AIM:

1. To determine the grating spacing of three different gratings.

2. To measure the angle of wedge.
3. To study the effect of variation of refractive index at the boundary of
separation between two liquids

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Determination of the Grating Pitch using the Phenomenon of self-imaging

Fig 1: self-imaging measurement of Grating Pitch.

Fig 2: Determination of the Wedge angle.

THEORY:
A LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is
capable of producing an intense beam of photons having identical scalar and
vector properties (frequency, phase, direction and polarization). As a result, a
laser beam can be bright, monochromatic, coherent, and unidirectional.
The helium neon laser produces highly monochromatic and parallel beam of
light of wavelength632,8 nm. The beam is dangerous to the eye if viewed
directly with a naked eye.
Basic operation of the laser.
The bright, highly collimated, red light beam (λ = 6328˚A) from a helium-neon
(HeNe) laser is a familiar sight in the scientific laboratory, in the industrial
workplace, and even at the checkout counter in most supermarkets. HeNe lasers
are manufactured in large quantities at low cost and can provide thousands of
hours of useful service. Even though solid-state diode lasers can now provide red
laser beams with intensities comparable to those obtained from HeNe lasers, the
HeNe laser will likely remain a common component in scientific and technical
instrumentation for the foreseeable future.

Figure 3: Diagram of optical and electrical components.

The Wedge Angle

…………………………. (1)

Where D-distance between the grating plane and the successive image.

d-grating pitch.

n-grating index.
PROCEDURE:
Determination of the Grating Pitch using the Phenomenon of self-imaging.
1. The experiment was set as in figure 1, placed the grating in the grating of
the laser beam.
2. Obtained the distance D, between the grating plane and the successive
image plane hence determining the average of D.
3. Another grating was placed on the same pitch and observed the Moire
pattern at the self-imaged plane.
4. Determined the value of the grating pitch d,using d=√𝐷 .

Measurement of the Angle of Wedge.

1. The experiment was set as in figure 2. A screen a pin-hole of 1mm
diameter with white paper pasted on one side.
2. Focused the beam on the pin-hole and introduced the wedge plate on the
divergent beam.
3. Observed interference fringes on the screen at the back of the pin-hole.
4. The shift d, and the distance between the screen and the front of the plate
were measured.
5. The experiment was repeated for D1, D2, D3, corresponding to d1, d2, d3.
6. The graph of d against D2 was plotted and determined the slope hence
obtaining the wedge angle.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoiding direct viewing of the laser beam as severe eye damage could
result.
2. During alignment, the laser beam should be observed by placing a small,
white index card at the appropriate point in the optical path.
3. Resisting the temptation to lower the head to the level of the laser beam
in order to see where it is going.
4. High voltage (≈ 1200 V) is present at the HeNe discharge tube and any
possibility of contact with the bare electrodes of the HeNe plasma tube
should be avoided.
5. The optical cavity mirrors and the Brewster windows of the laser tube
have very delicate optical surfaces that can be easily scratched or
damaged with a single fingerprint. If these surfaces need cleaning, the
instructor has to demonstrate the proper method for cleaning them.
RESULTS:

Table1: Tabulated results the distance D.

D1/cm D2/cm D3/cm Dave/cm
50.2 50.5 50.3

Table2: Tabulated results of D and shift d.

D/cm d/cm D2/cm2(x102)
66.0 4.0 43,7
56.0 3.5 31,4
46.0 2.9 21,2
36.0 2.3 13,0
26.0 1.6 6,9
16.0 0.9 2,6

ANALYSIS:
∆𝑑 1.9
 Gradient = = =7.76X1O-4cm-1 .
∆𝐷2 24.5𝑋102
6,48𝑥105 𝑠
 Wedge angle = 7.76X1O-4cm-1 𝑥 ( ) = 1.6𝑟𝑎𝑑.
100𝜋

DISCUSSION:
 The graph was obtained with d varying linearly with D2.
 The experimental values obtained were distributed evenly on either side
of the line of best fit.
 Theoretically the graph was supposed to cut through the origin whilst
points were scattered about the line of best fit due to experimental errors.
Source of Errors
 Parallax error in taking readings on a meter rule for D and d .
 Quality and refractive index of the gratings may have contributed to
errors observed on the graph.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
 Using the same apparatus, the linear polarization of the light produced by
the HeNe laser can be determined.
 Replacement of worn out gratings so as to ensure more improved results
and hence minimizing errors.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS:
 Applied in diode laser optical recording using trilayer structures.
 He –Ne lasers are also used in supermarket checkout counters to read bar
codes and QR codes.
 Also used by newspapers for reproducing transmitted photographs, can be
used as an alignment tool.
 Used by colleges and universities in science programs and experiments,
lasers also applied in guns for targeting.

CONCLUSION:
 From the graph, there are points out of the line of best fit, thus indication
for systematic errors.
 The linear graph cut at the vertical axis, thus in disagreement with the
theoretical graph that should cut the origin.
 Using the gradient of the graph, the wedge angle was determined, hence
the experiment was a success since the lab objectives were met.

REFERENCES:
 Nust Experimental Laboratory Manual, Part 2, Physics 2019.
 Bartolini, R.A.A.E., Bell, A. and Spong, F., 1981. Diode laser optical
recording using trilayer structures. IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics,
17(1), pp.69-77.
 Gerstenberger, D., Solanki, R. and Collins, G., 1980. Hollow cathode
metal ion lasers. IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 16(8), pp.820-
834.
 Thomas L Floiyd ,and Jain Digital Fundermentals,Eighth edition,2003.
 Digital Desighn ,M Morris Mano and Michael D Ciletti, Fifth Edd,2013.
 Graph of d against D2
4.5

3.5

2.5
d/cm

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

D2/cm2(x102)