Received: 13 May 2021 | Revised: 23 June 2021
DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22674
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Skipping the skippable: An empirical study with
out‐of‐sample predictive relevance
Saima Munawar1 | Fahim Syed Muhammad2 |
Shoeb Syed Ahmed | Sumair Farooq | Asma Rehman2
3 3
1
Management and Social Sciences
Department, Usman Institute of Technology,
Karachi, Pakistan
2
College of Business Management, Institute
of Business Management, Karachi, Pakistan
3
Hamdard Institute of Management Sciences,
Hamdard University, Karachi, Pakistan
Correspondence
Fahim Syed Muhammad, College of Business
Management, Institute of Business
Management, Main Kornagi Creek Road,
Karachi 75190, Pakistan.
Email: muhammad.fahim@iobm.edu.pk
J Community Psychol. 2021;1–18.
| Accepted: 29 June 2021
Abstract
Purpose: This explanatory research aims to describe the
factors that impact YouTube ad intrusiveness, value, and
avoidance in light of psychological reactance theory.
Research Design: The research has a causal–predictive
design. It describes the relationship between the construct
with an underpinning theory. Data from a sample of 294
respondents were analyzed using partial least square
structural equation modeling to test within sample ex-
planatory power and out‐of‐sample prediction power.
Findings: The results show that informativeness does not
significantly impact intrusiveness and ad avoidance. En-
tertainment has a negative direct and mediated impact on
ad avoidance. Moreover, irritation was found to moderate
the impact of informativeness on intrusiveness negatively.
Importance–Performance Map Analysis revealed that en-
tertainment lacks in performance despite being an essen-
tial factor. Besides explanatory power, the model has a
moderate out‐of‐sample predictive relevance power.
Practical Implications: The relative importance of the en-
tertainment and interactive impact of irritation with in-
formativeness is established for the first time in this study.
The new finding is a significant contribution to theory
while leading to practical implications for the industry.
KEYWORDS
ad avoidance, ad value, entertainment, informativeness,
intrusiveness, irritation, pre‐roll advertisements
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jcop © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC | 1
2 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

1 | INTRODUCTION

Advertising revenue on social media is predicted to grow exponentially to reach $14.99 billion in 2021 (eMarketer,
2019). YouTube is the most dominant video‐watching platform: Social media users watch 90% of videos on YouTube in
the United States of America (eMarketer, 2019). Over two billion internet users visit YouTube each month. Every day
over a billion hours of video is watched on YouTube (YouTube for Press, https://blog.youtube/press/).
YouTube provides different advertising options; masthead (an ad on YouTube home page for 24 h), in‐stream
video ads that can anywhere in the video watched, and right‐hand‐side panel ads, semitransparent overlays
(Pashkevich et al., 2012). In Pakistan, a YouTube masthead is sold for a standard rate of $14,000. Almost 91% of
the slots were booked during the first half of 2018. However, these slots' sales dropped to 71% during the same
period in 2019 (Zaki, 2019). This study focuses on YouTube advertising, as this social media platform has shown
growing popularity among internet users (Dodoo & Wen, 2019). Many medium and large‐sized businesses are now
using YouTube as an important channel for their video advertising (B. Li & Yin, 2021).
Despite this increased advertising expenditure on YouTube video advertising (Rizwan, 2019), the “skip” but-
ton's clicks make them ineffective. An insight into viewers' reactions to these video ads would be of great interest
to marketers. Hence, this study has focused on the factors that make YouTube ads more productive through the
lens of the theory of perceived reactance (TPR). It integrates perceived ad informativeness (PAIN), perceived ad
entertainment (PAEN), perceived ad intrusiveness (PINT), perceived ad value (PAVL), and perceived ad avoidance
(PAAV). Moreover, this study tests perceived ad irritability (PAIR) as a moderator in the model.
Previous studies have mixed results of the relationship between informativeness of an advertisement and ad
intrusiveness (Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Ducoffe, 1995; Goodrich et al., 2015; Obermiller et al., 2005; Okazaki &
Taylor, 2013; Yang et al., 2017). This difference in the impact of an informative ad might be because of another variable
interacting with informativeness. Some informative ads are lengthy or complicated, irritating the viewer (Goodrich et al.,
2015). So, there is a possibility that informative advertisements that are irritating will lead to the feeling of intru-
siveness. Hence, this study aims to contribute to the literature by analyzing the conditional effect of irritation in the
relationship between informativeness and intrusiveness. Although there is evidence in the literature on the relationship
between intrusiveness and attitude towards advertisement (Goodrich et al., 2015; Lee, 2020) and intrusiveness and ad
avoidance (Dodoo & Wen, 2019,; Edwards et al., 2002), this study aims to contribute to the literature by analyzing the
impact of intrusiveness on ad avoidance through attitude towards advertisement.
Several previous studies have used the theory of reasoned action (Goodrich et al., 2015; Ko et al., 2019;
Okazaki & Taylor, 2013) to explain ad avoidance intention and behavior. However, TPR has been empirically tested
quite sparingly. This study will test TPR to explain why YouTube viewers avoid instream advertisements.
In many previous studies, data were collected through students' samples (Cho & Cheon, 2004; Joa et al., 2018;
Kelly et al., 2010; J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017) or the sample size was small (Hegner et al., 2015; Kelly et al., 2010). These
factors can jeopardize the generalizability of the research findings. This study has used a large sample of social
media users who watch videos on YouTube.
This study attempts to describe the social media users' reaction to video advertising on YouTube. Moreover,
this study will analyze the effect of these factors on YouTube ad avoidance. Hence, this study is aimed to (i)
determine the factors that contribute to YouTube ads intrusiveness, (ii) explore whether these factors impact ad
avoidance, and (iii) assess the proposed model's predictive power.

2 | LITERATURE REVIEW

As a general tendency, media users tend to avoid ads (Ducoffe, 1995). However, the ad avoidance tendency is
higher among online platform users (Dehghani et al., 2016). Media users exhibit a wide range of reactions
when exposed to advertising on other media, including YouTube (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017). Advertisement
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 3

avoidance refers to reducing media users' possibility of being exposed to advertisements through all their
actions (Speck & Elliott, 1997). They might avoid the advertisements in different manners: They believe that
ads are not positive (Cho & Cheon, 2004), leave the vicinity where ads are played, hold negative feelings for
the ads (Cho & Cheon, 2004; Kelly et al., 2010), or mechanically close the websites with ads (Good & Hyman,
2020; Kelly et al., 2010).
Cho and Cheon (2004) propose cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements of avoidance as subconstructs or
parallel antecedents of advertisement avoidance through a qualitative study. The findings were quantitatively
supported by later studies (Kelly et al., 2010; Miia & Dong, 2019; Seyedghorban et al., 2016). However, some other
studies took a sequential approach to ad avoidance's cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects (Goodrich et al.,
2015; Joa et al., 2018; J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017).

2.1 | Theoretical background

Psychological reactance theory (PRT) states that people exhibit an unpleasant reaction to occurrences,
people, or messages that hinder their free actions (Brehm, 1993). Thus, they try to regain their
freedom through various actions. Media users' behavior towards the in‐stream ads can be explained by re-
actance theory. The YouTube ads impede freedom of watching the videos freely as the ads create search
hindrance (Speck & Elliott, 1997) or interrupt the flow of viewing the videos (Ha & McCann, 2008; Yang et al.,
2017). When viewers have been previously exposed or repeatedly exposed to an advertisement, they perceive
them to be curtailing their freedom more (Bellman et al., 2010; Wilbur, 2016) as it leads to ad clutter (Rejón‐
Guardia & Martínez‐López, 2014). This study aims to explain the avoidance of YouTube advertisements with
the lens of TPR.

2.2 | The conceptualization of model development

This study's conceptual model (see Figure 1) is based on PRT, which establishes the link between YouTube viewers'
beliefs about ads and their feeling of being intruded, affecting the value a person places in the ads that lead to their
intentions. The model assesses the impact of viewers' reaction to the preroll YouTube ads on ad avoidance
mediated by PAVL and PINT.

FIGURE 1 Conceptual framework: The conceptual framework summarizes the hypothesized relationships
4 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

2.2.1 | PAIN

YouTube viewers perceive ads as informative when they feel that ads provide them timely, relevant, and accurate
information (J. U. Kim et al., 2010; Ducoffe, 1995). People place a lower level of value on ads when skeptical about
the ads' information (Baek & Morim, 2012; Ferreira & Barbosa, 2017; Obermiller et al., 2005). Online ads that
provide information hold high value (Taylor, 2011). Irrelevant social media ads are not appreciated and avoided by
social media users (Kelly et al., 2010). YouTube (Antoniadis et al., 2019; Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Dehghani
et al., 2016; Yang et al., 2017) and other social media (Lee & Hong, 2016; Ferreira & Barbosa, 2017) advertisements
that are informative hold high value for viewers. However, these studies do not establish a link between in-
formativeness and intrusiveness, which Goodrich et al. (2015) and Edwards et al. (2002) accomplished. The dis-
cussion leads to the first hypothesis of this study.
H1A: Perceived ad informativeness has a negative impact on ad intrusiveness.
H1B: Perceived ad informativeness has a positive impact on perceived ad value.
H1C: Perceived ad informativeness has a negative impact on perceived ad avoidance.

2.2.2 | PAEN

YouTube viewers feel the ads are entertaining when they perceive the ads to be exciting, enjoyable, and pleasing
(Ducoffe, 1995; J. U. Kim et al., 2010). Media users experience enjoyment when they come across compelling and
gratifying (Ksiazek et al., 2016), emotional appeal (Campbell et al., 2017; Obermiller et al., 2005), and humor
(Goodrich et al., 2015) of an ad content results in enjoyment. It reduces ad avoidance among media users. Internet
users and YouTube users associate higher value with the entertaining advertisement content (Antoniadis et al.,
2019; Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Dehghani et al., 2016; Joa et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2017) that is memorable
and interesting (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2011), Goodrich et al. (2015) links the element of entertainment of the ads
with the feeling of intrusiveness: The entertaining ads come across as less intrusive by the media users. Viewers
usually do not skip an ad when they find it interesting (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017; Pashkevich et al., 2012). On the basis
of these findings, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2A: Perceived ad entertainment has a negative impact on ad intrusiveness.
H2B: Perceived ad entertainment has a positive impact on perceived ad value.
H2C: Perceived ad entertainment has a negative impact on perceived ad avoidance.

2.2.3 | PINT

Intrusiveness is defined as “the degree to which advertisements in a media vehicle interrupt the flow of an editorial
unit” (H. Li et al., 2002, p. 77). For this study, intrusiveness is termed PINT. In general, Internet users have a specific
goal when using this media (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017). Being goal‐orientated, internet users feel more disrupted by ads
(Seyedghorban et al., 2016) compared to TV viewers (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017). The reason for which a person
accesses an internet‐based platform influences the value that the user places in the advertisement. While
searching online, internet users avoid ads, creating search hindrance (Speck & Elliott, 1997). They avoid ads in
situations of time urgency (Belanche et al., 2017). Media users avoid irrelevant advertisements (Kelly et al., 2010).
They avoid ads when they feel that advertisements hinder their goal achievement (Goodrich et al., 2015;
Seyedghorban et al., 2016). Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3A: Perceived ad intrusiveness has a negative impact on perceived ad value.
H3B: Perceived ad intrusiveness has a positive impact on perceived ad avoidance.
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 5

2.2.4 | PAVL

PAVL refers to the extent to which media users feel that advertising is beneficial for them, or, in other words,
advertisements' utility for consumers (Ducoffe, 1995). Media users who place low value on ads
tend to avoid ads (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017; Yang et al., 2017). Several previous studies have supported the sequential link
between cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses towards advertisements. (Goodrich et al., 2015; Joa et al., 2018;
J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017). In this study, cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses are represented by PINT, PAVL, and
PAAV, respectively. Hence, this study proposes the following hypothesis:
H4: Perceived ad value has a negative impact on ad avoidance.

2.2.5 | Mediation effects

On the basis of the relationship established in previous studies between PAIN and PINT (Edwards et al., 2002;
Goodrich et al., 2015), PAEN and PINT (Edwards et al., 2002; Ying et al., 2009), PINT and PAVL (Edwards et al.,
2002; Goodrich et al., 2015), and PVAL and PAAV (J. K. Kim & Seo, 2017; Yang et al., 2017), following
hypothesis are proposed:
H5A: Ad informativeness positively impacts ad avoidance serially mediated by ad intrusiveness and ad value.
H5B: Ad entertainment positively impacts ad avoidance serially mediated by ad intrusiveness and ad value.
H5C: Ad informativeness has a positive impact on ad avoidance mediated by ad value.
H5D: Ad entertainment has a positive impact on ad avoidance mediated by ad value.

2.2.6 | Moderating effect of ad irritation

People feel that YouTube ads are irritating if they are perceived as excessive, annoying, deceptive, or illogical (Ducoffe,
1995; Obermiller et al., 2005). The value of YouTube and internet ads is tarnished if they are perceived as irritating
(Antoniadis et al., 2019; Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Dehghani & Tumer, 2015; Yang et al., 2017). Media users feel ad
clutter when exposed to an excessive number of advertisements; this results in irritation, leading to ad avoidance
(Baek & Morimoto, 2012; Ducoffe, 1995; Ha & McCann, 2008). Some previous studies have recognized irritation
caused by intrusion (Edwards et al., 2002; Ko et al., 2019; H. Li et al., 2002; Morimoto & Macias, 2009). However, it has
been noted in the previous studies that there is a variation in the effect size of informativeness on intrusiveness and ad
avoidance (Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Ducoffe, 1995; Goodrich et al., 2015; Obermiller et al., 2005; Okazaki &
Taylor, 2013; Yang et al., 2017). The difference in informativeness's impact can be explained by the interaction of
irritation with the ads' informativeness. We propose the following hypothesis:
H6A: Irritation positively moderates the impact of informativeness on intrusiveness.
H6B: Irritation negatively moderates the impact of informativeness on perceived ad value mediated by
intrusiveness.
H6C: Irritation positively moderates the impact of informativeness on perceived ad avoidance mediated
intrusiveness.

3 | M ET H O D O L OGY

The methodology of a study is thoughtfully planned to ensure rigor. The study followed the positivism assumptions
with a quantitative, cross‐sectional study design (Creswell et al., 2007). Partial Least Squares–Structural Equation
Modeling (PLS‐SEM) was selected as the statistical analysis technique because the technique is explanatory cum
6 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

predictive. Model complexity and nonnormal distribution of data led to the use of PLS‐SEM. The conceptual model
intends to test prediction power (Hair et al., 2016). Smart PLS version 3.3 was used to analyze the data for
attaining research objectives.
As of July 1, 2019, the Karachi population was 11,624,219 (Pakistan Population (2021) ‐ Worldometer, n.d.)
The minimum required sample size should be at least 15 cases per measured variable or predictor, between 100
and 200, eight times the number of variables in the model plus 50, a minimum of five observations per parameter
estimate is required and use of nine times of the variables used in the model (Siddiqui et al., 2015). Data were
obtained through Google Forms shared on closed groups on Facebook to get a large sample size for generalizable
results (Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). The Common Method Bias (CMB) was controlled by incorporating variation in
the questionnaire design. It was possible by bringing in psychological separation in the questionnaire (Jordan &
Troth, 2020). The minimum sample size for this study was 200. Overall, 328 responses were received, of which 294
were retained after review and screening.
All constructs in this study were based on previous studies, and their relationship was hypothesized based
on PRT. For this descriptive research, the target population is the internet and social media site users
(Sekaran & Bougie, 2016). Data was collected regarding their reactions to YouTube advertisements and their
impact on their attitude towards the ads. Three items each for PAIN, PAEN, and PAVL were adopted from
Ducoffe (1995). Four items of PINT were adopted from Cho and Cheon (2004), and five items of PAAV were
based on an earlier study by Baek and Morimoto (2012). All constructs were measured on a 5‐point Likert and
Likert‐type scales.
The sampling frame is unknown, so a nonprobability, purposive sampling design was used for the study. As
respondents should meet the criteria to be selected in the sample, two screening questions are included at the
beginning of the questionnaire.

3.1 | Common method bias

CMB is the first step of data analysis as the data was collected through a single administration questionnaire
(Jordan & Troth, 2020). Harman's single‐factor analysis showed that common method variance did not exist as the
highest‐ranked factor explained only 27.96% of variation (Podsakoff et al., 2003). After that, CMB was assessed
and ruled out as the factor level VIF (variance inflation factor) (see Table 1) of the latent variables was also less
than 3.3 (Kock, 2015).

4 | RESULTS

4.1 | Data screening

As the first step of data screening, Mardia's multivariate skewness and kurtosis test established that the data is skewed
and kurtotik; hence, lacking normality (see Figure A4). Therefore, the use of nonparametric statistical methods is
justified (Hair et al., 2016). Next, the data were assessed for multivariate outliers using the Mahalanobis distance test
(see Table A10) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012). Cases 49, 109, and 200 were identified as outliers and removed.

4.2 | Demographic profile of respondents

The sample comprises 176 males (59.9%) and mainly young people aged 16–30 years (85%). A vast majority of the
respondents reported having university‐level education. More or less, 37% of the respondents are full‐time, part‐
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 7

TABLE 1 Full collinearity test

Construct PAEN PAIN PAAV PINT PAVL PAIR

VIF 1.626 1.400 1.533 1.466 1.521 1.646

Note: Summary of the VIF of all the variables regressed on a random variable.
Abbreviations: PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad entertainment; PAIN, perceived ad informativeness;
PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT, perceived ad intrusiveness; VIF, variance inflation factor.

TABLE 2 Frequency of using YouTube

Frequency of watching YouTube videos

Several times Once 4–5 Once or twice Very
Age (years) Gender a day every day days/week a week rarely Grand Total

16–20 Female 12 5 3 ‐ 1 21

Male 9 8 ‐ ‐ ‐ 17

21–30 Female 33 17 2 5 ‐ 57

Male 105 32 9 5 5 156

31–40 Female 14 9 4 1 ‐ 28

Male 2 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 02

41–50 Female 6 4 ‐ 1 ‐ 11

Male ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐

51–60 Female ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐

Male 2 ‐ 1 ‐ ‐ 03

Over 60 Female ‐ 1 ‐ ‐ ‐ 01

Male ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐

Total 183 76 19 12 6 296

Note: Respondents' reported frequency of usage of YouTube.

time, and self‐employed. Almost every respondent reported assessing the internet and YouTube every day. Around
three‐fourths of the respondents watch YouTube for more than 1 h every day.
A cross‐tabulation of age, gender, and YouTube watching frequency revealed some exciting details (see
Table 2). The younger age group shows the tendency to watch YouTube videos more frequently than the older
respondents. Only a handful of respondents aged 31–50 years reported watching YouTube videos a few times a
week or rarely.

4.3 | Measurement model

PLS‐SEM is used for statistical analysis. It effectively analyzes complex models with mediation and moderation in
Marketing and Management Sciences research studies (Henseler & Chin, 2010). PLS‐SEM analysis follows a two‐
stage data analysis procedure: Measurement model assessment and structural model assessment (Hair
et al., 2016).
Table 3 summarizes the measurement model assessment that comprises an analysis of the items' and
constructs' reliability and validity (Hair et al., 2016). Latent variables' reliability was established through
8 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

TABLE 3 Reliability and convergent validity

Construct Items Outer Loading CR AVE

Perceived ad informativeness (PAIN) PAIN 1 0.858 0.822 0.608

PAIN 2 0.722

PAIN 3 0.752

Perceived ad entertainment (PAEN) PAEN 1 0.885 0.927 0.808

PAEN 2 0.928

PAEN 3 0.884

Perceived ad irritation (PAIR), PAIR 1 0.852 0.876 0.701

PAIR 2 0.817

PAIR 3 0.842

Perceived ad intrusiveness (PINT) PINT 2 0.898 0.921 0.795

PINT 3 0.876

PINT 4 0.900

Perceived ad value (PAVL) PAVL 1 0.866 0.874 0.698

PAVL 2 0.877

PAVL 3 0.759

Perceived ad avoidance (PAAV) PAAV 2 0.831 0.86 0.673

PAAV 3 0.851

PAAV 4 0.777

Note: Factor loading of all the items representing their item reliability, composite reliability, and convergent validity of the
constructs.
Abbreviations: AVE, average variance extracted; CR, composite reliability.

composite reliability (CR) measure with the criterion value 0.7 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012). Moreover, the
manifest variables' reliability was affirmed as all outer loadings were above the criterion value of 0.7 (Hair
et al., 2016). The convergent validity of constructs was also established as Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
was above 0.5 (Hair et al., 2016; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012).
The discriminant validity of all latent variables was established (see Table 4) as the AVE's square root of each
given variable is greater than their correlation with other variables (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). An emerging and
more reliable criterion of discriminant validity was also utilized. The heterotrait–monotrait ratio was less than 0.90
for each construct (Henseler et al., 2015). The measurement model assessment establishes that all the items and
constructs utilized in this study are reliable and valid.

4.4 | Structural model

The structural model assessment was the next step of the assessment (see Figure 2). As a preliminary step,
predictive competency and model fit was assessed through R2 and Q2 values. Table 5 shows that R2 of
endogenous variables is .35 for PINT, .312 for PAVL, and .316 for PAAV. These values suggest that the model
has enough explanatory power for the variations in the dependent variables as the value of R2 above .20 (Hair
et al., 2016)
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 9

TABLE 4 Discriminant validity of latent variables

PAAV PAEN PINT PAIN PAIR PAVL

PAAV 0.82 0.548 0.483 0.257 0.62 0.474

PAEN −0.451 0.899 0.31 0.569 0.469 0.569

PINT 0.389 −0.273 0.891 0.142 0.281 0.681

PAIN −0.189 0.436 −0.082 0.779 0.205 0.632

PAIR 0.475 −0.386 0.574 −0.129 0.837 0.331

PAVL −0.365 0.471 −0.105 0.476 −0.245 0.836

Note: Values in the diagonal in bold are the square root of average variance extracted, whereas values below the diagonal
line are correlations and above the diagonal line are the heterotrait–monotrait ratio.
Abbreviations: PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad entertainment; PAIN, perceived ad informativeness;
PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT, perceived ad intrusiveness.

F I G U R E 2 Partial least squares—structural model. The figure shows the structural model with path coefficients
and coefficient of determination of endogenous variables. PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad
entertainment; PAIN, perceived ad informativeness; PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT,
perceived ad intrusiveness

Besides, the blindfolding technique was used to assess the model's predictive relevance (Akter et al., 2011).
The model has predictive power as cross‐validated redundancy Q2 for all dependent variables is more than 0.2
(Hair et al., 2016).
Moreover, the goodness‐of‐fit model was analyzed through the standard root mean square, which was nearly
0.05, indicating a good model fit (Hooper et al., 2008) (see Table 5). The Goodness of Fit index (GoF) was calculated
as the geometric mean of arithmetic mean of R2 and arithmetic mean of AVE of all dependent variables (Akter
et al., 2011). The R2 value of endogenous variables was .485, which is more than .26, the criterion value (Akter
et al., 2011).
10 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

TABLE 5 Goodness of fit (GoF)

R2 Q² AVE GoF SRMR

PAAV .316 0.203 0.673 0.485 0.046

PINT .35 0.26 0.795

PAVL .312 0.209 0.698

Average .326 0.722

Note: Explanatory power and predictive power of endogenous variables and the model's goodness of fit.
Abbreviations: AVE, average variance extracted; PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT,
perceived ad intrusiveness; SRMR, standardized root mean residual.

4.4.1 | Direct effects

The inner model was analyzed through bootstrapping with 5000 subsamples to test the hypotheses.
Table 6 summarizes the hypothesized direct effect path coefficients, T values, effect size, and decision.
The findings do not support H1A (β = .013, p > .05, and ƒ2 = 0.412), which proposes that the perceived in-
formativeness of an ad has a negative impact on perceived ad intrusiveness. Similarly, the H1C, that in-
formativeness has a negative impact on ad avoidance, is also not supported (β = .074, p > .05, and ƒ2 = 0.112).
However, H1B is supported by the analysis results (β = .334, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.131). Informativeness only has
a positive impact on PAVL.
Entertainment was hypothesized to have a negative impact on ad intrusiveness which was not supported by
the analysis (β = −0.088, p > .05, and ƒ2 = 0.008). However, the other two hypotheses were supported: entertain-
ment has a positive impact on ad value (β = .329, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.118) and negative impact on ad avoidance
(β = − 0.296, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.086).
The ad intrusiveness is hypothesized to have a negative impact on the ad value. This hypothesis is not
supported by the results (β = .012, p > .05, and ƒ2 = 0.000). Contrastingly, the hypothesis that ad intrusiveness
positively impacts ad avoidance (β = −0.296, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.118). The last direct effect hypothesis, that per-
ceiver ad value has a negative impact on the ad avoidance, is supported (β = −0.23, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.053)
The effect size f2 represents the portion of R2 contributed by the exogenous variable; values 0.02 are con-
sidered small, 0.15 as a medium, and .35 as large effect size (Hair et al., 2016). All supported hypotheses have a
small yet statistically significant effect size in this model.

4.4.2 | Mediation effects

The proposed model has two simple mediation paths and two serial mediation paths (see Table 7). Both serial
mediations indirect effects hypotheses, entertainment to have a negative impact on ad avoidance (β = .000 and
p > .05) and informativeness to have a negative impact on ad avoidance serially mediated by intrusiveness and
ad value (β = .000 and p > .05), were not supported by the results. On the contrary, the simple mediations,
entertainment to have a negative impact on ad avoidance mediated by ad value (β = .013 and p < .05) and
informativeness to have a negative impact on the ad avoidance mediated by ad value (β = .013 and p < .05)
were supported by the analysis. As the direct effect of entertainment on ad avoidance is statistically sig-
nificant, the ad value partially mediates the negative impact on ad avoidance. However, the direct effect of
informativeness on ad avoidance is statistically insignificant, so the ad value is fully mediating its negative
impact on ad avoidance.
 MUNAWAR
ET AL.

TABLE 6 Direct effects

95% confidence interval

β Coefficient Standard Error T Statistics Lower Limit Upper limit p Values Effect size p Values Decision

H1A: PAIN→PINT .013 0.059 0.221 −0.091 0.106 .412 0.000 .487 Not Supported

H1B: PAIN→PAVL .334 0.054 6.168 0.237 0.416 .000 0.131 .004 Supported

H1C: PAIN→PAAV .074 0.06 1.218 −0.018 0.171 .112 0.006 .290 Not supported

H2A: PAEN→PINT −.088 0.059 1.475 −0.184 0.007 .07 0.008 .248 Not supported

H2B: PAEN→PAVL .329 0.057 5.741 0.225 0.421 .000 0.118 .005 Supported

H2C: PAEN→PAAV −.296 0.062 4.803 −0.394 −0.194 .000 0.086 .014 Supported

H3A: PINT→PAVL .012 0.052 0.226 −0.076 0.1 .411 0.000 .487 Not Supported

H3B: PINT→PAAV .289 0.062 4.659 0.182 0.391 .000 0.113 .018 Supported

H4A: PAVL→PAAV −.23 0.063 3.646 −0.335 −0.13 .000 0.053 .041 Supported

Note: Direct relationship between the independent variables with other variables in the model.
Abbreviations: PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad entertainment; PAIN, perceived ad informativeness; PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT,
perceived ad intrusiveness.
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11
12 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

TABLE 7 Mediating effects

95% CI
β SE T Statistics p Values LL UL Decision

H5A: PAEN→PAVL→PAAV −.076 0.024 3.099 .001 −0.122 −0.042 Supported

H5B: PAEN→PINT→PAVL→PAAV .000 0.001 0.172 .432 −0.001 0.003 Not Supported

H5C: PAIN→PAVL→PAAV −.077 0.027 2.869 .002 −0.126 −0.039 Supported

H5D: PAIN→PINT→PAVL→PAAV .000 0.001 0.045 .482 −0.002 0.001 Not Supported

Note: PAIN and PAEN on PAAV with simple mediation of PAVL and serial mediation of PINT and PAVL.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; LL, lower limit; PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad entertainment;
PAIN, perceived ad informativeness; PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT, perceived ad
intrusiveness; UL, upper limit.

TABLE 8 Moderating effect

95% CI
β SE t Statistics LL UL p Values Decision

H6A: PAIN × PAIR→PINT −.119 0.055 2.183 −0.216 −0.035 .015 Supported

H6B: PAIN × PAIR→PINT→PAVL −.001 0.007 0.203 −0.013 0.009 .42 Not supported

H6C: PAIN × PAIR→PINT→PAAV −.034 0.019 1.839 −0.073 −0.01 .033 Supported

Note: Impact of PAIN on PINT positively moderated by PAIR.

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; LL, lower limit; PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAEN, perceived ad entertainment;
PAIN, perceived ad informativeness; PAIR, perceived ad irritation; PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT, perceived ad
intrusiveness; UL, upper limit.

4.4.3 | Moderation effect

Previous studies have indicated that media users feel intruded on when they feel irritated by an advertisement (Ko
et al., 2019). It is suggested by the previous studies to assess the moderating effect of irritation on the other
factors. The results (see Table 8) support the hypotheses that irritation negatively moderates the impact of
informativeness on perceived intrusiveness (β = −0.119 and p < .05), and that irritation negatively moderates the
impact of informativeness on perceived avoidance mediated by the intrusiveness (β = −0.034 and p < .05).

4.5 | Importance–Performance map analysis (IPMA)

The basic PLS‐SEM analysis evaluates the importance of the exogenous variables in terms of their path coefficients.
Further to this, IPMA assesses the importance of a variable along with the performance of that variable (see
Figure 3). IPMA aims to identify the importance of the (unstandardized) total effect of independent variables in
predicting a dependent variable (Hair et al., 2016). The effect on the x‐axis represents an exogenous variable's
importance. In contrast, the same variable's performance is reflected by the average scores (range lowest 0 to
highest 100) (Hair et al., 2016). The analysis reveals that although PAEN is the most crucial factor affecting PAAV,
its performance is relatively low. However, PINT is the second most crucial regressor with the highest performance
at 80. PAEN, PINT, PAVL, PAIR, and PAIN can be arranged in the descending order of importance in terms of
importance. PINT is on the top in performance, followed by PAIR, PAIN, PAVL, and PAEN.
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 13

F I G U R E 3 Importance–performance map analysis of perceived ad avoidance showing the

importance–performance analysis of all exogenous variables concerning PAAV. PAAV, perceived ad avoidance;
PAEN, perceived ad entertainment; PAIN, perceived ad informativeness; PAIR, perceived ad irritation;
PAVL, perceived ad value; PINT, perceived ad intrusiveness

4.6 | Predictive model assessment

The model was tested for predictive relevance. Q2predict of the PLS‐SEM was greater than zero for all dependent
variables (see Table 9). The RMSE (the prediction error statistic) of most of the PLS‐SEM indicators was less than
the linear model. Hence, the model's moderate predictive power level was established (Shmueli et al., 2019).

5 | DI SCUSSION

The impact of informativeness and entertainment was not statistically significant in this study's ad intrusiveness,
unlike a previous study by Goodrich et al. (2015). The study established that informative, F (1, 1467) = 83.68,
p < .001, and entertaining, F(1, 1467) = 28.20, p < .001, advertisements are not perceived as intrusive. Another
study conducted by Edwards et al. (2002) also establish a statistically negative impact of informativeness and
entertainment on ad intrusiveness. However, both studies involved controlled experiments in the United States of
America. The difference in findings is significant as the current study's context and research design are different.
However, a recent study from Australia found the impact of informativeness and entertainment on intrusiveness
insignificant (Noguti & Waller, 2020).
Informativeness (β = .334. p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.131) and entertainment (β = .329, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.118) were
found to have a statistically significant impact on the ad value. Such a relationship is the only link of informa-
tiveness with any other variable in the model that has been established in this study. Several previous studies have
similar relationship values with informativeness and entertainment (Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Dehghani et al.,
2016; Ducoffe, 1995). In addition to ad value, entertainment was also found to have a statistically significant
negative impact on ad avoidance (β = −0.296, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.086). These results align with previous studies
conducted in a different context (Chungviwatanant et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2017). This study is the first to perform
IPMA to reveal that entertainment is the most important factor influencing ad avoidance. However, many of the
respondents did not find the ads entertaining. It scored quite low on the performance scale in the analysis.
Although intrusiveness does not have a statistically significant impact on informativeness and entertainment,
however, the impact of intrusiveness on ad avoidance is found significant (β = −0.296, p < .001, and ƒ2 = 0.118) like
two previous studies (Dodoo & Wen, 2019; Edwards et al., 2002). However, the findings show that intrusiveness
14 | MUNAWAR ET AL.

TABLE 9 Predictive model assessment

PLS LM
RMSE Q²predict RMSE Q²predict

PAAV3 0.935 0.147 0.95 0.12

PAAV4 0.874 0.164 0.872 0.167

PAAV2 0.917 0.21 0.922 0.202

PAVL3 0.763 0.133 0.752 0.158

PAVL2 1.01 0.221 1.015 0.212

PAVL1 0.99 0.257 0.98 0.272

PINT2 1.025 0.255 1.021 0.26

PINT3 1.097 0.25 1.109 0.233

PINT4 0.976 0.261 0.981 0.253

Note: RMSE of the endogenous item of the PLS sample model and the linear model.
Abbreviations: LM, linear model; PLS, partial least squares; PAAV, perceived ad avoidance; PAVL, perceived ad value;
PINT, perceived ad intrusiveness; RMSE, root mean square error.

does not have a statistically significant relationship with ad value, unlike the previous findings (Goodrich et al.,
2015; Wang et al., 2009). Several previous studies have analyzed the impact of intrusiveness on ad value and ad
avoidance in isolation. However, the ad value mediation with intrusiveness on ad avoidance is rarely observed. This
study has analyzed and refuted this mediation. The traditional relationship between ad value and avoidance
prevailed in this study—respondents tend to avoid ads when they find the ads valueless (Cho & Cheon, 2004; J. K.
Kim & Seo, 2017; Yang et al., 2017). Overall, some of the findings agree with the previous similar studies.
Nevertheless, many of the findings are unique in this study.

6 | C O N CL U S I O N

Entertaining YouTube advertisements are perceived as valuable and not avoided. Informative advertainments are
believed to be valuable, which, however, does not affect avoidance. Media viewers avoid the advertisements less if an
ad is perceived as informative but irritating; it will be felt as intruding and avoided. Hence, TPR has been supported by
the findings. When respondents believe advertisements to be valuable, they tend to skip the advertisements less.
This study has made some unique contributions to the literature. The study has expanded the literature on
advertising in general. At the same time, the findings have contributed to the knowledge related to YouTube
advertising. The serial mediation of intrusiveness and ad value between ad attributes (informativeness and en-
joyment) and ad avoidance has not been supported by the data. However, this study has made a new contribution
on the conditional effect of irritation of video ads on the relationship between informativeness of advertisement
and its avoidance through intrusiveness. Unlike many previous studies, data were collected through social media
closed groups members rather than students.
In terms of managerial implications, another significant contribution is made through the IPMA on advertising
avoidance factors, performed for the first time with an underlying TPR. The intrusiveness of advertisements was
found to have the strongest effect on ad avoidance. The decision‐makers should ensure that YouTube adver-
tisements should be entertaining as this advertisement attribute makes it less avoidable. Moreover, the decision‐
makers should ensure that the advertisements are not irritating in any sense as an irritating advertisement; despite
being informative, it felt like an intrusion.
MUNAWAR ET AL. | 15

7 | L I M I TA T I ON S A N D F U R T H ER RE S E A R C H D I R E C TIO N S

Besides its strengths, this study has certain limitations. First, although the distribution of age in the sample was
reflective of distribution in the target population, future research can use a sample of equal age distribution to
study moderation of age with the phenomenon of ad avoidance. Future research can include the moderation of
the content type in which these ads are placed. Some of the findings in this study were quite different from the
previous studies. It is suggested that the comparative study of varying contexts can reveal context‐specific
differences. Interaction of irritation with informativeness has come out as a significant predictor in this study.
Further research into factors leading to irritation and its interaction with other reactions can reveal mean-
ingful findings.

PEER REVIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/jcop.22674

DATA AV AILA BILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data
are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

ORCID
Saima Munawar https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8752-3266
Fahim Syed Muhammad https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8147-669X

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How to cite this article: Munawar, S., Syed Muhammad, F., Syed Ahmed, S., Farooq, S., & Rehman, A. (2021).
Skipping the skippable: An empirical study with out‐of‐sample predictive relevance. Journal of Community
Psychology, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22674

AP PENDI X A
Mardia's Test (Figure A4)

F I G U R E A4 Mardia's multivariate skewness and kurtosis. The above table reflects the non‐normal multivariate
distribution estimated employing Mardia's test of normality

Mahalanobis Test (Table A10)

T A B L E A10 Mahalanobis distance test for outliers

Case ID Mahalanobis distance p Value Outlier coding Rank

Perceived intrusiveness

49 18.61973 .00033 1 1

Perceived value

200.00 18.85523 .00084 2 1

49.00 18.70444 .00090 1 2

109.00 18.57194 .00095 3 3

Perceived ad avoidance

109 22.57812 .00041 3 1

Note: The above table indicates the detection of 03 outliers as a result of Mahalanobis Distance Test.