THE EFFECTS OF LOW FAT CHOCOLATE MILK ON
POSTEXERCISE RECOVERY IN COLLEGIATE ATHLETES
KIM J. SPACCAROTELLA1,2 AND WALTER D. ANDZEL1
1
Department of Physical Education, Recreation and Health, Kean University, Union, New Jersey; and 2Department of Biological
Sciences, Kean University, Union, New Jersey
ABSTRACT
Spaccarotella, KJ and Andzel, WD. The effects of low fat
chocolate milk on postexercise recovery in collegiate athletes.
J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3456–3460, 2011—Drinking
chocolate milk between exercise sessions may improve
recovery. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects
of low fat chocolate milk vs. a carbohydrate–electrolyte
Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr by BhDMf5ePHKav1zEoum1tQfN4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC1y0abggQZXdgGj2MwlZLeI= on 03/08/2022
beverage (CE) on recovery between preseason practice
sessions among 5 male and 8 female Division III soccer
players. The study used a randomized crossover design:
between morning and afternoon practices, athletes received
either an amount of chocolate milk that provided 1 g carbo-
hydrate per kilogram body weight or an equal volume of CE
(mean volume of 615 6 101 ml). After their afternoon practice,
they completed a shuttle run to fatigue. Data were analyzed
using the Wilcoxon paired rank-sign test (for shuttle run time)
and the paired samples t-test (for dietary intake). No significant
differences in run time were reported for the group. For the men
only, there was a trend of increased time to fatigue with
chocolate milk compared with the CE (exact p = 0.03). Low fat
chocolate milk may therefore be as good as a CE at promoting
recovery between training sessions during preseason.
KEY WORDS soccer, preseason, training
INTRODUCTION
R
ecent research has suggested that milk may be an
effective recovery beverage (12). Studies compar-
ing time to fatigue during a second exercise bout
after an earlier session and recovery with either
chocolate milk or a carbohydrate replacement beverage have
reported that run and cycling times are similar or longer with
chocolate milk (7,10,14). In particular, low fat chocolate milk
contains carbohydrates, protein, and other nutrients, such as
branched chain amino acids, that may aid in recovery (6). Its
carbohydrate content is similar to that of many common
Address correspondence to Kim J. Spaccarotella, kspaccar@kean.edu
25(12)/3456–3460
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2011 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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3456 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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sports drinks, making it a good source of sugars that can be
used by skeletal muscle to synthesize glycogen and rebuild
depleted stores during postexercise recovery (6). In addition,
it is a rich source of casein and whey, which are digested and
absorbed slowly (2). This allows blood amino acid concen-
trations to remain elevated (16), which may permit extended
muscle anabolism during the recovery period (6,16,20).
Current recommendations for maximizing glycogen resyn-
thesis suggest consuming either 1.2 g carbohydrate per
kilogram of body weight immediately after exercise and each
hour after or as multiple small meals for 4–6 hours
postexercise or 0.8 g
kg21
h21 in combination with amino
acids or protein (6). Although solid and liquid supplements
are equally effective (8), liquids may be preferred if appetite is
suppressed during the first few hours postexercise. Liquids
also provide fluid to aid in rehydration, and the high
concentrations of electrolytes in milk (sodium and potas-
sium) help replenish those lost through sweating during
exercise. For example, studies comparing the effectiveness of
milk, water, and carbohydrate replacement drinks at pro-
moting rehydration after cycling in the heat have found that
participants remained in positive fluid and potassium balance
only on consumption of milk (13,18). Low fat chocolate milk
is also inexpensive and readily available and is the most
popular milk flavor among children and adults (15).
To date, most of the studies examining low fat chocolate
milk as a recovery beverage have used male cyclists (7,14);
little is known about responses among women or athletes
participating in collegiate-level team sports. However, similar
results may be obtained with athletes participating in sports
that require short bursts of speed interspersed with longer
periods of slower running. Research with male and female
soccer and basketball players has demonstrated significant
improvements in time to exhaustion when carbohydrate is
consumed during and between workouts designed to
simulate the intermittent, high-intensity running that occurs
in these sports (9,19). This finding is particularly important
because fatigue at the end of a game or during a second
practice session limits performance at a time that is critical
for making game-deciding plays or maximizing skill acquis-
ition and rehearsal. Further, there is limited evidence about
how athletes respond in a practical setting. Previous studies
of chocolate milk have involved fasted subjects (7,14); in

contrast, athletes usually perform exercise in a fed, non–
glycogen depleted state before consuming a recovery
beverage. Thus, the purpose of the current project was to
compare the effectiveness of low fat chocolate milk and
a carbohydrate–electrolyte beverage (CE) on recovery
between morning and afternoon preseason practice sessions
among male and female Division III collegiate soccer players
and to use these data to help practitioners tailor recom-
mendations for using chocolate milk during recovery in
collegiate team sport athletes.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The study was conducted using a randomized, crossover design
with 13 athletes, and it took place in late summer during the
teams’ preseason training camps. This design has been used in
other similar studies to reduce between-subject variability
(7,14,20): The subjects are randomly assigned to receive 1 of
the 2 beverages during the first treatment day and receive the
alternative on the second day, allowing each person to serve as
his or her own control (4). Before the 2 experimental trials, the
subjects reported to the laboratory for a preliminary visit to
complete a 20-m shuttle run to fatigue to estimate maximal
oxygen uptake (V_ O2max). The intervention occurred on 2 days
during the middle of the preseason separated by a 2-day
washout. During the intervention days, the subjects completed
their morning practice and received either low fat chocolate milk
or an equivalent volume of CE. The subjects then completed
their afternoon practice followed by a 20-m shuttle run to fatigue.
At the end of each intervention day, they were asked to rate the
effort required during the shuttle run using the Borg rating of
perceived exertion (RPE) scale (1) and complete a dietary intake
questionnaire.
Subjects
Twenty-six athletes (11 women, 15 men) from the men’s and
women’s soccer teams volunteered to participate. All subjects
were healthy and had been cleared to practice by the
university athletic training staff through a recent physical
examination. Of these, 6 were excluded from the team,
5 withdrew because of injuries or illnesses that occurred
during practice, and 2 withdrew because of scheduling
conflicts. Thus, 13 athletes (8 women, 5 men; age: 19.5 6 1.1
years; mass: 70.9 6 11.5 kg; height: 171.9 6 9.5 cm; V_ O2max:
41.9 6 9.7 ml
kg21
min21) were able to complete the shuttle
run on both days and were included in the final analyses. The
research was approved by the Institutional Review Board at
Kean University, and written informed consent was obtained
from each subject according to the guidelines established by
the Institutional Review Board.
Procedures
Baseline Visit. The baseline visit occurred at the beginning of
the preseason training camp, before the athletes began
practicing. Subjects completed a 20-m shuttle run to fatigue
(11) from which V_ O2max was estimated. This test involved
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continuous running between 2 lines separated by 20 m.
Running speed was maintained by a series of computer–
generated beeps, which began slowly and increased in
frequency each minute, indicating when the participants
should reach the second line. Fatigue was defined as failure to
reach the second line for 2 consecutive ends, and time to
fatigue was used to estimate V_ O2max.
Intervention Days. During the intervention days, athletes
completed their morning practice and received either low fat
chocolate milk or an equivalent volume of CE (mean recovery
beverage volume of 615 6 101 ml). Although it was
impossible to disguise the distinct flavors of the 2 beverages,
to minimize bias, all beverages were served in opaque
containers by an individual not associated with the
experiment, as has been done previously (7). The study
beverages consisted of low fat chocolate milk (Ultimate
Chocolate Milk, Low Fat, Tuscan Dairy, Union, NJ, USA)
and an isovolumetric amount of a CE (The Gatorade
Company, Chicago, IL, USA). The nutrient composition of
these beverages is presented in Table 1. In accordance with
current recommendations for postexercise carbohydrate
replacement (11), the volume of milk given provided 1.0 g
carbohydrate per kilogram body weight, and on both days,
the beverages were consumed immediately after the first
practice and again 2 hours later, as done in previous studies
(7,14). Current recommendations state that when rapid
postexercise recovery and rehydration are needed, a beverage
containing fluid, electrolytes and carbohydrate should be
used (3). Given these recommendations and the seriousness
of dehydration and depleted carbohydrate and electrolyte
stores for athletes exercising in the heat, as was the case in
this study, withholding fluid, electrolytes, and carbohydrates
could not be justified. Thus, a beverage typically consumed
by these athletes during recovery (CE) was used as the
comparison trial rather than a water-only or a no-fluid
comparison.
TABLE 1. Comparison of selected nutrients in 240 ml
of study beverages.*
Low fat
Nutrient chocolate milk Gatorade
Energy (kcal, kJ) 160, 669 50, 209
Protein (g) 8 0
Fat (g) 3 0
Carbohydrate (g) 27 14
Calcium (mg) 300 0
Sodium (mg) 240 110
*The data are from www.tuscandairy.com and
www.gatorade.com.
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 Chocolate Milk and Recovery

The subjects then completed their afternoon practice Differences were considered significant at p # 0.05, and all
followed by a 20-m shuttle run to fatigue, modeled after one outcome variables were tested for sequence and period effects.
used in a similar study (9). During this test, subjects ran at Data are presented as mean 6 SD unless otherwise noted.
speeds alternating between 55 and 95% of their estimated
V_ O2max until fatigue, defined by the inability to maintain RESULTS
running speeds (.2 consecutively missed distances of 20 m). When both men and women were considered as a group, time
On both study days, the same evaluator, who was blinded to to fatigue did not differ significantly with chocolate milk
the treatments, determined fatigue. Practice sessions, bever- (6.11 6 5.12 minutes; median 4.21 minutes) compared with
age consumption and completion of the shuttle run took CE (5.03 6 3.41 minutes; median 4.07 minutes; p . 0.05). For
place at approximately the same time each day; in addition, the men only, there was a trend of increased time to fatigue
practice sessions were similar in duration and intensity and with chocolate milk (8.31 6 6.53 minutes; median
consisted of conditioning activities and soccer-specific drills. 4.34 minutes) compared with CE (6.24 6 5.03 minutes;
The subjects were instructed to maintain normal dietary, median 4.06 minutes; exact p = 0.03; effect size 0.2; Spearman
hydration, and activity habits throughout the study so that correlation coefficient 0.90) (Figure 1). The RPE did not
the 2 study days represented ‘‘normal’’ preseason days except significantly differ with chocolate milk (15.8 6 3.0; median
for the consumption of the study beverages. They were also 15.5) compared with CE (14.5 6 2.1; median 14.5; p . 0.05).
instructed to consume the same foods and beverages, aside For the women, time to fatigue did not significantly differ
from study beverages, 2 days before and during both between the 2 beverages, and RPE was not significantly
intervention days. At the end of each intervention day, different with chocolate milk (12.6 6 0.96; median 13)
subjects were asked to rate the
effort required during the shut-
tle run using the RPE scale and
complete a dietary question-
naire, which was previously
validated for use with collegiate
athletes (5,17) and modified so
that respondents were asked to
indicate the number of servings
of each food consumed on that
day rather than on a typical day
in the previous week.

Statistical Analyses
To account for possible gender-
related physiologic differences
in hormone concentrations
(e.g., estrogen) and the struc-
ture and capacity of the cardio-
vascular and respiratory systems
(e.g., heart size and blood vol-
ume) that may affect fluid
retention, gas exchange, ventila-
tory response, and, ultimately,
exercise performance (21), the
data were analyzed both for all
subjects combined and for men
and women separately. Inspec-
tion of the run time and RPE
data indicated that they were
nonparametric; thus, the Wil-
coxon paired rank-sign test was
used to test for differences in
Fig. 1. Mean time to fatigue (min) during shuttle run vs. type of recovery beverage consumed among collegiate soccer
time to fatigue and RPE. Di- players (n = 5 men and 8 women). For the men only there was a trend of increased time to fatigue with chocolate milk
etary intake data were analyzed compared to carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage (CE) (exact p = .03). (Values are means 6 standard deviation).
using paired samples t-tests.
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3458 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

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compared with CE (13.3 6 0.5; median 13; p . 0.05). To
further evaluate time to fatigue with the 2 beverages,
a difference score was calculated as run time with milk
minus run time with CE. For the men, the average difference
in run time between the 2 beverages was 1.67 6 1.95 minutes,
and for the women, it was 0.40 6 2.81 minutes. No sequence
or period effects were found for any of the data, and no
differences in intake between the chocolate milk and CE days
were reported for any food groups besides dairy (p , 0.00).
DISCUSSION
The results of this study suggest that consuming low fat
chocolate milk between morning and afternoon practices
may be as good as an isovolumetric amount of CE at
promoting recovery, measured by shuttle run time to fatigue,
among Division III soccer players. These findings are
consistent with those of previous reports (7,10,14): They
support the recommendation of low fat chocolate milk as an
effective recovery beverage (3), and importantly extend
earlier findings to female athletes and practical, field settings
(e.g., preseason).
Although the mechanisms explaining the effectiveness of
chocolate milk are not completely clear, the combination of
carbohydrate, milk protein, fluid, and electrolytes may
promote muscle glycogen resynthesis and rehydration to
speed recovery between exercise sessions (12). During low- to
moderate-intensity exercise (below the lactate threshold or at
ca. 70% V_ O2max), the greater fat content of milk compared
with that of CE may also increase blood levels of free fatty
acids, delaying glycogen depletion (7,14). Future studies
should investigate whether low fat chocolate milk is effective
for recovery from high-intensity exercise, as well, given the
greater reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel during this type of
activity, and to clarify these mechanisms using biochemical
measures (e.g., muscle glycogen content and blood lactate).
Continued research with larger samples that include both
men and women will also help clarify whether gender-
specific effects of milk on recovery exist in a field setting.
Several previous studies have also examined the use of
isocaloric or isocarbohydrate amounts of milk compared with
a high carbohydrate replacement drink (7,10,14). To
maximize practical applications to collegiate athletes,
participants in this study consumed a carbohydrate electro-
lyte beverage (CE) typically used by team sport athletes
during recovery and an isovolumetric amount of chocolate
milk. Thus, a limitation of this study is that the caloric and
carbohydrate content of the recovery beverage was less than
that of the chocolate milk. To consume isocaloric or
isocarbohydrate amounts of these beverages, participants
would have needed to drink nearly twice the amount of
CE as chocolate milk, or on average, 4–6 cups per feeding. It
is unlikely that this amount could be comfortably consumed,
and it would not have practical significance, because it is
more than is usually consumed per feeding and more than
was given in any of the other studies (7,10,14). In addition,
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providing a different volume of fluid each day could affect
hydration status and feelings of gastrointestinal comfort,
possibly influencing the results in other ways. However,
research comparing the consumption of a high carbohydrate
replacement drink with an isocaloric amount of chocolate
milk reported that participants cycled longer on consuming
the milk (14), even though both beverages provided
equivalent energy, suggesting that differences in the
carbohydrate type or fat content might alter the effects of
the beverages on recovery. Further, comparison of isocarbo-
hydrate (7,10) amounts of milk and a high carbohydrate
replacement drink reported that time to exhaustion was no
different (10) or longer with the milk (7), again suggesting
that other factors, beyond the energy and amount of
carbohydrate provided by the milk, may account for its
effectiveness. Further work is needed to clarify these findings.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This study suggests that low fat chocolate milk may be as
effective as an isovolumetric amount of CE at promoting
recovery between preseason practice sessions. Practitioners
can suggest drinking low fat chocolate milk immediately after
exercise and throughout the recovery period in a volume that
will help athletes obtain about 1 g carbohydrate per kilogram
body weight per hour. They can encourage their athletes to
substitute low fat chocolate milk for full fat dairy products and
suggest foods such as fruit smoothies or cereal made with
chocolate milk to improve diet quality while promoting
recovery.
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