Stress and Strain

Stress (δ) is the force applied on an area of a plane. And can be

expressed by the following equation; {δ = F/A}
Where;
δ = Stress, F= Force, A= Area of a plane. The unit of stress is pascal
(N/m²).
Geologically, the stress is dealt with as very high forces applied over vast
areas which can cause different deformations within earth’s crust.
The deformed features after stress is called strain.
The principal stress values
Any object in the nature is under three stress values, as seen below:
1. The maximum stress axis represented by (δ1).
2. The intermediate stress axis represented by (δ2).
3. The minimum stress axes represented by (δ3).
These called principal stress axes. Figure1.
Figure1, The principal stress axes relationship for a compressed object.
Some important properties of stresses

1- (δ1) is higher than all, and called maximum stress axis. The (δ2)
called the intermediate stress axis, and the (δ3) is lower than all and
called the minimum stress axis.
2- These stresses make (90°) with each other.
3- Sometimes (δ1= δ2= δ3).
Types of stress in geology.
1- Compression stress. The stresses are not equal, there are maximum,
intermediate and minimum stress. δ1˃ δ2≥ δ3, features resulting from this
type is folding when the rocks are ductile, and faulting when the rocks are
brittle.
2- Tension stress. The stresses are not equal, there are maximum,
intermediate and minimum stress. Features such as Basins develop when
the rocks are ductile and faulting develops when the rocks are brittle.
3- Shear stress. The stresses are not equal, there are maximum,
intermediate and minimum stress. This is also called simple shear. Curved
surface (thinning) form when rocks are ductile and strike slip faults develop
when rocks are brittle. See the figures 2 A & Bnext.
Figure2 - A
 Geological settings and stresses

Figure 2, B

δ1 > δ 2 > δ 3
δ1 is shortening.
δ 3 is lengthening.
δ 2 no effect.
Strain
The deformation that happens to an object (a rock) after applying a
stress on that object, the deformation refers to the change in shape
or volume in relative to the original shape. It is abbreviated by the
Greek latter (ε) (epsilon). ε = Δl/l or Δl= difference of length after
and before deformation, l= the original length.
There are three types of strain:
A- Compression.
B- Tension.
C. Shear.
Geology in response to strain
Within 0 – 15 km depth, the zone is called brittle zone, the faults and
other fractures are developed and different types of folds too.
Within 15 – 25 km, the zone is brittle – ductile, and the ratio of
fractures decreases, and the folds are pervasive.
More than 25 km, the metamorphism begins and the area is complex
and highly deformed, the fractures are too rare. Figures3 & 4.
Figure3 - Geology in response to stress.
Brittle zone

Brittle – ductile zone

Ductile zone
Figure4 – Some geological folds and fractures