Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41

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Journal of Geodynamics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jog

Rock magnetic and paleomagnetic investigations of Sylhet traps, Shillong T

Plateau, NE India
⁎
M.R. Kapawar, Venkateshwarlu M.
CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, 500007, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Magnetic signals in basalts from the Sylhet traps (ST), Shillong Plateau, India is investigated using rock mag-
Rock magnetism netism as a proxy to explain the potentiality of the ST basalts as an indicator of magnetic mineralogy. A pa-
AMS leomagnetic study was carried out in order to unravel the Paleopole. In detail, rock magnetic and Anisotropy of
Paleomagnetism Magnetic susceptibility (AMS) results have been reported for the first time on the ST basalts. A total of 38
ST basalts
oriented block samples were collected from 8 sites along Cherrapunji-Shella bazaar road section, Meghalaya,
Shillong Plateau
India. Samples were subjected to rock magnetic measurements such as magnetic susceptibility (K), Isothermal
Remanent Magnetization (IRM), hysteresis loops, backfield (coercivity remanence) and k-T (Susceptibility vs.
Temperature) analysis to identify the magnetic properties of basalts. Advanced Variable Field Translation
Balance (AVFTB) was used for some rock magnetic studies. A few samples were also subjected to Anisotropy of
Magnetic susceptibility (AMS) study to understand the petrofabric orientations and shape anisotropy in the ST
basalts. The Remanence ratio (Mrs/Ms) and the Coercivity ratio (Bcr/Bc) ranging from 0.105 to 0.333 and from
1.25 to 1.87 respectively indicate sizes of magnetic grains are mainly in the range of Pseudo Single Domain
(PSD) limits with minority of them in the ranges of Single Domain (SD) limits. The results of k-T study in
combination with other rock magnetic results shows that magnetite (Fe3O4) [Curie Temperature = 565-590 °C]
as the dominant magnetic carrier with a subordinate content of titanomagnetite Fe2+(Fe3+Ti)2O4 [Curie
Temperature = 380–450 °C]. From the AMS study, parameters like lineation, foliation are calculated, and results
define all the three shape anisotropies present in the ST basalts. The ST basalts display paleomagnetic directions
with mean declination = 255°, mean inclination = -57° (α95 = 3.44°; k = 16.74). The pole position of the ST at
117 Ma is -26.79 °N, 330.75 °E (dp = 3.6; dm = 5) with a paleolatitude 37.6 °S. This infers that the ST is a later
volcanic event than Rajmahal traps (RT) which is considered contemporary to the ST.

1. Introduction
After breaking-up from Gondwana supercontinent the Indian plate
has started its northward drift which is affirmed by the numerous pa-
leomagnetic studies carried out on the Deccan Traps (Kono, 1972;
Radhakrishnamurthy, 1990; Vandamme, 1991), Rajmahal Traps
(McDougall, 1970; Sherwood, 1996; Poornachandra Rao, 1996a,
1996b) and Sylhet Traps (Athavale, 1963; Poornachandra Rao, 1993).
The Rajmahal-Bengal-Sylhet igneous region form a part of Large Ig-
neous Province (LIP) which experienced a mantle plume activity at-
tributed to the Kerguelen hotspot at around 118 Ma (Kent et al., 2002).
The present study is the first attempt to carry out detailed rock mag-
netic and AMS studies of the ST basalts to evaluate magnetic miner-
alogy, their domain states, and the shape anisotropy parameters. AMS
study was focused to evaluate the lava flow trends and possible fissure
location. In regard to paleomagnetic study, the Sylhet Traps lava flows
are least studied (Athavale, 1963; Poornachandra Rao, 1993) which
could not provide enough information due to the paucity of reliable
paleomagnetic data. No clear expression has been reported by them
whether the secondary component was completely removed to achieve
the primary magnetization component. Also no comments about, which
statistical analysis method was followed to get primary ChRM direc-
tions. Eventually no firm statement was made about Indian sub-
continent paleogeographic position at around 117 Ma ago from these
studies. In an effort to contribute to global Gondwana paleomagnetic
dataset we have attempted the paleomagnetic study of Sylhet Traps
basalts using high sensitive instruments. Here we are reporting the
paleopole for India during the Early Cretaceous period (˜117 Ma) from
Sylhet Traps, Shillong Plateau, India.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mamila_v@rediffmail.com (V. M.).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2019.05.003
Received 2 November 2018; Received in revised form 5 April 2019; Accepted 5 May 2019
Available online 06 May 2019
0264-3707/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.R. Kapawar and V. M.
2. Geology and sampling
The Sylhet lavas were first documented by Palmer (1923) and
subsequently their geological setting, petrochemistry and tectonic his-
tory was reported by Talukdar (1967), Talukdar and Murthy (1971).
The mafic volcanic rocks of the Shillong Plateau are represented by the
Sylhet Traps (Baksi, 1995) and exposed ˜450 km east of the Rajmahal
Traps.
The Sylhet Traps (ST) constitutes an integral part in Shillong Plateau
and is a typical plateau basalt volcanism and spread over an area of
˜700 Km2 located at the southern extremity of state of Meghalaya, NE
India. The extent of the ST is small, and is exposed in a narrow strip of
˜80 km long and 5-6 km wide E-W belt, at the southern margin of the
Shillong Plateau. The ST is sandwiched between Dawki fault from the
south and Raibah fault or Brahmaputra fault from the north, and is
overlain by Cretaceous Sandstones (Athavale, 1963) in Meghalaya. The
effusion through linear fissures is characteristic of the ST flood basalts
(Talukdar and Murthy, 1971) as neither feeder dikes nor volcanic vents
have been reported within the ST formation. On the basis of plate re-
constructions as well as geochronological and geochemical data, the
early episode of Kerguelen volcanism is believed to be related to a flood
basalt province in eastern India comprising Rajmahal- Bengal- Sylhet
traps of 116 ± 3.5 Ma (e.g. Pantulu et al., 1992; Baksi, 1995; Basu
et al., 2001; Ghatak and Basu, 2006). Twenty continuous lava flows and
three tuff beds with a total thickness of ˜259 m are reported by (Ray,
2005), and also quoted that, the Sylhet Traps are contemporaneous
with the Kerguelen plume generated Rajmahal and Bengal Traps evi-
denced from 40Ar-39Ar geochronology with age 116.0 ± 3.5 Ma. The
ST is situated ˜450 km east of RT and the portion between the RT and ST
has been overlain by alluvium deposited by Brahmaputra and Ganga
Rivers. The ST overlies the eroded Precambrian basement complex, and
is in turn overlain by Cretaceous sandstone of Shillong Plateau
(Talukdar and Murthy, 1971). The ST of Shillong Plateau is exposed to
the north of Dawki fault and to the south of Raibah fault and these
boundaries would have been the controlling factor for the effusion of
the ST basalts (Talukdar and Murthy, 1971).
The exposures exhibit dark grey to faint black appearance and fine-
grained texture with mostly north-easterly dips. Structures like 'flow
breccia', 'layering' and 'flow folds’ (Talukdar and Murthy, 1971),
rhyolites with lense shaped amygdals associated with volcanic ash and
tuff (Talukdar, 1967) were reported. Field observations during sample
collection suggests the presence of varieties of basalts from compact
basalts, partly jointed/ fractured basalts to amygdaloidal basalts sug-
gests about the degree of crystallization and viscosity of lava flows.
These ST basalts are exposed along the valley slopes and deep gorges
and for sampling in present study the exposures were obtained near
quarry sections at Kynrem falls. Few samples contained calcitic veins
and amygdals of diameter 1-5 mm filled with zeolites of greenish color.
Standard sample collection technique was followed for collection of
oriented samples. Fresh, unaltered samples were collected and avoided
deformed outcrops. A minimum of 5 oriented rock samples were col-
lected from each site. The sites were located along the Cherrapunjee-
Shella bazaar road section and quarries near Kynrem falls (Fig. 1)
whereas other exposure locations were disturbed by constructions. The
samples were oriented using a Brunton compass. Each oriented rock
sample was drilled and cut into 176 standard cylindrical specimens
(2.5 cm in diameter and 2.2 cm in length). These 176 specimens (on an
average 5-6 specimens/sample; 5 samples/ site) were obtained from 8
sites.
3. Laboratory experiments
3.1. Rock magnetic properties
To identify the main magnetic carriers of ST basalts an array of rock
magnetic measurements was carried out. Sixteen representative
32
Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41
samples (2 samples/site) were selected for rock magnetic study. IRM
acquisition curves and Backfield demagnetization analysis was per-
formed for getting saturation field and coercivity spectra respectively
by using the Pulse magnetizer (MMPM-10). For IRM acquisition and
backfield demagnetization standard specimens were used. Advanced
Variable Field Transition Balance (AVFTB) was used for Hysteresis Loop
and thermomagnetic (k-T) study. A hysteresis loop is generated by
applying alternating magnetic fields to samples until they reach sa-
turation. The hysteresis loop analysis was performed to understand the
grain size and domain states, while the k-T study is for knowing the
Curie point and thermal alterations in magnetic carriers during heating
and cooling of samples. For these measurements to perform on AVFTB,
powdered samples were used (all weighing in the range of
300–500 mg).
3.2. AMS methodology
Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS) study was carried out
on 114 (∼14 from each site) fresh specimens from 8 sites using AGICO
MFK1-FA Susceptibility apparatus to investigate the nature of petro-
fabrics and shape anisotropy. The MFK1-FA has three operating fre-
quencies and field intensities; we kept the measuring range, i.e., 976 Hz
of frequency and 2–700 A/m field intensity. Practically, the AMS study
was first performed by Voight and Kinoshita (1907). Statistical data
processing by Jelinek (1978) was performed for mean tensors and by
using software supplied by AGICO named ANISOFT 4.2 (Chadima and
Jelinek, 2009). AMS can be described as an ellipsoid of magnetic sus-
ceptibilities with three principle susceptibility axes designated as the
maximum (Kmax), intermediate (Kint), and minimum (Kmin). These
quantities can be combined in various ways to describe different fea-
tures of the ellipsoid and of the corresponding magnetic fabrics
(Hrouda, 1982). The anisotropy parameters like, bulk susceptibility
Km= (Kmax + Kint + Kmin)/3, magnetic foliation F (Kint + Kmin)/Kmax
and magnetic lineation L = (Kmax + Kint)/Km (Khan, 1962) are defined.
The shape parameter ‘T’ is defined as (2 η2-η1- η3) / (η1- η3) where, η1=
ln(Kmax), η2= ln(Kint) and η3= ln(Kmin). The magnitude of susceptibility
is measured in 15 independent directions which enables to comment
about the AMS ellipsoid, which is a standard least square fit method for
the reliability of measurements (Cox and Doell, 1967).
3.3. Paleomagnetism procedures
Paleomagnetic studies were executed using AGICO JR-6 Spinner
magnetometer, Molspin Alternating Field (AF) demagnetizer and
MMTD-80A Thermal demagnetizer. These specimens were subjected to
laboratory demagnetization techniques to isolate the Characteristic
Remanent magnetization (ChRM) directions for the ST basalts.
Standard alternating field demagnetization (AFD) and thermal de-
magnetization (ThD) procedures were adopted for demagnetization.
AFD was performed on 95 specimens in successive 17 demagnetization
step intervals 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 30, 40, 60, 80,
100, 120, 140 and 150 m T. Whereas stepwise ThD was performed on
48 specimens in 12 progressive demagnetization steps from 100, 200,
300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 520, 540, 560, 580 up to 600 °C. There was no
considerable decay observed in NRM intensity in progressive thermal
and AF demagnetization up to ∼400 °C and 80 m T respectively for
most of the specimens. Nevertheless, a high-temperature component
(HTC) and high field component (HFC) which decays towards the origin
from ∼400 °C and 80 m T respectively to total demagnetization can be
fitted using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method (Kirschvink,
1980) of a best-fit line on Remasoft-3.0 software. For determination of
both HFC and HTC at least six consecutive demagnetization intervals
were chosen that decay towards the origin of orthogonal projections
which yields ChRM directions. The Zijderveld plot (Zijderveld, 1967) is
used to display and evaluate the demagnetization behaviors for all the
specimens. All the measurements were carried out at the
M.R. Kapawar and V. M.
Fig. 1. Simplified Geological map of the Shillong plateau showing the location of sampling sites of ST basalts (red dot) and the two fault trends the Dawki fault and
the Raibah fault (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
Paleomagnetism laboratory, CSIR-National Geophysical Research In-
stitute, Hyderabad, India.
4. Results
4.1. Rock magnetic study
The rock magnetic parameters are useful in understanding the
magnetic mineralogy, their grain size, domain states and Curie tem-
peratures. This is the first attempt of detailed rock magnetic study and
implications associated with it for the ST basalts. The magnetic mi-
nerals in basalts generally belong to the solid solution series known as
titanomagnetites solid solution series (Radhakrishnamurthy, 1990).
4.1.1. Isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition curves and
backfield demagnetization
A pulse magnetizer was used for IRM and back-field DC demagne-
tization measurements. The significant fall in IRM during thermal de-
magnetization allows for estimation of curie temperatures because
maximum blocking temperatures are always slightly less than the Curie
temperature. The majority of the samples show the continuous rise in
IRM curve (Fig. 2a) up to 200 m T and saturate. Sample ST_1, ST_2, and
ST_6 show a steep rise up to 200 m T, and this rises gently up to
1000 m T and saturation is noted which is indication of the presence of
magnetic minerals of titanomagnetite solid solution series. These IRM
acquisition curves are due to the magnetocrystalline anisotropy in
samples, those samples which saturated near 200 m T are due to mag-
netization acquired in easy direction and others are due to acquisition
of magnetization in hard direction.
The back-field DC demagnetization curves (Fig. 2b) indicates the
remanence coercivity (Bcr) values of the samples range between
24–35 m T suggests low coercive magnetic mineral present in samples.
33
Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41
ST-2 showing 50 m T of Bcr value which is the indication of presence of
comparatively higher coercivity magnetic mineral than other samples.
4.1.2. Hysteresis loop
From the Hysteresis curves (Fig. 3) for the ST basalts, hysteresis
parameters saturation magnetization (Ms), saturation remanence (Mrs),
coercivity force (Bc) and coercivity remanence (Bcr) were determined.
The hysteresis ratios known separately as Remanence ratio (Mrs/Ms)
and Coercivity ratio (Bcr/Bc) can be obtained (Supplementary Table 1),
which are helpful in identifying the domain states and grain sizes of
magnetic minerals. The maximum field applied is 1000 m T. The in-
verse relationship between the ratios is similar to Day plots for ferri-
magnetic magnetite and titanomagnetite (Day et al., 1977; Dunlop,
2002a, 2002b). The hysteresis curve lines seem to be closer (thin) and
such behaviour of curves is an indication of fine to medium magnetic
grain size of the ST basalts.
Most of the samples analysed are showing Remanence ratio (Mrs/
Ms) ranging from 0.105 to 0.333 with an average value of 0.218 and
values of Coercivity ratio (Bcr/Bc) range between 1.25 to 1.87 with an
average 1.593. Overall the values obtained are indicating, the ST ba-
salts reside in Single Domain (SD) to Pseudo Single Domain (PSD) state
of magnetic grains. Day plot (Fig. 4) which gives an idea of limiting
values for SD, PSD and MD magnetic grains and useful tool for magnetic
granulometry indicator. Usually, the values of most of the magnetite-
bearing rocks fall in MD state, where SD and PSD plays a role of pa-
leomagnetic recorders. But in the case of these samples most of the
samples fall in PSD state of magnetic grain size which may be due to
combined effect of SD and MD grains.
4.1.3. Thermomagnetic (k–T) curves
The thermomagnetic (k–T) curve indicate the Curie temperature
(Tc) and the degree of alteration that occurs during heating. Tc of pure
M.R. Kapawar and V. M. Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41

Fig. 2. Representative curves of (a) isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition and (b) back-field DC demagnetization shows generalized coercivity
distribution in samples of ST basalts.

Fig. 3. Hysteresis curves for the ST basalt samples of Shillong Plateau. Curves show presence of soft (low Bc) and fine grained magnetic carrier.

magnetite is ˜577 °C and a similar behaviour is noted in the basalt
samples of present study. Most of the samples analysed have shown the
Tc ˜580 °C. The Curie temperature data for all the analysed ST basalt
samples is given (Supplementary Table 2) along with the rock samples
description.
The analysed samples for Thermomagnetic (k–T) curves (Fig. 5)
were heated from room temperature up to 700 °C and again cooled back
to room temperature in the presence of 100 m T magnetic field. The k–T
curves show a small decrease in the susceptibility at temperatures
around 380–450 °C which is considered as Tc1 and afterwards falling to
zero at around 580 °C which is Tc2. This is the observation for most of
the analysed samples. As per Vahle et al. (2007) the degree of rever-
sibility of heating and cooling run allows an estimate of phase changes,
which can be interpreted in terms of stability of the original magnetic
phases. Within these variations, the heating cycle displays less thermal
stability and lower intensity than cooling cycle. The cooling and
heating curves are appearing irreversible due to the intermediate
magnetic phase but similar for all the samples where heating curves are
always higher than cooling curves. The magnetic phases in samples are
interpreted as not stable since they are irreversible. This intermediate

34
M.R. Kapawar and V. M.
Fig. 4. Day plot of Mrs/Ms and Bcr/Bc after analysis method by Day et al.
(1977) to understand the domain state of magnetic grains for the ST basalts.
SD = Single Domain, PSD = Pseudo Single Domain, and MD = Multi-Domain.
Red dots depict analysed samples that are falling in respective domain states
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article).
magnetic phase can be inferred as titanomagnetite. The transformation
of titanomagnetite to magnetite was reported to occur between 350 and
700 °C (Dunlop and Ozdemir, 1997), depending on the presence of
impurities and grain size of titanomagnetite. The behaviour of the k-T
curves in the Fig. 5 shows two curie temperature points, i.e., TC1 and
TC2 at around 380–450 °C and ˜580 °C, respectively which indicates the
presence of two ferrimagnetic carriers with one dominant, the magne-
tite (˜580 °C) and other as an accessory, the titanomagnetite (around
380–450 °C). We can also speculate that, the appearance of titano-
magnetite in heating curves and the absence in cooling curves indicate
the complete transformation of titanomagnetite to magnetite with
progressive temperature.
The combination of all these rock magnetic measurements suggest
that the main magnetic remanence carrier resides in magnetite (Fe3O4)
of PSD/SD state with subordinate titanomagnetite [Fe2+(Fe3+, Ti)2O4].
4.2. AMS study
To check the reliability of data for lava flow directions, the AMS
study was carried out for the ST basalt samples of Shillong Plateau.
Many studies of dykes, lava flows and ignimbrites (Staudigel et al.,
1992; Canon-Tapia et al., 1997; Varga et al., 1998; Zhu et al., 2003;
Caballero-Miranda et al., 2009) have been carried out to deduce the
magma emplacement dynamics and source recognition. AMS ellipsoids
depends on the mineral abundances and different mineral AMS
(Borradaile and Jackson, 2010).
The common AMS parameters like, mean susceptibility (Km),
common anisotropy factors lineation (L) and foliation (F), anisotropy
degree (P), corrected anisotropy degree (Pj) and shape parameters T
and U were evaluated (Supplementary Table 3) from the three principle
susceptibility axes (K1, K2 and K3). The magnetic susceptibility (K)
values were measured by using MFK1-FA Susceptibility apparatus and
range between 0.14 and 8.81 × 10-4 SI units which suggests samples
suitability to perform AMS study and as a substitute indication for
chemical composition variation during formation of rocks. The K values
are high enough and suggests significant contribution of ferrimagnetic
carrier for the resultant AMS fabric (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993). AMS
35
Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41
stereoplots are depicted in Fig. 6 suggests presence of different shape
anisotropies due to the effect of the magnetic carrier for resultant AMS
ellipsoids. Normally, low degree of anisotropy values i.e., less than 1.03
depicts variation in the resultant shape anisotropy of AMS ellipsoids,
i.e., from prolate to oblate.
Out of eight sites examined four sites i.e., ST_4, ST_5, ST_6 and ST_8
are showing a triaxial ellipsoidal shape anisotropy (where all the
principle susceptibility axes K1, K2, and K3 form distinct and individual
groups with same orientations). Three sites are showing Prolate ellip-
soidal shape (maximum axes were showing well grouping and directed
perpendicular to the bedding plane, whereas the minimum axes lie in
the bedding plane), i.e., ST_1, ST_2, and ST_7 here the K1 is well
grouped, K2 and K3 arced within 90° around it. Site ST_3 is showing
oblate ellipsoidal shape anisotropy (where K3 is well grouped; K1 and
K2 are scattered through the stereonet and within the 90° arc around
K3).
From the calculated mean susceptibility (Km) and anisotropy degree
(P) of the ST basalts, it is helpful in identifying the occurrence and
contribution of mineral towards susceptibility (if any) and its control
over anisotropy. To understand this, Km vs. P plot (Fig. 7 A) prepared
for the whole sampling unit and the samples analysed show the major
ferrimagnetic contribution to the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility
which understood from even scattering. The Jelinek plot (1978) in
Fig. 7B, shows both prolate as well as oblate nature of the fabric for the
ST basalts and no clear majority can be identified. This could be be-
cause of eruption of lava in a very small period of time with slow rate of
successions and can be confirmed as there was no intertrappean beds
are found in study area. The Pj vs. T plot (Fig. 7C) is for representing
both shape of susceptibility ellipsoid and its magnitude. For the ST
basalts it shows a transitional prolate to oblate nature of the ellipsoid.
The scattering through the plot may indicate presence of dominant
unstable inverse magnetic fabric, and can be confirmed by the presence
of all three (prolate, oblate and triaxial) anisotropies in samples.
The Pj values in the ST basalts range between 1.018 to 1. 031. The T
and Km values ranging from -0.155 to 0.322 and 1.11 × 10−1 to
8.31 × 10−2 SI units respectively (Supplementary Table 3). It suggests
that the direction of remanence will not significantly alter if the ratio
between the maximum and minimum susceptibilities (degree of ani-
sotropy) is lower than 5% (Hrouda, 1982). The orientations of AMS
ellipsoids in these samples proposes no solid evidence about the magma
flow directions and the fissure location through which the lava could
have erupted and the ST came into existence. Due to this we restrict our
conclusions from AMS measurements up to Shape anisotropy only.
4.3. Paleomagnetism
The results of paleomagnetic study from 8 sites are presented in
Table 1 and plotted in Fig. 8. Natural Remanent Magnetization (NRM)
intensities of all specimens vary between 0.15–4.68 A/m. The samples
were subjected to demagnetization techniques i.e., Alternating field
demagnetization (AFD) and Thermal demagnetization (ThD). The re-
manent magnetization after each demagnetization step was measured
on JR6- spinner magnetometer having signal to noise ratio of 2.4 μA/
m6. The Orthogonal projections of demagnetization curves (Zijderveld
plot) of representative samples are provided for both AFD (Fig. 8A) and
ThD (Fig. 8B). During AF demagnetizations the NRM’s of the samples
have decreased effectively between 20–120 mT steps where it is ob-
served that the viscous component is fully removed and ChRM direc-
tions are attained between steps 20–120 mT. Similarly, in the thermal
demagnetization most of the samples are showing either the decrease in
intensities beyond 520 °C or remaining nearly constant and immediate
fall is recognised at the unblocking temperatures around 580 °C.
Magnetic Susceptibility was measured after each thermal de-
magnetization interval to take review of chemical changes occurred
during heating. In these samples no considerable changes in suscept-
ibility have been recognised, revels that the magnetic phases are stable
M.R. Kapawar and V. M.
Fig. 5. Representative thermomagnetic (k–T) curves for the ST basalts of Shillong Plateau. Heating (red) and cooling (blue) cycles are shown with respective arrows
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
with increasing temperatures. The data acceptance limits for ChRM
calculations of individual specimens are constrained within MAD ≤ 50
and α95 ≤ 100, as per the standard fisherian statistics analysis proposed
by Fisher (1953) and which are further considered for mean Virtual
Geomagnetic Pole (VGP) position calculations.
An unblocking temperature of ˜580 °C is consistent with the com-
bined rock magnetic results, supporting our initial conclusions that the
primary remanence carrier is magnetite. Mean ChRM directions for the
ST basalts were calculated, displays a mean direction of Dm = 255°, Im
= -57°, α95 = 3.44° and k = 16.74. Calculations for each site have been
made to get Virtual Geomagnetic Pole (VGP) using present day latitude:
25.21 °N and longitude: 91.71 °E of the location.
5. Discussion
5.1. Significance of rock magnetic tests
The rock magnetic properties of the ST basalts show less variation,
which is purely controlled by cooling history of lava. The IRM acqui-
sition curves and coercivity spectrum suggests the presence of pre-
dominantly low coercivity component and few are showing inter-
mediate coercivity component. Day plot drawn from the values of
hysteresis parameters depicts, the presence of PSD and SD state domi-
nated magnetic mineral. Also the thin nature of hysteresis loops sug-
gests the presence of fine to medium size of magnetic grains. Curie
point behavior of samples around 380–450 °C and 580 °C have been
36
Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41
detected in studied samples. These rock magnetic studies combined
suggest the presence of magnetite (Fe3O4) as the main magnetic carrier
of PSD/SD state with subordinate content of titanomagnetite
[Fe2+(Fe3+,Ti)2O4]. This magnetic carrier is in agreement with the
results obtained from thermal demagnetization on the very same sam-
ples, whose intensity decays completely at ˜580 °C.
5.2. AMS study and associated implications
The AMS fabrics in the samples depict the arrangement of magnetic
grains and appearance of all three AMS ellipsoids reveals a weak degree
of anisotropy. Particularly for magnetite grains, the domain size is
controlled by grain shape. Though the presence of titanomagnetite
minerals is confirmed in rock magnetic measurements they have a
minor contribution to the AMS. Therefore, it is presumed that AMS of
the ST basalts is dominated by a low coercive PSD/SD magnetic grains
of magnetite.
Anisotropy of the magnetic susceptibility caused by different phe-
nomena such as magma flow, tectonism or other biasing factors
(Tarling and Hrouda, 1993; Dragoni et al., 1997; Elming and Mattsson,
2001). In most of the stereonets of the AMS ellipsoids are scattered,
specifies less alignment of fabrics due to higher viscosity and slower
velocity of magma flow. The horizontal movement of the eastern block
(Shillong Plaetau) along the Dawki fault might have affected the AMS
in these samples. It can be concluded that ST marks the tale of the
magma emplacement activity in Rajmahal- Bengal- Sylhet Traps
M.R. Kapawar and V. M. Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41

Fig. 6. Equal area projection demonstrates the distribution of the principal susceptibility axes in the analysed ST basalt samples. Principal susceptibility axes K1 as
squares (blue), K2 as triangles (green) and K3 as circles (pink). Comparatively larger arcs are with 95% confidence circles (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

province.
5.3. ChRM directions comparisons
The Paleomagnetic study on the ST basalts was initiated by Athavale
(1963) and followed by Poornachandra Rao (1993) where they have
reported the very first paleomagnetic directions from the ST basalts.
They have reported two directions one is explained by referring it with
the contemporary Rajmahal traps while the other was not explained. In
the present study, the paleomagnetic directions obtained are similar to
the one which was unexplained previously. The paleomagnetic mea-
surements done previously was by using classical instruments which
might not have cautiously removed the secondary (viscous) magneti-
zation components to meet primary magnetization component. They
have not reported (Athavale, 1963) the intervals of demagnetizations to
achieve ChRM’s by AF demagnetization and thermal demagnetization
techniques. In the present study to get accurate ChRM directions,
samples were demagnetized up to 150 m T in AFD and up to 600 °C in
ThD measurements which completely removed the secondary compo-
nent to obtain the isolated ChRM directions. Here we have reported our
ChRM’s at the field intervals of 20–120 mT and at the temperature in-
terval of 400–580 °C. The comparison of mean directions of various
rock formations from India (Table 2) with the data obtained for the ST
basalts from present study.
5.4. Larger Paleomagnetic story of India
Though there is a small extent of ST is present at Shillong Plateau, it
is suggested that during its formation process it might have behaved
like a different tectonic unit (or maybe two magma emplacement events
occurred for the existence of ST). The paleomagnetic directions re-
vealed by these exposures were severely affected by the horizontal
movement along dawki fault which has shifted around 250 Km east-
ward (Evans, 1964) from RT exposures.
Since the obtained directions from the present study has varying
azimuths by almost 100° with stable dip as compared to previously
reported directions, is suggestive of horizontal adjustments within the
Sylhet Traps exposures. This we concluded by the effect of horizontal
movement of ST and surrounding block along the Dawki tear fault for
about 250 Km’s. This final explanation agrees with the study of Evans

37
M.R. Kapawar and V. M. Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41

Fig. 7. A) is the specimen-wise bivariate scatter plot of susceptibility mean vs. degree of anisotropy. B) Jelinek plot of lineation vs foliation (L vs. F) for the ST basalts.
C) Flinn diagram of corrected anisotropy degree vs shape parameter (Pj versus T; Tarling and Hrouda, 1993).

(1964), where it is concluded that, the north-eastern part of Indian 6. Conclusions

subcontinent has moved eastward by about 250 Km.
This study yields a mean Inclination value −57° and from this, we
calculated the paleolatitude for India during the Early Cretaceous
period (˜117 Ma) which is around 37.6°S. This is the first time we are
reporting the paleolatitude of India from Sylhet Traps. One previous
study by Poornachandra Rao (1996b) from Rajmahal Traps has re-
ported the paleolatitude of India at 43 °S. From this, it is clearly un-
derstood that there may be more than one lava eruption events in a
shorter interval of time at Kerguelen hotspot while the Indian plate was
drifting northwards. Fig. 9 depicts the relative paleolatitude of India
calculated from the data of the present study on Sylhet Traps basalts.
We are presenting here for the first time the detailed rock magnetic,
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility study results carried out on ba-
salts of the Sylhet Traps and drawn following conclusions:
1 The combined rock magnetic results indicate that these basalt con-
tains magnetite as the primary magnetic carrier with PSD and SD
state nature of magnetic grains and with low titanomagnetite mi-
neral content.
2 All the three (triaxial, prolate and oblate ellipsoids) possible shape
anisotropies are present in the ST basalt samples which will not
allow to give concrete statement about lava flow dynamics in the

Table 1
Concise data of Paleomagnetic results of ST basalts from this study.
Site Name Rock Type Lat (0) Long (0) N n Dm (0) Im (0) α95 (0) k MAD Plat (0) Plong (0) dp dm

ST-1 Basalt 25.21 91.71 2 8 213 −53 16.6 12 4.23 −60.1 337.22 15.9 23
ST-2 Basalt 25.22 91.71 3 6 260 −49 18 14.76 4.10 −20.57 336.22 15.7 23.8
ST-3 Basalt 25.22 91.71 2 8 237 −44 11.4 24.58 4.51 −39.18 347.76 8.9 14.3
ST-4 Basalt 25.22 91.71 3 9 266 −52 11.75 23.19 4.01 −16.82 333.16 11 16.1
ST-6 Basalt 25.22 91.72 4 16 270 −42 7.9 23.89 3.12 −10.39 339.84 5.9 9.7
ST-7 Basalt 25.23 91.63 5 13 234 −67 5.4 60.01 3.45 −42.2 315.63 7.4 8.9
ST-8 Basalt 25.22 91.70 5 24 260 −61 5.5 29.66 3.01 −23.95 324.91 6.5 8.4
Grand Mean 255 −57 3.44 16.74 3.77 −26.79 330.75 3.6 5

Lat and Long are site latitude and site longitude in degrees, N = no. of samples, n = no. of specimens, Dm = Mean Declination, Im = Mean Inclination, α95 = circle
of confidence with 95% probability level, k = Precision parameter, MAD = maximum angular deviation, Plat and Plong = paleoco-ordinates of the Pole, dp and
dm = oval of confidence with 95% probability within which the true pole lies.

38
M.R. Kapawar and V. M. Journal of Geodynamics 127 (2019) 31–41

Fig. 8. Zijderveld’s plot showing orthogonal projections with solid (open) data points representing vector endpoints projected onto the horizontal (vertical) plane.

Table 2
The comparison of mean directions of various formations from India with the data obtained for the ST basalts from present study.
Sr. No. Formation Age Locality Site D (°) I (°) α95 (°) Reference
Coordinates

Lat Long
(N) (E)

1 Upper Deccan Traps Eocene Nipani 16° 26’ 74° 22’ 338 −32 5 Deutsch, 1959
2 Upper Deccan Traps Eocene Mahabaleshwar 17° 55’ 73° 38’ 339 −57 – Sahastrabudhe, 1963
3 Lower Deccan Traps Upper Cretaceous Linga 21° 38’ 78° 55’ 164 +48 2 Sahastrabudhe, 1963
4 Tirupati Sandstone Middle Cretaceous Janampeta 16° 46’ 81 ° 9’ 157 +51 Verma, 1967
5 Rajmahal traps Jurassic Rajmahal hills 25° 87° 51’ 327 −64 2 (α50) Clegg, 1958
6 Rajmahal traps Early Cretaceous Rajmahal hills – – 320.6 −65.2 6 Poornachandra Rao, 1996a
7 Sylhet traps Jurassic – 25° 91° 332 & −59 & 7 Athavale, 1963
243 −60 16
8 Sylhet traps – – – – 235 −62 5 Poornachandra Rao, 1993
9 Sylhet traps Early Cretaceous Cherrapunjee 25° 13’ 91° 43’ 255 −57 3.44 Present Study

39
M.R. Kapawar and V. M.
Fig. 9. The red square indicates the paleolatitude of India obtained from the Sylhet trap basalts (37.6° S) of the present study. (Redrawn after C. T. Klootwijk, 1976)
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
study area. Therefore we limit our AMS conclusions up to shape
anisotropy only.
3 The ST basalts revealed a paleomagnetic direction with a mean
declination = 255° and mean inclination = −57° (α95 = 3.44°;
k = 16.74) and the paleopole position of -26.79 °N, 330.75 °E
(dp = 3.6 and dm = 5). The obtained paleomagnetic directions can
also give idea about the post-collisional migration of eastern block
of Indian subcontinent (Shillong Plateau) from the Rajmahal Traps
along the Dawki fault for about 250 Km and during this the block
might have rotated a little.
4 A paleolatitude for the ST basalts obtained at 37.6 °S clearly in-
dicates that the Sylhet Traps volcanic event is the later episode than
the Rajmahal Traps.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Director, CSIR-NGRI for the permission to publish this
work (NGRI/Lib/2018/Pub-50). MK thank J. Mallikharjuna Rao and K.
P. Sarma for sharing their knowledge. MK is grateful to S. J. Sangode,
Ravi Shankar, Raj Kumar, Ramesh Babu, L Srikanth and Sujit Pradhan
for their timely help. MK further extend thanks to CSIR, Delhi for the
JRF (P-81-101).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in the
online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jog.2019.05.003.
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