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Energy xxx (2009) 1–5

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

55
Editorial
1 56
57
2
3
Energy and its sustainable development for India, Editorial Introduction and 58
4 commentary to the Special Issue of Energy – The International Journal 59

OF
5 60
6 61
7 62
8 63
1. Introduction 10% of which is imported. It is also noteworthy that much animal Q2 64
9
power is used (according to some: estimates 12,000 MW, or about

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10 65
It gives us great pleasure to present this SI (Special Issue) 8% of the installed electric capacity [7]) but the share of animal 66
11
‘‘Energy and sustainable development for India’’ of ENERGY – The power and non-commercial biomass is dropping every year due 67
12
International Journal. The recent concern for energy and climate to economic progress. 68
13
change has brought countries together in a globalised world. India Nuclear power generation in India is not addressed in the SI in 69
14
as well as the world are watching the need for India’s energy and detail, and a few very brief comments about this important subject 70
15 DP
associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. follow. India generates only 2.5% of its electricity from nuclear 71
16
This Editorial Introduction provides a very brief summary of power, but 6 new reactors are under construction (second only to 72
17
the most recently available energy and emissions data,1 outlines the Russian Federation, at 7) and there are plans to increase this frac- 73
18
the structure of the SI, fills some information gaps, and offers brief tion, especially encouraged by the signing in 2008 of the India–U.S. 74
19
comments for some sustainable paths to the future. nuclear agreement, in which the ban on nuclear technology and 75
20
fuel trading with India was lifted. It was initially proposed to allow 76
21
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2. Current developments in India India to add 25,000 MWe of nuclear power capacity (about 16% of 77
22
India’s current electricity production) through foreign fuels and 78
23
It is necessary to have a broad picture of current developments technology. While nuclear power use reduces CO2 (carbon dioxide) 79
24
in India to appreciate the articles of SI in qualitative and quantita- emissions, the problems of waste storage, proliferation risk, and to 80
25
tive terms as well as in comparative terms with other countries some extent safety, that have arrested nuclear power growth in 81
26
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and the world as whole. many countries, remain largely unresolved so far. 82
27
In 2008 India’s per capita GDP (PPP (purchasing power parity) $ 83
28
of the year 2000) was $2800, with annual growth rate of 3.7%. To 84
29 2.1. Population and overall energy data [1–6] avoid confusion it is noted that the overall real GDP (not PPP nor 85
30
per capita) growth was 9% in 2007. 86
31
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Q1 India, at 1.17 billion people, is the second most populated country The energy intensity, in 2007, in MJ per PPP $ of the year 2000, of
32 87
in the world and is home to 17% of the world population. Its primary India was 7.9, as compared for example with that of 13.8 of China, 6.9
33 88
energy consumption (in 2007) was 18.65 EJ, 3.75% of the entire of Europe, and 9.3 of the U.S. There is always room for improvement,
34 89
world. It amounts to 15.9 BJ/person-year. With a world average but it also depends on the choice of economic products: financial
35 90
consumption of 72.4 BJ/person-year, China’s of 56.2 BJ/person- activities such as banking, or computing and software development,
36 91
year, Europe’s of 146.2 BJ/person-year, and U.S. of 355.5 BJ/person- have a very low energy intensity, while manufacturing products
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37 92
year, and with India’s strong GDP (Gross Domestic Product) growth such as aluminum, steel, glass, plastics and paper have a very large
38 93
of about 9% (2007, expected to drop somewhat due to the current one.
39 94
worldwide economic turndown) and a relatively high population India continuously faces severe electricity shortages, which are
40 95
growth of 1.55% (compared with 0.65% for China, 0.97% for the estimated by the government to be eliminated by adding about
41 96
U.S., 0.11% for the European Union, and 1.17% for the world, all 63% generation capacity by the year 2012. It is noteworthy that
42 97
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2009 estimates), it is obvious that significant growth is expected transmission losses are very high, approaching 40% in part due to
43 98
as the people of India increase in number and strive to improve their grid problems and in part due to illegal unpaid use.
44 99
standard of living. Despite a recent drop in economic growth rate, India’s energy
45 100
The fractions of the energy resources supplying the primary demand continues to increase. Energy demand in the transport
46 101
energy demand are shown in Fig. 1. More than half is met by coal, sector is expected to be particularly high, as vehicle ownership is
47 102
increasing rapidly. 103
48
1
49 The data is mostly for the years 2006/2008. Some differences exist between the 104
data in the Editorial Commentary and those in the SI papers, as well as between 2.2. Greenhouse gas emissions [1,4,5,8]
50 105
those among some of the individual papers, mostly because the data used were
51 not always for the same year as sources. Furthermore, a sad fact is that there is
106
52 a large uncertainty in the accuracy and completeness of the energy data from To consider one environmental impact criterion into account, 107
53 and about India, as also noted in the SI paper by Gielen and Taylor. energy-related CO2 emissions (2006) for India were 1300 million 108
54 109
0360-5442/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.07.001

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2 Editorial / Energy xxx (2009) 1–5

110 below potential, thus allowing large expansion if the economics 175
111 permit. A critical need for the increased use of inherently intermit- 176
112 tent renewable sources of energy such as wind and solar, for elec- 177
113 tricity generation, is the availability of an extensive and smart 178
114 electricity distribution grid. 179
115 Large expansion of the use of biomass and hydropower, by 180
116 perhaps more than an order of magnitude for the former and 181
117 three-fold for the latter [9], is feasible based on resource avail- 182
118 ability, but sustainability has to be proven. Typical of agrarian soci- 183
119 eties, biomass has played an important role in India’s energy 184
120 supply, and continues to do so. A major drive is underway for its Q3 185
121 expansion, including efficient biomass stoves, biogas, biomass 186
122 combustion and gasification and process heat and liquid fuels 187

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123 (mostly biodiesel), but it hasn’t had much effect yet, for both 188
124 economic and policy reasons. 189

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125 Biomass energy has the very important benefits of contribu- 190
126 tion to the security of fuel supply, somewhat lower greenhouse 191
127 gas emissions, and support for agriculture, but there are also 192
128 some important concerns and obstacles. These include the fact 193
129 that bioenergy production and policies have mostly not been 194
130 based on a broad cost/benefit analysis at multiple scales and 195

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131
Fig. 1. Total energy consumption in India, by type (2006) [5].
for the entire production chain, which is particularly true for 196
132 bioenergy’s impact on agriculture (for brief summary cf. [10]). 197
133 Due to increasing concerns about the effects of biomass use on 198
134 water, land, and the environment in general, and on food prices, 199
135 metric tons (4.4% of the world total), i.e. 1.16 metric tons per capita. a thorough sustainability analysis of biomass use in India is 200
136 In comparison, those for China were 6012 million metric tons (4.58 warranted. 201
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137 metric tons per capita), OECD (Organization for Economic Co- In general, it is felt that rational government policies, focusing 202
138 operation and Development) Europe 4429 million metric tons on the economic aspects, and aided by employment of the CO2 miti- 203
139 (8.2 metric tons per capita), and the U.S. 5900 million metric tons gation CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) to infuse foreign 204
140 (19.57 metric tons per capita). Based on PPP GDP, the CO2 emissions investment and technology, would be very helpful in advancing 205
141 are 0.34 metric tons per thousand PPP $ of the year 2005, as the use of bioenergy in India. 206
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142 compared with 0.65 for China, w0.33 for OECD Europe, and 0.51 207
143 for the U.S. [5]. This is relatively not bad for India as a country 2.5. Energy, economics, and efficiency [1,3,11] 208
144 that primarily uses coal. 209
145 The prevailing opinion among researchers is that a relationship 210
146 exists between economic growth and energy consumption, but 211
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2.3. Fuel switching and new technologies

147 the direction of the causation of these relationships, i.e. whether 212
148 increase in energy consumption drives GDP growth or the other 213
Substitution of other oil and natural gas for coal would signif-
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149 way around, or both, is not always clear and varies for different 214
icantly reduce CO2 emissions but is not likely to increase much
150 countries (cf. [12]). Denmark for example has demonstrated 215
because of the scarcity of these fuels and the abundance of coal.
151 that wise energy and economy management resulted in the 216
Most of the natural gas is imported, with increasing priority for
152 doubling of the GDP over the 35-year period between 1972 and 217
fertilizer production and other chemical processes, and not power
153 2006, without change in energy consumption and with a 10% 218
generation. At the same time, development of advanced technolo-
154 population growth during the same period. While the circum- 219
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gies for the conversion of coal to oil, and especially to synthetic

155 stances for Denmark and India are very different, it would be 220
gas, as well as new power generation systems such as the IGCC
156 unwise to presume in planning that growth of GDP automatically 221
(integrated gasification combined power cycles) could help in
157 requires a commensurate growth of energy consumption. Plan- 222
this direction.
158 ning should, on the contrary, be based on GDP growth with 223
159 minimal energy consumption growth. We also note that while 224
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160 2.4. Renewable energy GDP is an important economic index, it is not the only criterion 225
161 for standard of living and happiness, and is overused and often 226
162 Opportunities for lowering the CO2 emissions to PPP GDP $ ratio misused. 227
163 obviously help in reducing emissions and/or increasing the PPP 228
164 GDP. Increased use of renewable energies will enable the former, 3. The structure of the SI and introduction to articles 229
165 traditionally by use of hydropower and biomass that together 230
166 already supply about 7% of the total energy demand, and more Kirit Parikh, Vivek Karandikar, Ashish Rana and Prasanna Dani: We 231
167 recently by the rapid increase in use of wind power (mostly moti- begin with this overview of India’s energy scene today that intro- 232
168 vated by tax benefits) that brought its installed peak capacity to duces a model that projects demand and supply scenarios up to 233
169 about 6000 MWe. 2030. This was behind the document of Integrated Energy Policy 234
170 While about 1.65 million m2 of water heating solar collectors are (2007) for India that was approved by the cabinet of ministers in 235
171 installed in India, it is a minute fraction of both the potential and India subsequently in 2008. This model is brought into public 236
172 the overall energy consumption. A growing but miniscule amount domain for the first time as a journal article here. It provides 237
173 of electric power is generated by photovoltaic devices. Both wind modeling framework, based on an activity analysis model. The 238
174 and solar power generation are at least two orders of magnitude paper looks at how India needs to deviate from a business-as-usual 239

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Editorial / Energy xxx (2009) 1–5 3

240 scenario based on coal, by gaining from higher energy efficiency, and the causalities underlying the present usage patterns. 305
241 renewable energy, and gets also to reduce CO2 emissions. They ‘‘Actor-oriented’’ analysis was also referred to in which we under- 306
242 explained that to formulate energy policy, one needs to know the stand how various actors of the energy system are making the 307
243 contours of energy requirements and options. Results show that system work, and what incentives and constraints each of these 308
244 energy efficiency emerges as a major option with a potential to actors is experiencing. 309
245 reduce energy requirement by as much as 17%. Eleven alternate N. H. Ravindranath and P. Balachandra: As explained, biomass 310
246 scenarios were built to map out feasible options. Scenario results and household energy are very important from the point of view 311
247 indicate a pressing need for development of alternative sources of of access to energy. Alternate energy sources may be critical for 312
248 economy and energy efficiency. the sustainable development of energy starved Indian economy. 313
249 This paper then also provides the framework for the SI. Various Authors discuss the potential role of bioenergy to meet the rural 314
250 detailed articles on the above topics viz: coal, gas and renewable energy needs. 315
251 Q4 energy were therefore invited. Even today non-commercial energy Pallav Purohit: A variety of policy measures including fiscal and Q5 316
252 (fuelwood, crop residue and animal dung form 28% of the energy financial incentives have been adopted by the GOI for promotion of 317

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253 share), Unsatisfied needs of the developing countries like India is solar energy systems in the country. Nearly 0.4 million solar home 318
254 a matter of concern, where 600 million do not have access to LPG systems have been installed so far that is far below their respective 319

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255 and Kerosene as shown by one of the papers. Therefore, the papers potential. Solar home systems could be of interest under the CDM 320
256 on household energy and biomass were also included. because they directly displace greenhouse gas emissions while 321
257 contributing to sustainable rural development, if developed 322
258 3.1. Fossil fuels, renewables and energy efficiency correctly. 323
259 Having discussed energy system, we now look at CO2 emissions’ 324
260 Then we move on to two papers on fossil fuels, two on renew- implications. 325

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261 able energy and one on energy efficiency. 326
262 Ananth P. Chikkatur, Ambuj D. Sagar and T. L. Sankar present 3.3. Energy and CO2 emissions 327
263 India’s coal scene and identify sustainability concerns from 328
264 resource extraction, costs’ regulation and environment’s point of Jyoti Parikh, Manoj Panda, A. Ganesh-Kumar and Vinay Singh from 329
265 view. Key challenges for the sustainable development of coal, and Integrated Research and Action for Development (IRADe) present 330
266 proposed policy approaches and suggestions are presented the CO2 structure of the Indian economy in the input–output frame- 331
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267 showing 30% of India’s total energy needs are met through imports. work using 2003–04 social accounting matrix. Detailed estimates 332
268 Jyoti Parikh, C. R. Dutta Biswas, Chandrashekhar Singh and Vivek of CO2 emissions for the Indian economy in the year 2003–04 by 333
269 Singh explain that natural gas is one of the important and clean- fuel type, sector, final demand and expenditure classes are shown. 334
270 est form of energy derived from the fossil fuel basket and fuel Here one can see contribution of CO2 by two sectors of the economy 335
271 choice for many section of India industry particularly coal and in terms of consumption, production and trade. Emissions emitted 336
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272 power sector where allocation is based on the priority basis. for intermediate government and private consumption – the latter 337
273 Demand projection of natural gas for next two decades is is split in five rural and urban classes with low medium and high 338
274 analyzed and reviewed in the context of changing government monthly expenditures. The results show that electricity sector is 339
275 policies. They analyze various scenarios especially for fertilizer the highest direct emitter followed by manufacturing steel and 340
276 – which is considered a priority sector for natural gas given the road transportation. The urban top 10% accounts for emissions of 341
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277 importance of agriculture for the large population. However 3416 kg per year while rural bottom 10% accounts for only 141 kg 342
278 this non-energy use of natural gas diverts from its availability per year. 343
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279 for power. Amit Garg and P.R. Shukla: coal is the abundant domestic energy 344
280 Dolf Gielen and Peter Taylor from IEA (International Energy resource in India however its use exacerbates global climate 345
281 Agency) in Paris present energy efficiency picture of India’s industry change. CO2 and CCS (carbon dioxide capture and storage) can 346
282 sector and compare with global scene. Certain sectors such as mitigate CO2 emissions from coal-based LPS (large point source) 347
283 cement are relatively efficient while others such as pulp and paper clusters and therefore would play a key role in mitigating both 348
284 are relatively inefficient. energy security risks for India and global climate change risks. 349
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285 Indu R. Pillai and Rangan Banerjee observe that despite signifi- 350
286 cant progress in renewable energy, the share of modern renew- 4. Possible paths for sustainable energy development 351
287 ables in the energy mix is marginal in India. Diffusion model is 352
288 used as a basis for setting targets and is fitted to the past trends Paths for sustainable energy development in India are described 353
289 for wind, small hydro and solar water heating. The economic and analyzed in the excellent paper by Kirit Parikh et al. in this SI. It 354
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290 viability and greenhouse gas saving potential is estimated for also should be recognized that forecasting is fraught with uncer- 355
291 each option. tainties, which have especially plagued the energy field, with 356
292 S. C. Bhattacharya and Chinmoy Jana: Promoting renewable many examples shown by Smil [13], and presently punctuated by 357
293 energy in India has assumed great importance in recent years. the unforeseen rapid and large fluctuations in energy prices that 358
294 Wind energy has achieved the most dramatic growth rate and are unjustified simply by supply and demand economics, by the 359
295 success in India. However, with a capacity factor of 0.14 tons they precipitous worldwide economic downturn, by unforeseen interna- 360
296 would produce about 840 MWe, still only 0.6% of the overall electric tional conflicts, by environmental effects (especially those that are 361
297 generation capacity. After many years of slow growth, demand for energy related) such as global warming that wasn’t even considered 362
298 solar water heaters appears to be gaining momentum. Small hydro a couple of decades ago, by new unaccounted energy demands, 363
299 has been growing in India at a slow but steady pace. such as those associated with the worsening situation of water 364
300 and food supply, and by rapid improvements in technology. A few 365
301 3.2. Household energy and biomass examples of the latter are the rapid improvements in energy 366
302 conversion efficiency, which has nearly doubled over the past three 367
303 B. Sudhakara Reddy and T. Srinivas: They have analyzed the decades, to reach about 60% with gas-fueled combined power 368
304 pattern of the energy consumption in the household sector cycles, and about 55% by advanced diesel engines, and perhaps 369

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4 Editorial / Energy xxx (2009) 1–5

370 even higher by future fuel cells, by the maturation/improvement of made worldwide), developed and implemented in coal mining, 435
371 wind power generation through improved efficiency and reliability transportation and power generation (see also the SI paper by Chik- 436
372 and lower cost, by the current trend to replace much of the fuel- katur et al.). Renewable energies, led in significance by hydro, Q7 437
373 powered vehicle fleet by electric or hybrid ones, and by the more biomass, wind and solar are currently employed to only a small 438
374 distant (at least 50 years in the future) possibility of commercial extent of their potential, could, and should, when they are proven 439
375 use of fusion power and of power generated in space [14], and of to be economical and sustainable, developed to their potential 440
376 superconductive electricity transmission. (see also SI papers by Ravindranath and Balachandra, Pillai and Bane- 441
377 The first step in any path to the future is wiser use of the rjee, Bhattacharya and Jana). 442
378 energy resources, also referred to as conservation. This would The absence of an efficient, extensive, and smart electricity 443
379 include elimination of obvious waste, higher energy conversion distribution grid stymies energy and economic development and 444
380 efficiency, substitution for lower energy intensity products and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emission, and must be 445
381 processes, recycling, and more energy-modest lifestyles. Benjamin viewed as a critical priority target for development. 446
382 Franklin’s famous adage ‘‘a penny saved is a penny earned’’ takes All the above-discussed measures for reducing energy 447

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383 in the energy area the form ‘‘a Joule saved is worth significantly consumption use of fossil fuels, and renewable energy employ- 448
384 more than a Joule earned’’: it takes significantly more than 1 J of ment, will also reduce GHG emissions. Reasonable cost technology 449

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385 energy to generate 1 J of power. This is amplified several fold is also available for carbon capture when fossil fuels are used in 450
386 when one considers the resources and environmental impact power generation, yet practicality of technologies for sequestration 451
387 associated with the construction and operation of a power plant of the captured carbon is still very uncertain (cf. [17]). If and when 452
388 or even a vehicular engine. At the same time, conservation should sequestration become practical it may be economically wise to 453
389 not be implemented in a way that would deprive large fractions of attempt to cluster large coal power generation plants at a relatively 454
390 humanity of basic comforts of life. short distance from sequestration sites as Garg and Shukla propose 455

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391 Conservation may also lead to forecasting errors: for example, and discuss in this SI. 456
392 following the oil embargo of the 1970s, and the resulting rise in We also note that countries with a large agriculture (India ranks 457
393 energy prices, the world energy consumption during the period second in the world in agricultural production) also have large 458
394 between 1979 and 1983 has reversed trends from continuous associated emissions of GHG, such as methane and N2O. These 459
395 increase to a small decrease, due to major decreases in OECD amount to about 37% of India’s total GHG emissions ([18] albeit 460
396 consumption and despite the growing energy demand in the devel- for 1994), and we remark that some fraction of that is energy 461
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397 oping countries. Among other consequences of this unforeseen related due to the large use of animal power. Important measures 462
398 trend change, it has frustrated the power generation utilities in must be taken to reduce these emissions too, and reasonable 463
399 the U.S. (for example) that have based their generation expansion methods are available. 464
400 to the relatively constant >5% growth rates that preceded 1979, Energy conversion and use are associated with major environ- 465
401 and caused significantly negative economic impacts. mental, economical and social impacts, and all large energy 466
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402 The pursuit of more efficient and less polluting transportation projects should therefore be designed and implemented sustain- 467
403 must include not only vehicular improvements (with preference ably. Sustainability is only emerging as a science, and thus must 468
404 for the plug-in electric or hybrid car) but also traffic management, be developed and applied urgently to provide analysis and evalua- 469
405 significant development of efficient public transit, and redesign of tion tools. 470
406 cities. Sustainable development is founded on the three pillars of 471
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407 Buildings and household energy use amount to w30% of India’s economic, environmental and social impacts. While the first two 472
408 energy consumption (Sudhakara Reddy and Srinivas in the SI) and pillars are discussed in the SI more extensively, it is very important 473
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409 greenhouse gas emissions. An excellent and practically attainable to address the social pillar, without which sustainable development 474
410 way to reduce this problem is the design and retrofit of buildings cannot succeed. Quoting from the SI paper by Chikkatur et al.: 475
411 and appliances to such that consume less energy (including ‘‘Thus, there is a great need for moving towards a philosophy of 476
412 embodied energy) over their life time, with and without incorpora- ‘‘planning with people’’ that empowers project-affected people 477
413 tion of renewable energy sources, and further with an extension to and allows them to influence decision-making, rather than ‘‘plan- 478
414 ‘‘Eco-efficient’’ buildings that not only reduce their negative envi- ning of people’’ or ‘‘planning for people’’. 479
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415 ronmental impact but also help heal and improve the environment. 480
416 A broader method is to design residential communities in a way 481
Acknowledgments
417 that reduces both indirect use of energy and emissions by reducing 482
418 the need for transportation and resources by the residents. 483
We thank all the authors, for submitting the articles and
419 Q6 While increasing energy conversion and use efficiency are 484
patiently following the review process, Nirbhay Srivastava for
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420 vitally important steps in the path to sustainability (industrial 485

helping with the editorial work. Laura Barker has been a constant
421 process efficiencies are described in the SI paper by Gielen and 486
source of help. We also are grateful to the current Editor-in-Chief
422 Taylor), measures must also be taken to prevent energy efficiency 487
of ENERGY, Professor Henrik Lund, for helping in the completion
423 ‘‘rebound’’, the frequent outcome in which higher efficiency and 488
of this SI.
424 lower costs lead to increased consumption (cf. [15,16]) and thus 489
425 at least partially negate the positive outcomes Such measures 490
426 may include demand-side management. An innovative approach References 491
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List of reviewers
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Amit Garg Giampaolo Manfrida Prakash Maithani
Anuradda Ganesh Girish Sant Ram M. Shrestha
B. Sudhakara Reddy H. Lund Rangan Banerjee
B.D. Sharma H.P. Garg Sam Holloway
Dev nathan Kirit Parikh Volkmar Lauber
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Dilip Kale Malti Goel Yves-Michel Le Nindre

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Please cite this article in press as: Parikh J, Energy and its sustainable development for India, Editorial Introduction and commentary to the
Special Issue of Energy – The International Journal, Energy (2009), doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.07.001