidth
end
A temperature traction Linear type 1987 Sampson
An actuator consists of Rotary type 2000 Weems
device suited to [342]
SMA strips (coiled into [348]
closing doors
springs) and SMA
automatically
springs that produce a
following a short delay
constant force from
after opening
applied heat. Can
An actuator comprising Rotary type 1987 Gabriel
rotate either a
of a SMA wire and et al. [343]
clockwise or anti-
control element rotate
clockwise depending
to different section by
on which spring is
applying various
activated
selective voltage.
A rotary actuator which Rotary type 2000 Jacot et al.
Aimed primarily for
can provide either [349]
robotics but is deemed
small or large amounts
more widely
of torque and is able to
applicable
operate in both
An actuator consisting of Rotary type. 1992 Swenson
directions using a
two concentric tubes Bi- [344]
single SMA member
of SMA, torsional along directional
A rotary drive system Rotary type 2001 Williams
their longitudinal axis,
that incorporates SMA [350]
with the ends
elements for use in a
constrained relative to
motorised camera
one another to provide
A method of designing a Enhance life 2004 Homma
two stable positions
SMA actuator to cycle [351]
and smooth motion
enhance service life
between the two with
(more than 100 k
more describes
cycles), with limited
uniform heating, thus
tensile stress
deliver maximum
(100 MPa)
work output per unit
An actuator with two Two states 2005 Biasiotto
volume with minimal
stable working switch et al. [352]
power consumption
positions that will
for activation
switch between these
A micro-actuation Linear type. 1994 Komatsu
positions upon
system in which able Folding et al. [345]
sequential activation
to move freely with a
of a SMA element, and
stroke in the range of
maintained until the
1–500 lm
next activation cycle
An invention for Linear/ 1995 Thoma
A rotary actuator Rotary type 2006 Jacot et al.
increasing the life of a Rotary type. et al. [146]
composed of a SMA [245]
SMA actuator by Control
(continued on next page)
1100 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

SMA actuators (continued) SMA actuators (continued)

Actuators and motors Actuators and motors
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ Description Remarks Year Inventor/
researcher researcher
torque tube connected controlling a phase system [364]
with a bias transformation
superelastic return temperature of a
spring shape memory alloy.
Several linear and Linear and 2006, Gummin Developed by
rotational actuators Rotary types 2007 et al. Dynalloy and GM
with combination of [353,354]
SMA elements to
Appendix B. Bonding and joining
create a long output
stroke from as
Fasteners, seals, connectors and clamps
compact unit
Description Remarks Year Inventor/
An actuator assembly Linear type 2006 Von
researcher
with several Behrens
protection [355] A pre-tensioned SMA Clamps 1990 Romanelli
mechanisms and actuator for high loads and
variable return force to and long period idling Otterstedt
impart motion in an applications (e.g. [365]
output shaft clamping mechanism
A linear actuator with Linear type 2008 Yson et al. for space station)
several SMA members [356] A device for the non- Release 1992 Johson
in tubular shape and explosive separation of mech [253]
are set coaxially to coupled components
provide a telescopic with SMA element in a
extension controlled fashion
A turn-actuator with a Rotary type 2008 Garscha A metal to metal seal for Seals 1993 Ross [366]
tensile element made et al. [357] use in a wellbore that
of three SMA incorporates a SMA
elements, which are element
fixed to a rotational A method to enhance Fasteners 1993 Kennedy
element in such a way fatigue lifetime around and Larson
it can rotates in both holes formed in [367]
direction structural members
A SMA linear actuator Linear type 2009 Takahashi through cold working
with a SMA wire, two [358] using a tool or an
moving bodies and interference fit fastener
two bias springs fabricated from SMA
positioned in a material
cylinder A heat operated release Release 1996 Porter [368]
A torque actuator Rotary type 2010 Taya et al. mechanism with SMA mech. PCB
incorporating SMA and [359] element that is application
MSMA composites controllable to allow a
A linear actuator design Linear type 2010 Taya et al. heat exchanger (on PCB
based on MSMA [360] Board) to be held firmly
composites (A hybrid in place and to be
electromagnet and a withdrawn when so
permanent magnet to desired
activate FSMA spring) A novel clamping device Release/ 1998 Schron and
An SMA wire actuator Linear type 2010 Butera incorporating a SMA clamp Summers
made in a series to [361] element for the easy mech [369]
increase applied load clamping and release of
A solar tracking Linear type 2010 Altali and a work piece
mechanism driven by Benjamin An effective connection Fasteners 2001 White [370]
SMA motor [362] between two
An actuator device with Linear type 2010 Yang [363] components by simple
sliding elements and relative motion, with
thermal conduction to one of the components
base to improve being a super-elastic
response time material
A device and method for Control 2013 Gao et al. A sealing assembly that Seals 2002 White [371]
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1101

Bonding and joining (continued) Bonding and joining (continued)

Fasteners, seals, connectors and clamps Fasteners, seals, connectors and clamps
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ Description Remarks Year Inventor/
researcher researcher
incorporates a flat A device and method for Fasteners 2008 Johnson
washer gasket made of holding components et al. [378]
a super-elastic alloy together and
that deforms elastically permanently deforms a
to seal between two bolt to adjust the
connecting members components to a pre-
when the sealing determined distance
surfaces are fully without being fully
engaged detached fully by
A releasable fastener Fasteners 2004 Cheng et al. selective activation of
system comprising a [372] SMA element
series of loops Several types of fastener, Fasteners 2009 Rudduck
(composed of a fibre fastener systems and et al. [379]
that has a non- fastener assemblies
axisymmetric coating using SMA elements
of a SMA) that when A ratchet mechanism Clamps 2011 Johnson
pressed together they with SMA et al. [380]
interlock to form a
releasable engagement
Appendix C. Industrial and manufacturing
A system consists of two Release 2004 Carman
release mechanism of mech et al. [373]
Industrial and manufacturing
different structure
Description Remarks Year Inventor/
states (pseudoelastic
researcher
and martensite-
austenite) A SMA wire as its driving Valve 1990 Homma
To improve adhesion Fasteners 2006 Cheng et al. source to open or close [381]
between two dissimilar [374] the linear valve
metals (such as a hard A linearly actuated valve Valve 1993 Coffee [382]
CrN coating and with SMA wire that is
aluminium) with inexpensive, lightweight
interlayer of SMA and constructed from as
material between them few parts as possible
by compensating the A fluid control valves with Valve 2001 Hines et al.
mismatches of SMA element [383]
mechanical An invention for a press Press 2007 Morehead
Devices and methods for Fasteners 2006 Johnson brake tool holder with brake and
fasteners (such as et al. [375] SMA actuator for the tool Harrington
bolts) made of single clamping force [384]
crystal SMA capable of Same tool/die to form Tool and 2007 Browne et al.
adjusting the tension in different geometries Die [385]
the assembly with changeable SMA
SMA as fastening system Fasteners 2007 Rudduck surface
for instrument panels, et al. [376] A resettable thermal valve Valve 2008 Vasques and
e.g. in a motor vehicle for fluid flow control Garrod [386]
which can improve the using a SMA actuator
fixing or releasing of that permits the valve to
trim panel and can move from an open to a
change the approach to closed position when
dashboard design heated to a
A torque transmitting Fasteners 2008 White [377] predetermined
coupling assembly temperature
incorporates an To control the gas flow rate Valve 2008 MacGregor
elongated shaft (flow controller) with et al. [387]
member made of a SMA by varying aperture
super-elastic alloy, size (rotary motion) of
which lock two the frame
members together in a Adjusting the nozzle tip Injection 2009 Jenko [388]
fixed relative position height and hot runner moulding
upon activation seals in an injection

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1102 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

Industrial and manufacturing (continued) SMA material and process and material improvements
(continued)
Industrial and manufacturing
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ SMA process and material improvements
researcher Description Remarks Year Inventor/
researcher
moulding machine
effectively and temperature over a
efficiently with SMA narrower
element temperature range
(2 °C) by taking
advantage of a
Appendix D. SMA material and process and material
transition to the R-
improvements
phase rather than
SMA process and material improvements the martensite
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ phase to reduce
researcher hysteresis effects.
A specific
Producing a two-way Transform 1998 Ingram application for
SME from one-way OWSME to [389] such an actuator is
memory material TWSME to control an anti-
by deforming the freeze plug for
material into a opening a drainage
predetermined hole in a
shape and then condensate
work hardening, collector pan of an
such as through air conditioner
shot peening when the ambient
A process (‘‘training’’) Reduce 2000 Carpenter temperature
for conditioning a hysteresis and Draper approaches
SMA by cold variability [390] freezing
working and An apparatus to SMA 2006 Jacot et al.
annealing prior to improve the improvement [245]
force application/ control and with TEC
release cycling at a operating
temperature above efficiency of a SMA
the martensitic- device by using a
austenitic thermoelectric
transformation (TEC) material to
finish temperature, pump heat
but below the between the SMA
maximum and a heat sink
temperature at A method of Improve fatigue 2007 Berendt
which the preparing nitinol resistance [392]
austenitic- for use in
martensitic manufacturing
transformation instruments with
will be effected by improved fatigue
the force resistance by
application, to subjecting the
yields greater nitinol to a strain
control over the and thermal
forward and cycling process
reverse (between a cold
transformation bath of about 0–
temperatures and 10 °C and a hot
therefore produces bath of about 100–
a reduction in the 180 °C for a
hysteresis minimum of about
variability five cycles)
A novel SMA SMA material 2002 Ashurst A system of a SMA controller 2007 Asada et al.
(Ti50Ni47Fe3) with narrow [391] multitude SMA system [393]
which responds to temperature segments, which
changes in range are linked together
ambient but controlled
 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113 1103

SMA material and process and material improvements SMA material and process and material improvements
(continued) (continued)
SMA process and material improvements SMA process and material improvements
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ Description Remarks Year Inventor/
researcher researcher
separately to Al–X, where X may
generate co- be Ni, Fe, Co or Mn)
ordinated gross A ferrous-based SMA Fe-based SMA. 2010 Tanaka
movement as well known as NCATB Higher strain et al. [313]
as independent alloy has exhibited and strength
fine movements maximum
with a minimum of superelastic strain
complexity of about 13.5% and
SMA actuator Manufacture 2009 Hamaguchi a very high tensile
manufacturing SMA et al. [394] strength of
system 1200 MPa
A range of HTSMA 2009 Noebe et al. Adding cobalt (Co) as NiTiCo SMA. 2011 Fasching
compositions in the [242] ternary elements Increase et al. [397]
Ni–Ti–Pt SMA for into NiTi alloys has stiffness of
high temperature proven to increase material
(above 100 °C), the plateau stress
high force, narrow (i.e. ‘stiffness’) of
hysteresis and NiTi alloys by 35%,
produce a high which is important
specific work for medical
output applications
A method of forming Thin film SMA 2009 Johnson ‘Programming’ Transform 2012 Tang et al.
single crystal thin forming [171] process to enable OWSME to [311]
film SMA by the NiTi SMA to Triple-SME
specific heat perform Triple-
treatment of an SME
amorphous sputter Researchers from Four ways SME 2012 Meng et al.
deposits. The University of NiTi SMA [398]
single crystal SMA Western Australia
exhibits greater and Gyeongsang
recovery, constant National
force deflection, University
wider transition developed novel
temperature range methods of
and a narrow preparing single
loading hysteresis material NiTi SMA
Shape-setting Cu–Ni–Al SMA 2009 Johnson to exhibit ‘‘four-
methods for the shape-setting et al. [395] way’’ SME via laser
fabrication of method annealing and
devices made from thermal diffusion
single crystal Cu– annealing
Ni–Al SMA NiMn FSMA can be FSMA 2013 CRDF
‘‘Hyperelastic’’ SMA Hyperelastic 2010 Johnson used for actuation, Global
single crystal SMA et al. [396] sensing, magnetic [314]
material which is refrigeration,
capable of a active tissue
recoverable strain scaffolding and
of 9% (and in energy harvesting
exceptional Multiple shapes of Multiple Shapes 2013 Khan et al.
circumstances as SMA at various SMA [310]
large as 22%). temperatures
These SMAs could be achieved
exhibit no creep or by using a new
gradual change process, namely
during repeated Multiple Memory
cycling because Material
there are no grain Technology
boundaries (Cu– (MMMT). These

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1104 J. Mohd Jani et al. / Materials and Design 56 (2014) 1078–1113

SMA material and process and material improvements Miscellaneous SMA applications (continued)
(continued)
Miscellaneous
SMA process and material improvements Description Remarks Year Inventor/
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ researcher
researcher
stern planes of a Nguyen
new breeds of submarine, by a remote [402]
smart materials control actuator system
are called Multiple with two SMA cables
Memory Materials A striking face for golf clubs Golf club 2001 Krumme
(MMMs) with SMA material with and Frank
A single-crystal SMA CuAlNi SCSMA. 2013 TiNi capability to change [330]
(SCSMA) made of Better Aerospace patterns to create a sweet
CuAlNi that performance [312] spot on the striking face
exhibits than NiTi SMA of the club
significantly better Application of SMA as Ink jet 2003 Siverbrook
performance over ejecting drops printer [403]
NiTi SMA. This new mechanism
alloy is capable to To recover surface damage Material 2006 Cheng et al.
operate at more from mechanical contact surface [404]
than 200 °C, fully by activating a SMA
resettable surface either as a
(repeatable with complete entity or as a
100% recovery), protective coating
may be operable SMA actuator to vary the Gas 2006 Rey et al.
for up to one exit nozzle fan flaps of a turbine [405]
million of cycles, gas turbine engine to
provide improve performance
significantly and efficiency
greater strain The invention of a two-way SMA 2007 Walak
recovery (9%), actuated shape memory composites [406]
wider transition composite material
temperature range (SMA is bonded to
( 270 °C to another elastic metal)
+250 °C), and very A cold-launch system with Cold- 2008 Shah et al.
narrow loading one or more stages of launcher [407]
hysteresis (<25 °C) SMA actuators to
accelerate material to a
required launch velocity
Appendix E. Miscellaneous SMA applications SMA underwire assembly Fashion/ 2009 Fan et al.
for use in a brassiere brassiere [408]
Miscellaneous SMA elements to modify Wind 2012 Smith et al.
Description Remarks Year Inventor/ blade surface of wind turbine [409]
researcher turbines to improve
An invention for a Wellbore 1993 Ross aerodynamics
subterranean wellbore tool [399,400] SMA to automatically Air- 2013 TROX [410]
tool with SMA actuator adjust the jet nozzle of condition
A refreshable braille cell Braille 1997 Decker an air-condition system jet nozzle
display uses a single [401]
moving part per tactile Appendix F. Supplementary data
element (with SMA
actuators) gives users Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
access to full computer the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.11.
generated screens of text 084.
and graphical
information in real time References
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