CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

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 1. INTRODUCTION OF SOLAR PANEL
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The energy needs of a typical home in Texas could be met by
covering only half of its roof with solar electric panels. Photovoltaic (PV)
cells convert sunlight directly into electricity without creating any air or
water pollution. Photovoltaic’s offer consumers the ability to generate
electricity in a Clean, quiet and reliable way. Photovoltaic systems are
comprised of photovoltaic cells, devices that convert light energy directly
into electricity. Because the source of light is usually the sun, they are
often called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from “photo,”
meaning light, and “voltaic,” which refers to producing electricity.

Cell Module Array

Fig. 1.1 PV SOLAR PANEL

Therefore, the photovoltaic process is “producing electricity
directly from sunlight.” Photovoltaic are often referred to as PV. PV
systems are being installed by Texans who already have grid-sup- plied
electricity but want to begin to live more independently or who are
concerned about the environment. For some applications where small
amounts of electricity are required, like emergency call boxes, PV sys-
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tems are often cost justified even when grid electricity is not very far
away. When applications require larger amounts of electricity and are
located away from existing power lines, photovoltaic systems can in
many cases offer the least expensive, most viable option.

1.2 Photovoltaic Cell

A photovoltaic (PV) cell, also known as a solar cell, is an electronic
component that generates electricity when exposed to photons, or
particles of light. This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect, which
was discovered in 1839 by French physicist Edmond Becquerel1.

Fig.1.2 PV Cell
It was not until the 1960s that photovoltaic cells found their first
practical application in satellite technology. Solar panels, which are
made up of PV cell modules, began arriving on rooftops at the end of the
1980s. Photovoltaic capacity has been growing steadily since the start of
the 21st century, led by the construction of huge solar farms.

Fig. 1.3 SOLAR CELL INTERNAL REACTION

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1.3 Solar Array:
A solar array begins with a single solar energy cell known as
photovoltaic cell. "Photo" essentially means light, and "voltaic" refers to
voltage, which is a unit of potential electrical energy solar array
generate electricity by converting the energy of light directly into
electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is physical and chemical
phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a devioe whose
electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary
when exposed to light. When we combine solar panels then we can
create a solar arrav

1.4 Photovoltaic Cell Works

A photovoltaic cell is made of semiconductor materials that absorb the
photons emitted by the sun and generate a flow of electrons. Photons
are elementary particles that carry solar radiation at a speed of 300,000
kilometers per second. In the 1920s, Albert Einstein referred to them as
“grains of light”.

Fig. 1.4 Photovoltaic Cell

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When the photons strike a semiconductor material like silicon , they
release the electrons from its atoms, leaving behind a vacant space. The
stray electrons move around randomly looking for another “hole” to fill.
To produce an electric current, however, the electrons need to flow in
the same direction. This is achieved using two types of silicon. The
silicon layer that is exposed to the sun is doped with atoms of
phosphorus, which has one more electron than silicon, while the other
side is doped with atoms of boron , which has one less electron. The
resulting sandwich works much like a battery: the layer that has
surplus electrons becomes the negative terminal (n) and the side that
has a deficit of electrons becomes the positive terminal (p). An electric
field is created at the junction between the two layers.
When the electrons are excited by the photons, they are swept to
the n-side by an electric field, while the holes drift to the p-side. The
electrons and holes are directed to the electrical contacts applied to
both sides before flowing to the external circuit in the form of electrical
energy. This produces direct current. An anti-reflective coating is added
to the top of the cell to minimize photon loss due to surface reflection.

1.5 Photovoltaic Cell Efficiency

Efficiency is the ratio of electrical power produced by the cell to the
amount of sunlight it receives. To measure efficiency, the cells are
combined into modules, which are in turn assembled into arrays. The
resulting panels are then placed in front of a solar simulator that
mimics ideal sunlight conditions: 1,000 watts (W) of light per cubic
meter at an ambient temperature of 25°C. The electrical power
produced by the system, or peak power, is a percentage of the incoming
solar energy. If a panel measuring one square meter generates 200 W of
electrical power, it has an efficiency of 20%. The maximum theoretical
efficiency of a PV cell is around 33%. This is referred to as the Shockley-
Queisser limit.

1.6 Discovery & Types Of PV Cells

The Photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist,
Alexandre Edmond Becquerel in 1839, who found that certain materials
would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light.
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Electrical engineer Willoughby Smith (1873-1876) discovered the
photoconductivity of selenium, meaning it becomes electrically
conductive when it absorbs light. Selenium photovoltaic cells were
converting light electricity at 1 to 2 percent efficiency. Three years later,
William Grills Adams and Richard Evans Day learned that selenium
could produce electricity from light without heat or moving parts that
could easily break down. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature
of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is
based, for which he later won a Nobel pre in physics. The first
photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed
as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too
expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry
began to make the first serious use of the technoiogy to provide power
aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology
advanced, its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline
During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained
recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.
In real life, the amount of electricity produced by a cell, known as
its output, is based on its efficiency, the average annual sunshine of the
surrounding area and the type of installation. Incident solar radiation
varies significantly, measuring 1 megawatt-hour per square meter per
year (MWh/sq.m/y) in the Paris area versus roughly 1.7 MWh/sq.m/y
in southern France and nearly 3 MWh/sq.m/y in the Sahara Desert.
This means that a solar panel with a 15% efficiency rating will generate
150 kWh/sq.m/y in Paris and 450 kWh/sq.m/y in the Sahara.

1.7 Different Types of Photovoltaic Cells

There are three types of PV cell technologies that dominate the
world market:
• a.Monocrystalline silicon
• b.Polycrystalline silicon , and
• c.Thin film

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1.7 (a) Monocrystalline silicon
Photovoltaic cells or PV cells can be manufactured in many different
ways and from a variety of different materials. Despite this difference,
they all perform the same task of harvesting solar energy and converting it
to useful electricity. The most common material for solar panel
construction is silicon which has semiconducting properties. Several of
these solar cells are required to construct a solar panel and many panels
make up a photovoltaic array. There is also an assortment of emerging
PV cell technologies which include Perovskite cells, organic solar cells,
dye-sensitized solar cells and quantum dots.

Fig.1.5 Monocrystalline Silicon

The first commercially available solar cells were made from

monocrystalline silicon, which is an extremely pure form of silicon. To
produce these, a seed crystal is pulled out of a mass of molten silicon
creating a cylindrical ingot with a single, continuous, crystal lattice
structure. This crystal is then mechanically sawn into thin wafers,
polished and doped to create the required p-n junction. After an anti-
reflective coating and the front and rear metal contacts are added, the
cell is finally wired and packaged alongside many other cells into a
full solar panel. Monocrystalline silicon cells are highly efficient, but
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their manufacturing process is slow and labour intensive, making them
more expensive than their polycrystalline or thin film counterparts.

1.7 (b) Polycrystalline silicon

Instead of a single uniform crystal structure, polycrystalline (or
multicrystalline) cells contain many small grains of crystals

Fig.1.6. Polycrystalline silicon cell (left) monocrystalline silicon cell

(right)

They can be made by simply casting a cube-shaped ingot from

molten silicon, then sawn and packaged similar to monocrystalline
cells. Another method known as edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG)
involves drawing a thin ribbon of polycrystalline silicon from a mass of
molten silicon. A cheaper but less efficient alternative, polycrystalline
silicon PV cells dominate the world market, representing about 70% of
global PV production in 2015.

Thin Film
Figure shows A thin film solar panel composed of non-crystalline
silicon deposited on a flexible material. Although crystalline PV cells
dominate the market, cells can also be made from thin films making
them much more flexible and durable. One type of thin film PV cell
is amorphous silicon (a-Si) which is produced by depositing thin layers
of silicon on to a glass substrate. The result is a very thin and flexible
cell which uses less than 1% of the silicon needed for a crystalline

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cell.[3] Due to this reduction in raw material and a less energy intensive
manufacturing process, amorphous silicon cells are much cheaper to
produce.

Fig.1.7 Thin Flm

Their efficiency, however, is greatly reduced because the silicon

atoms are much less ordered than in their crystalline forms leaving
'dangling bonds' that combine with other elements making them
electrically inactive. These cells also suffer from a 20% drop in efficiency
within the first few months of operation before stabilizing, and are
therefore sold with power ratings based on their degraded output. Other
types of thin film cells include copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS)
and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These cell technologies offer higher
efficiencies than amorphous silicon, but contain rare and toxic elements
including cadmium which requires extra precautions during
manufacture and eventual recycling.

High Efficiency Cells

Other cell technologies have been developed which operate at much

higher efficiencies than those mentioned above, but their higher
material and manufacturing costs currently prohibit wide spread
commercial use.

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Gallium Arsenide
Silicon is not the only material suitable for crystalline PV cells. Gallium
arsenide (GaAs) is an alternative semiconductor which is highly suitable
for PV applications. Gallium arsenide has a similar crystal structure to
that of monocrystalline silicon, but with
alternating gallium and arsenic atoms. Due to its higher light
absorption coefficient and wider band gap, GaAs cells are much more
efficient than those made of silicon. Additionally, GaAs cells can operate
at much higher temperatures without considerable performance
degradation, making them suitable for concentrated photovoltaics.
GaAs cells are produced by depositing layers
of gallium and arsenic onto a base of single crystal GaAs, which defines
the orientation of the new crystal growth. This process makes GaAs
cells much more expensive than silicon cells, making them useful only
when high efficiency is needed, such as space applications.
Multi-Junction
The majority of PV cells, including those discussed above, contain
only one p-n junction of semiconductor material which converts energy
from one discreet portion of the solar spectrum into useful electricity.
Multi-junction cells have 2 or more junctions layered on top of each
other, allowing energy to be collected from multiple portions of the
spectrum. Light that is not absorbed by the first layer will travel
through and interact with subsequent layers. Multi-junction cells are
produced in the same way as gallium arsenide cells—slowly depositing
layers of material onto a single crystal base, making them very
expensive to produce, and only commercially viable in concentrated PV
systems and space applications.

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1.7 (c) Thin-Film Cells
Instead of cutting silicon wafers of around 200 microns3, it is
possible to deposit semiconductor material in thin layers only a few
microns thick on a substrate such as glass or plastic. Commonly used
substances are cadmium telluride and copper indium gallium selenide
(CIGS), whose laboratory efficiencies are close to that of silicon, at
22.1% and 23.3%, respectively. Amorphous (non-crystalline) silicon can
also be used for making thin-film cells. This technology has long been
applied in small calculators but is less efficient than silicon.
Organic Cells. 1 micron: the thickness (1/1000th of a millimeter) of the
semiconductor layer deposited on the substrate of a thin-film
photovoltaic cell. Organic solar cells that utilize organic molecules or
polymers rather than semiconducting minerals are starting to be
commercially applied. The cells continue to have a low conversion
efficiency and a short lifetime but are potentially a low-cost alternative
in terms of production. Another technology, dye-sensitized solar cells
with photosensitive pigments, inspired by photosynthesis , is beginning
to attract attention.

1.8 Photovoltaic Array

PV cells convert sunlight directly into electricity without creating
any air or water pollution. PV cells are made of at least two layers of
semi- conductor material. One layer has a positive charge, the other
negative. When light enters the cell, some of the photons from the light
are absorbed by the semiconductor atoms, freeing electrons from the
cell’s negative layer to flow through an external circuit and back into the
positive layer. This flow of electrons produces electric current.
This device will convert the direct current (DC) electricity
produced by the PV array into alter- nating current (AC) electricity typi-
cally required for loads such as radios, televisions and refrigerators.
Utility interactive inverters also have built-in safety features required by
electric utilities nationwide. To increase their utility, dozens of
individual PV cells are interconnected together in a sealed, weatherproof
package called a module. When two modules are wired together in
series, their voltage is doubled while the current stays constant.
When two modules are wired in parallel, their current is doubled
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while the voltage stays constant. To achieve the desired voltage and
current, modules are wired in series and parallel into what is called a
PV array. The flexi- bility of the modular PV system allows designers to
create solar power systems that can meet a wide variety of electrical
needs, no matter how large or small.

Charge
controller Battery

Photovoltaic array

DC Load

Inverter
AC Load

Fig. 1.8 Photovoltaic Array

A grid-connected PV system will require a utility interactive DC to

AC inverter.
1.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Cells:

• Environmental Sustainability: Photovoltaic cells generate clean

and green energy as no harmful gases such as Cox, NOx etc are
emitted. Also, they produce no noise pollution which makes them
ideal for application in residential areas.
• Economically Viable: Operation and maintenance cost of cells are
very low. The cost of solar panel incurred is only the initial cost
i.e., purchase and installation.
• Accessible: Solar panels are easy to set up and can be made
accessible in remote locations or sparsely inhabited areas at a
lesser cost as compared to conventional transmission lines. They
are easy to install without any interference to the residential
lifestyle.

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• Renewable: Energy is free and abundant in nature.
• Cost: Solar panels have no mechanically moving parts except in
some highly advanced sunlight tracking mechanical bases.
Consequently, the solar panel price for maintenance and repair is
negligible.
• The efficiency of solar panels is low compared to other renewable
sources of energy.
• Energy from the sun is intermittent and unpredictable and can
only be harnessed in the presence of sunlight. Also, the power
generated gets reduced during cloudy weather.
• Long range transmission of solar energy is inefficient and difficult
to carry. The current produced is DC in nature and the
conversion of DC current to AC current involves the use of
additional equipments such as inverters.
• Photovoltaic panels are fragile and can be damaged relatively
easily. Additional insurance costs are required to ensure a
safeguard to the investments.

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 CHAPTER- 2
NODEMCU WIFI MODULE

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 2. NODEMCU WIFI MODULE
2.1 SPECIFICATIONS
• Voltage:3.3V.
• Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP.
• Current consumption: 10uA~170mA.
• Flash memory attachable: 16MB max (512K normal).
• Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack.
• Processor: Tensilica L106 32-bit.
• Processor speed: 80~160MHz. Maximum concurrent TCP
connections: 5.
• RAM: 32K + 80K.
• GPIOs: 17 (multiplexed with other functions).
• Analog to Digital: 1 input with 1024 step resolution.
• +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode
• 802.11 support: b/g/n.

2.2 PIN CONFIGURATION

The ESP8266 is the name of a micro controller designed by
Espressif Systems. The ESP8266 itself is a self-contained WiFi
networking solution offering as a bridge from existing micro controller to
WiFi and is also capable of running self-contained applications.
2.3 Pin layout of 32-pin QFN Package.

Fig.2.1 Node MCU Pin Diagram

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Pin 1: VDDA is a power pin for analog power ranges from 2.5V to 3.6V.
Pin 2: LNA is an input/output pin specifically used for RF antenna
interface. Chip produces impedance of 39+j6 Ω.
Pin 3: VDD3P3 is a power pin to provide amplifier power ranges from
2.5V to 3.6V.
Pin 4: VDD3P3 is a power pin provide amplifier power ranges from 2.5V
to 3.6V similar to pin3.
Pin 5: VDD_RTC is categorized as a power pin and supply 1.1V but this
pin is not connected.
Pin 6: TOUT is an input pin functions as ADC pin to test the supply
voltages of Pin3 and Pin4 and the input voltages of TOUT pin6. These
two functions cannot perform simultaneously.
Pin 7: CHIP_EN I an input pin. When CHIP_EN pin is HIGH chip works
properly when LOW chip consumed an only small amount of current.
Pin 8: XPD_DCDC is an input/output pin which is used to wake up the
chip from deep sleep mode. Commonly it is connected with GPIO16.
Pin 9: MTMS is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO14 and it is used
in SPI as clock pin (SPI_CLK).
Pin 10: MTDI is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO12 and it is used
in SPI as Master-In-Slave-Out pin (SPI_MISO).
Pin 11: VDDPST is a power pin. It is a digital input/output power
supply whose voltages ranges from 1.8V to 3.6V. Similar to pin17.
Pin 12: MTCK is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO13 and it is used
in SPI as Master-Out Slave-In pin (SPI_MOSI) as well as used in UART
as Clear To Send pin (UART_CTS).
Pin 13: MTDO is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO15 and it is used
in SPI as Chip Select pin (SPI_CS) as well as used in UART as Request
To Send pin (UART_RTS).
Pin 14: GPIO2 is an input/output pin used as UART TX during flash
programming.
Pin 15: GPIO0 is an input/output used as Chip Select pin2 in SPI
(SPI_CS2).
Pin 16: GPIO4 is an input/output pin purely used for input and output
purposes.
Pin 17: VDDPST is a power pin. It is a digital input/output power
supply whose voltages ranges from 1.8V to 3.6V. Similar to pin11.
Pin 18: SDIO_DATA_2 is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO9 and
used to connect with data pin 2 of SD card.

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Pin 19: SDIO_DATA_3 is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO10 and
used to connect with data pin 3 of SD card.
Pin 20: SDIO_CMD is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO11 and used
to connect with command pin of SD card
Pin 21: SDIO_CLK is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO6 and used to
connect with the clock pin of SD card.
Pin 22: SDIO_DATA_0 is an input/output Pin labeled as GPIO7 and
used to connect with data pin 0 of SD card.
Pin 23: SDIO_DATA_1 is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO8 and
used to connect with data pin 1 of SD card.
Pin 24: GPIO5 is an input/output pin purely used for input and output
purposes.
Pin 25: U0RXD is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO3 and used as
UART RX during flash programming.
Pin 26: U0TXD is an input/output pin labeled as GPIO1 and used as
UART TX during flash programming. Also used as SPI Chip Select pin 1
(SPI_CS1).
Pin 27: XTAL_OUT is classified as an input/output pin and connected
to the output of the crystal oscillator.
Pin 28: XTAL_IN is classified as an input/output pin and connected to
the input of the crystal oscillator.
Pin 29: VDDD is a power pin provide analog power ranges from 2.5V to
3.6V.
Pin 30: VDDA is a power pin provide analog power ranges from 2.5V to
3.6V. Similar to pin29.
Pin 31: RES12K is an input pin which is serial connected with 12 kΩ
resistors and connected to the ground.
Pin 32: EXT_RSBT is an input pin used to rest the chip by providing an
external reset signal which is active at a low voltage level.
Pin 33: GND is a power pin acts as a ground for the chip.All GPIO’s can
be used as Input and Output pin but they also have their specific
function.
ESP8266 schematics include the following components:
• Power supply
• Power-on sequence and reset
• Flash
• Crystal oscillator
• RF
• External resistor
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Schematic Diagram

Fig.2.2 schematic

2.3 NODEMCU GPIO

The GPIO(General Purpose Input/Output) allows us to access
to pins of ESP8266 , all the pins of ESP8266 accessed using the
command GPIO, all the access is based on the I/O index number on
the NoddMCU dev kits, not the internal GPIO pin, for example, the
pin ‘D7’ on the NodeMCU dev kit is mapped to the internal GPIO pin
13, if you want to turn ‘High’ or ‘Low’ that particular pin you need to
called the pin number ‘7’, not the internal GPIO of the pin.
When you are programming with generic ESP8266 this
confusion will arise which pin needs to be called during
programming, if you are using NodeMCU devkit, it has come
prepared for working with Lua interpreter which can easily program
by looking the pin names associated on the Lua board. If you are
using generic ESP8266 device or any other vendor boards please
refer to the table below to know which IO index is associated to the
internal GPIO of ESP8266.

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GPIO TABULAR FORM :

Nodemcu ESP8266 Pin Nodemcu dev ESP8266 Pin

dev kit kit
D0 GPIO16 D7 GPIO13
D1 GPIO5 D8 GPIO15
D2 GPIO4 D9 GPIO3
D3 GPIO0 D10 GPIO1
D4 GPIO2 D11 GPIO9
D5 GPIO14 D12 GPIO10
D6 GPIO12

D0 or GPIO16 can be used only as a read and write pin, no

other options like PWM/I2C are supported by this pin. In our
example in chapter 5 on blinking the blue LED, the blue LED in
connected to GPIO2, it is defined as Pin4 (D4) in Lua script.

19
CHAPTER – 3
ARDUINO UNO

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 3. ARDUINO UNO
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Arduino Uno board is the most popular board and mostly
referred for the beginners as they are super easy to begin with, it does
not requires any specific arduino uno software instead of that all you
need is to select the arduino uno in the device option before uploading
your program.
There are plenty of arduino uno boards look different from the
one as shown. But they all have plenty of the same components given
below.
❖ Arduino Uno board Description
❖ Crystal Oscillator
❖ Reset Button
❖ Arduino uno board General Voltage pins
❖ Analog i/o pins
❖ Microcontroller in Arduino uno board
❖ SPI Ports
❖ Power Indicator LED
❖ TX and RX Pins
❖ Digital i/o pins

3.2 ARDUINO BOARD

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-
use hardware and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs -
light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a Twitter message - and turn
it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED, publishing
something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of
instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use
the Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino
Software (IDE), based on Processing.

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of

projects, from everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A
worldwide community of makers - students, hobbyists, artists,
programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-
source platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible
amount of accessible knowledge that can be of great help to novices and
experts alike.

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 Fig.3.1 arduino Board

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an

easy tool for fast prototyping, aimed at students without a background
in electronics and programming. As soon as it reached a wider
community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs
and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to
products for IoT applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded
environments.

Fig.3.2. Side View

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 All Arduino boards are completely open-source, empowering users
to build them independently and eventually adapt them to their
particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing
through the contributions of users worldwide.

3.3 Crystal Oscillator

There are certain case when the processor has to deal with time-signal
issues, in order to balance it the crystal oscillator is used. The crystal
oscillator is the only way the arduino is able to calculate the time. There
is a number printed on the top of the crystal. The number indicates the
frequency of the crystal, in most of them the frequency is 16 MHZ or
16,000,000 hertz.

3.3 Crystal Oscillator

3.4 Reset Button

There is a reset button given which is used to restart the program

running in the Arduino uno. There are two ways to restart the whole
program. You can use the default reset button.

You can connect your own reset button at the pin labeled as Reset.

3.5 Arduino uno board General Voltage pins

There are following output voltage pins.

❖ 3v output pin
❖ 5v output pin
❖ GND (ground)

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Most of the arduino components operate at 5v or 3.3v and so can be
powered with these pins. There are several ground ports which can be
used to give ground to your circuit and components. There is a Vin pin
which can be used to power the arduino uno from an external source.

Note: The voltage must be 5v DC in case the arduino board is powered

using external source.

3.6 Analog i/o pins

The Arduino uno board has 6 analog input
A5. The pins are best used in case of the
pins can read the analog signals from them
humidity etc and converts them into digital
processed by the microcontroller.
and output pins from A0 to
analog sensors. The analog
like temperature, proximity,
values that can be read and

3.7 Microcontroller in Arduino uno board

Different Arduino boards have different microcontrollers. It can be

said that is the main component in the overall Arduino board. The main
IC is a bit different in different arduino uno boards. The
microcontrollers used basically are of ATMEL Company and it is
necessary for you to know what IC you are using in order to load your
program in it.

Fig.3.4 Microcontroller View

You can easily read the information on the top of the IC and select
the corresponding from the option given in the arduino software. For
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more information about the ic you can refer to the corresponding
datasheet.

3.8 SPI Ports

The SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) is considered for an expansion of

the output. In most of the cases the ICSP Pin as an small programming
header in Arduino Uno consist of RESET, SCK, MOSI, MISO, VCC and
GND.

Fig 3.5 SPI Port

3.9 Power Indicator LED

When you power up the Arduino uno board, there must be an
LED light up which will indicate the board is powered up correctly. In
case you don’t see the glowing light, there must be something wrong
with the connection you’ve made.

3.10 TX and RX Pins

In the Arduino Uno board there are two LED’s labeled as TX
(transmitter) and RX (Receiver), Same are labeled on the pin 0 and 1
respectively. These pins are used for serial communication and the
corresponding LED glowing indicated fi the data is being sent by TX and
if the data is being received by RX. The TX LED flashes at the different

25
frequency which depends on the baud rate being used by the arduino
board to transmit.

3.11 Pin Description:

Fig 3.6: Pin Details of ATMEGA 328P Microcontroller

VCC: Digital supply voltage.

3.11.1 GND: Ground.

3.11.2 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2:

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors selected
for each bit. The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low

26
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running. Depending on
the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock
selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator
amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7...6
is used as TOSC2...1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in
ASSR is set.

3.11.4 Port C (PC5:0):

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors selected for
each bit. The PC5...0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

3.11.5 PC6/RESET:
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the
electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the
RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this
pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is
not running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset.

3.11.6 Port D (PD7:0):

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected
for each bit). The Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

3.11.7 AVCC:
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It
should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is
used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter.

27
3.11.8 AREF:
AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

3.11.9 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only):

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D
converter. These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC
channels.

3.12 ATmega328P Typical Characteristics:

The following charts show typical behaviour. These figures are not tested during
manufacturing. All current consumption measurements are performed with all I/O pins
configured as inputs and with internal pull-ups enabled. A sine wave generator with rail-
to-rail output is used as clock source. The power consumption in Power-down mode is
independent of clock selection. The current consumption is a function of several factors
such as: operating voltage, operating frequency, loading of I/O pins, switching rate of
I/O pins, code executed and ambient temperature.

3.13 Digital i/o pins

Arduino uno board does have 14 digital i/o pins (input/output
pins) out of which contains 6 PWM output (Pulse width modulation).
The digital pins can be configured to read logic values such as 0 and 1
or can give logic (0 and 1) output for different modules such as LEDs,
Relays, etc. there is a symbol “~” corresponding to the PWM pins.

Additionally there is AREF which is used to set an external reference

voltage as the upper limit to the analog input pins. The external
reference voltage is usually in between 0 to 5 volts.

28
CHAPTER – 4
BATTERY

29
 4.BATTERY
4.1 BATTERY INTRODUCTION

The rechargeable batteries are lead-lead dioxide systems. The

dilute sulfuric acid electrolyte is absorbed by separators and plates and
thus immobilized. Should the battery be accidentally overcharged
producing hydrogen and oxygen, special one-way valves allow the gases
to escape thus avoiding excessive pressure build-up. Otherwise, the
battery is completely sealed and is, therefore, maintenance-free, leak
proof and usable in any position.

Fig. 4.1 CP645 6V 4.5Ah(20hr)

Performance Characteristics
Nominal Voltage 6V
Number of cell 3
Design Life 5 years
Nominal Capacity 77oF(25oC)
20 hour rate (0.225A, 5.25V) 4.5Ah
10 hour rate (0.44A, 5.25V) 4.4Ah
5 hour rate (0.72A, 5.25V) 3.6Ah
1 hour rate (3.06A, 4.8V) 3.06Ah Internal Resistance

30
 The developments in the field of science, engineering and technology
naturally tempt man in using and applying these developments to
improve the comforts in life and enjoyment. The increase in complexity
and standards in life style is characterized by a high demand for energy
consumption. Even if energy is available, it should be available at a
time, place, and under circumstances where desired or needed. It is, in
this view point, cells and batteries are important in providing portable
electrical energy. Transistorized and miniaturized equipments have
such low power requirements that batteries have become competitive
with other energy sources, in spite of their lower energy production. The
variety of equipments used in diverse applications, by utilizing batteries
as energy sources have spurred the development of many different types
of batteries.

Fig.4.2 Internal Battery Charge

About six decades ago domestic uses of batteries were largely
confined to flash lamps, radio sets and starter batteries for cars and
motor cycles. Modern households typically have 40–50, hidden away
in all sort of consumer products – from clocks and watches to
personal CD players and mobile phones. Away from the home there
are many other applications, particularly for large batteries. Examples
include the standby batteries for emergency use in hospitals, hotels,
departmental stores, telephone exchanges, etc; traction batteries for
31
electric vehicles (tugs, tractors, wheel chairs, golf carts); batteries for
solar panels or wind generators; defence batteries in armaments,
missiles, submarines, torpedoes.
Many of these applications demand a performance that is barely
matched by traditional batteries and therefore, there is ever present
demand for new and better varieties. One of the interesting features of
batteries is the very wide range of sizes in which they are
manufactured, from a stored energy content of 0.1 watt-hour (Wh) for
a watch or calculator battery, to 100 MWh for a load-levelling battery
in the electrical supply industry.
The battery technology, historically considered electrochemical,
combines the activities of the chemist, the chemical engineer, the
metallurgist, the materials specialist, the electrical engineer, the
electronic designer, the space specialist, the environmental engineer,
the instrumental analyst, testing agencies as well as the application
originator for expanded and new uses. The individual viewpoints of all
these, cooperate to serve the diversified needs and desires of
industries, as well as our daily lives in the electronic and space age.

4.2 BATTERIES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

The conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy is a function

of cells or batteries. A cell designates a single unit. A battery is an
arrangement of two or more cells, usually connected in series or
parallel to supply the necessary current or voltage or both.
The battery was the first practical source of electrical energy
developed in man’s search for portable power sources. Although many
other techniques have been developed for supplying electrical power,
the battery is still the most widely used source of electrical power
when portability is the prime requisite. Batteries are used in watches,
hearing aids, flash lights, radio sets, electric clocks, photoflash
devices, emergency lighting, distress signalling, rescue devices, tape
recorders, alarm systems, hand tools, toys, calculators, cordless
appliances, telephone systems, electrotherapeutic purposes, electric
bells, motor ignitions, space vehicles, military applications and a host
of other applications. The development of semi conductor devices
32
such as transistors, diodes, missiles, satellites and a great variety of
mobile equipments, has imposed great demands for power sources
which are compact, dimensionally adaptable, able to operate over a
wide temperature range and highly dependable. The batteries meet
these demands and therefore, are in continuous demand.

4.3 COMMERCIAL CELLS

The spontaneous redox reaction, which forms the basis of voltaic cell,
is conveniently used in making many useful commercial cells. All
voltaic cells do not find commercial applications. A useful commercial
cell should meet the following basic requirements or specifications:
• Portability
• Should be compact and light weight
• Should provide economically priced, continuous electric supply
• High cell voltage and stable voltage plateau over most of the
discharge
• High stored energy content per unit mass and per unit volume
• Low cell resistance
• High sustained power output
• Wide temperature range of operation
• Long inactive shelf life and long operational life
• Low initial cost
• Sealed and leak proof
• Rugged and resistant to abuse
• Safe in use and under accident conditions
• Should be capable of recharging with a capacity of many charge
and discharge cycles, and to withstand overcharge and over
discharge
• Sealed and maintenance free
In spite of their virtues, the high cost of cells and batteries
makes the production of electricity in large quantities impracticable.
However, they serve as convenient energy sources where small amount
of energy is required for short duration of time.
Classification

33
The galvanic or voltaic cells used as source of electrical energy are of
two types:
(i) primary cells and
(ii) secondary cells.
(i) Primary cells: A primary cell is the one in which electrical energy
can be obtained at the expense of chemical energy only as long as the
active materials are still present. Once these have been consumed,
the cell can not be profitably or readily rejuvenated and must be
discarded. Or in other words, they can not be recharged and re-used.
(ii) Secondary cells: A secondary cell, once used can be recharged by
passing current through it. It can be used over and over again. The
redox reaction gets reversed during recharging. Since the electrical
energy brings about the chemical change, it is converted into
chemical energy. Thus electrical energy is stored in the form of
chemical energy and utilized for supplying the current when needed.
Secondary cells are also known as storage cells.
Whereas, a primary cell acts only as a galvanic or voltaic cell, a
secondary cell can act both as galvanic cell and electrolytic cell.
During discharging it acts as a galvanic cell, converting chemical
energy into electrical energy and during charging it acts as an
electrolytic cell converting electrical energy into chemical energy.

4.4 Reserve Batteries

In this type of batteries, a key component is separated from the
rest of the battery prior to activation. Usually the electrolyte is the
component that is isolated. Batteries which use highly active
component material are designed in this form to withstand
deterioration in storage and to eliminate self discharge prior to use.
The reserve design is also used for batteries required to meet
extremely long or environmentally severe storage requirements.
When one of the key components of the cell is separated from the
remainder of the cell, chemical reaction between the cell components
(self discharge) is prevented and the battery is capable of long
Secondary reactions
The hydroxyl ions generated during the cell reaction liberate ammonia
from ammonium chloride, which in turn combines with the Zn2+ ions
34
to precipitate [Zn[NH3]2Cl2] complex.
2NH4Cl + 2OH– 2NH3 +

2H2O + 2Cl– Zn2+ + 2NH3 +

2Cl– [Zn [NH3]2 Cl2]

The secondary reactions are not involved directly in the electrode

reaction and so they do not contribute to the emf of the cell. But these
reactions are irreversible and therefore, the cell can not be recharged.
A fresh dry cell has a potential of l.5V. The voltage of the cell
decreases gradually with usage and finally it has to be discarded.

Applications
Dry cells find extensive use in flash lights, portable radios,
transistors, tape recorders, and similar electronic devices where small
amount of current is required.
Limitations
• They have low capacity
• Not intended for heavy duty
A simplified form of lead storage cell is as shown in Fig 2.3. The
electrodes are lead grids. The
anode grid is filled with spongy lead and the cathode grid is filled with
lead dioxide (PbO2). A number of electrode pairs with inert porous
partitions in between, are dipped in approximately 20% sulfuric acid,
which is the electrolyte. The battery is encased in a plastic container.

Lead grid
filled with

Fig 4.3 Electrodes

35
 Electrode reactions: The electrode reactions that occur during the
discharge of the cell, i.e., on drawing current from the cell, are as
follows:
At the anode, Pb Pb2+ +
2e– Pb2+ + SO42–

PbSO4
Pb + SO42– PbSO4 + 2e–

At the Cathode, PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2H2O

Pb2+ + SO42– PbSO4

PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42– + 2e– PbSO4 + 2H2O

The net cell reaction is,Pb + PbO2 + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2 Recharge
reactions: When the density of sulfuric acid in the battery falls below
1.20gcm–3, the battery needs charging. This is done by reversing the
discharge reaction by applying externally a potential higher than that of
the cell. The cell acts as an electrolytic cell, depositing lead and lead
dioxide on the electrodes.
PbSO4 + 2e– Pb + SO42–

PbSO4 +2H2O PbO2 + SO42–

+ 4H+ +2e– 2PbSO4 + 2H2O Pb
+PbO2 + 2H2SO4

During charging, sulfuric acid is regenerated in the cell.

The net reaction during charging and discharging can be
represented as follows:
Discharging

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s)+2H2O (l)

Charging

Applications: Each electrode pair develops a potential of 2V. In order

to obtain higher potential a number of electrode pairs are connected
36
in series.
Lead storage batteries are extensively used in automobiles to start
the engine. They are also used for electric supply in telephone
exchangers, railway trains, hospitals, laboratories, etc., and for
emergency power supplies.
Limitations:
• The potential decreases with decrease in concentration of
sulfuric acid.
• Excessive discharge and quick charging shortens the life of the
battery.
• Cell potential and the effectiveness is reduced at low
temperature.

Anode

Seali

wash
separ

Cathode

Fig.4.4 Terminal view

(i) Alkaline storage battery: Nickel-cadmium cell

Nickel cadmium cell consists of a nickel wire gauze electrode grids.

The anode grid consists of a mixture of spongy cadmium with 78%
cadmium hydroxide, 18% iron, 1% nickel and 1% graphite. The
cathode grid contains nickel hydroxide (80%), cobalt hydroxide (2%),
graphite (18%) and traces of barium compound. Graphite increases
the conductivity, the cobalt and barium compounds increases the
efficiency of active material and also the cycle life. 6M KOH is the
electrolyte.

37
 CHAPTER – 5
VOLTAGE REGULATOR

38
 5. Voltage Regulator 7805
5.1 voltage regulator
All voltage sources cannot able to give fixed output due to
fluctuations in the circuit. For getting constant and steady output, the
voltage regulators are implemented. The integrated circuits which are
used for the regulation of voltage are termed as voltage regulator ICs.
Here, we can discuss the IC 7805.
The voltage regulator IC 7805 is actually a member of the 78xx
series of voltage regulator ICs. It is a fixed linear voltage regulator. The
xx present in 78xx represents the value of the fixed output voltage that
the particular IC provides. For 7805 IC, it is +5V DC regulated power
supply. This regulator IC also adds a provision for a heat sink. The
input voltage to this voltage regulator can be up to 35V, and this IC can
give a constant 5V for any value of input less than or equal to 35V
which is the threshold limit.

Fig.5.1 Voltage Regulator

39
PIN 1-INPUT The function of this pin is to give the input voltage. It
should be in the range of 7V to 35V. We apply an unregulated voltage to
this pin for regulation. For 7.2V input, the PIN achieves its maximum
efficiency.
PIN 2-GROUND We connect the ground to this pin. For output and
input, this pin is equally neutral (0V).
PIN 3-OUTPUT This pin is used to take the regulated output. It will
be
Heat Dissipation in IC 7805

5.2 Internal Block Diagram of 7805 Voltage Regulator

The internal block diagram of IC 7805 is represented in the figure

below:

Fig.5.2 Block Diagram

40
 The block diagram comprises of an error amplifier, series pass
element, current generator, reference voltage, current generator,
starting circuit, SOA protection and thermal protection. Here the
operating amplifier performs as an error amplifier. The Zener diode is
used for giving the reference voltage. It is shown below.

Transistor is the series pass element here. It is used for

dissipating additional energy in the form of heat. It controls the output
voltage by controlling the current among the input and output. SOA is
the Safe Operating Area. It is in fact the conditions of voltage and
current in which the equipment is expected to work without any self-
damage. Here for the SOA protection, bipolar transistor is implemented
with a series resistor and an auxiliary transistor. Heat sink is
implemented for thermal protection when there is high supply voltage.
The following formula will give an idea of this calculation.

Fig. 5.3 Internal Circuit diagram

In IC 7805 voltage regulator, lots of energy is exhausted in the

form of heat. The difference in the value of input voltage and output
voltage comes as heat. So, if the difference between input voltage and

41
the output voltage is high, there will be more heat generation. Without a
heat sink, this too much heat will cause malfunction.
We call, the bare minimum tolerable difference between the input
and output voltage to keep the output voltage at the proper level as
dropout voltage. It is better to keep the input voltage 2 to 3V greater
than the output voltage, or a suitable heat sink should be placed to
dissipate excess heat. We have to calculate the heat sink size properly.

5.3 Regulated Power Supply Circuit

The voltage regulator 7805 and the other components are

arranged in the circuit as shown in figure.

Fig.5.4 RPS

The purposes of coupling the components to the IC7805 are

explained below. C1– It is the bypass capacitor, used to bypass very
small extent spikes to the earth. C2 and C3– They are the filter
capacitors. C2 is used to make the slow changes in the input voltage
given to the circuit to the steady form. C3 is used to make the slow
changes in the output voltage from the regulator in the circuit to the
steady form. When the value of these capacitors increases, stabilization
is enlarged. But these capacitors single-handedly are unable to filter the
very minute changes in the input and output voltages.
C4– like C1, it is also a bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small
extent spikes to the ground or earth. This is done without influencing
other components.

42
5.4 Applications of Voltage Regulator 7805 IC

• Current regulator
• Regulated dual supply
• Building circuits for Phone charger, UPS power supply circuits,
portable CD player etc
• Fixed output regulator
• Adjustable output regulator etc.

43
 CHAPTER 6
HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

44
 6. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Solar power plants need to be monitored for optimum power
output. This helps retrieve efficient power output from power plants
while monitoring for faulty solar panels, connections, dust accumulated
on panels lowering output and other such issues affecting solar
performance. So here we propose an automated IOT based solar power
monitoring system that allows for automated solar power monitoring
from anywhere over the internet. We use arduino based system to
monitor a 10Watt solar panel parameters. Our system constantly
monitors the solar panel and transmits the power output to IOT system
over the internet.

6.2 Block Diagram:

Fig.6.1 Project Block Diagram

Here we use IOT Gecko to transmit solar power parameters over

the internet to IOT Gecko server. It now displays these parameters to
the user using an effective GUI and also alerts user when the output
45
falls below specific limits. This makes remotely monitoring of solar
plants very easy and ensure best power output.

6.3 Hardware Specifications :

• Rectifier
• Regulator
• Power Supply
• LCD Display
• Voltage Sensor
• Current Sensor
• Wifi Module
• Arduino Uno
• Solar Panel
6.4 Software Specifications :
• Arduino Compiler
• Programming Language: C

6.5 HARDWARE PRESENTATION

Fig.6.2 Final Project View

46
 CONCLUSION
In this project IoT based system is designed to get an optimum
power output from the solar panels during dust is accumulated on it.
And, a monitoring system is designed for there is any malfunctioning of
the solar panels will be displayed on and we can also get information
about whether the solar or battery connected for the loads. It now
displays these parameters to the user using an effective Graphical User
Interface and alerts user when the output falls below specific limits. A
solar panel is used that keeps monitoring the sunlight. Here different
parameters like voltage, current and temperature are displayed on the
LCD by using IOT technology. Now we are getting only information we
can see it in cloud but in future we can control whole system through
IoT which Distant is a way.

47
 REFERENCES

I. P. Gopi Krishna et. al. “Design and development of bi-directional

smart IoT gateway with interoperability for heterogeneous devices”
International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7 (2.8) (2018)

II. Nordrum, Amy (18 August 2016). "Popular Internet of Things

Forecast of 50 Billion Devices by 2020 Is Outdated". IEEE

III. M. Moon. (2009) Google Studies How Dirt Affects Solar Panel
Efficiency. PC Magazine: Good Clean Tech. Available:
www.goodcleantech.com/2009/08/google_studies_how_dirt_affect. php

IV. M. C. Hottel and B. B. Woertz, "Performance of flat plate solar heat

collectors," ASME Trans., vol. 64, pp. 91-104, 1942.

V. Salim, F. Huraib, and N. Eugenio, " PV power-study of system

options and optimization," in Proceedings of the 8th European PV Solar
Energy Conference, Florence, Italy, 1988.

VI. D. Goossens and E. V. Kerschaever, "Aeolian dust deposition on

photovoltaic solar cells: the effects of wind velocity and airborne dust
concentration on cell performance," Solar Energy, vol. 66, pp. 277-289,
1999.World

VII H. P. Garg, "Effect of dirt on transparent covers in flat-plate solar

energy collectors," Solar Energy, vol. 15, pp. 299-302, 1973

VIII P. Gopi Krishna et. al. “Design and development of smart energy
meter for effective use of electricity in IoT applications” International
Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7 (2.8) (2018) 115-119

IX .P. Gopi Krishna et. al “Design and development of bi-directional IoT

gateway using Zig Bee and Wi-Fi technologies with MQTT protocol”
International Journal of Engineering & Technology, 7 (2.8) (2018)

48