Flow Measurement

Fluid Mechanics-I

Prepared by:
Engr. Hammad Ahmad

Civil Engineering Department, UET Lahore

 Flow Measurement Devices
Devices for Pipe flow (flow under Devices for Open Channels
pressure)
i. Orifices i. Notches
ii. Mouthpieces ii. Weirs
iii. Nozzles iii. Pitot Tube
iv. Venturimeter
v. Orifice Meter
vi. Pitot Static Tube
Torricelli’s Equation / Theorem
Consider two sections: 1) A at the free surface & 2) B at the
opening on the side near the right bottom of tank as shown.
Let H= Head over the opening causing the flow
v= Velocity of the fluid jet
Applying Bernoulli's eq. at A & B
2 2
𝑃 𝑣𝐴 𝑃 𝑣𝐵
zA + 𝐴 + = zB + 𝐵 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
2
𝑣𝐵
zA + 0 + 0 = zB + 0 +
2𝑔
𝑣𝐵2
⇒ H= (∵ zA – zB = H)
2𝑔

⇒ vth = 2𝑔𝐻

Torricelli’s equation states that the theoretical velocity is proportional to square root of H
Orifice
An orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the side or base of a tank or reservoir,
through which fluid is discharged in the form of a jet, usually into the atmosphere.

The volume rate of flow discharged through an orifice will depend upon
the head of the fluid above the level of the orifice and it can, therefore, be
used as a means of flow measurement.
• Discharge depends on the Head ‘H’, size, shape and form of orifice.
• Usually sharped edge to reduce friction
Whenever there’s discharge through the orifice, the streamlines converge
at a particular section which is termed as vena contracta. This
contraction depends on head, shape and size of orifice.
Classification of Orifice
According to size According to shape
i. Small orifice (Do < H/5) i. Circular orifice
ii. Large orifice (Do > H/5) ii. Rectangular orifice
 An orifice is termed as small when its iii. Square orifice
size is small compared to head causing iv. Triangular orifice
flow. The velocity does not vary
appreciably from top to bottom edge of
the orifice and is assumed to be According to shape of upstream edge
uniform.
i. Sharp-edged orifice
 The orifice is large if the dimensions are
comparable with the head causing flow. ii. Bell-mouthed orifice
The variation in the velocity from top to
bottom edge is considerable.
According to discharge condition
i. Free discharge orifice
ii. Submerged orifice
Orifice
Vena Contracta
The section of the jet in which the streamlines become parallel and the dia of jet is
minimum (even less than the dia of orifice).
The Vena Contracta is formed due to convergence of streamlines. The location is
usually at a distance of (N x D) from the wall of tank. ( N is distance coefficient ≈ 0.5)

Hydraulic Coefficients of Orifice

i. Co-efficient of Contraction (Cc)
ii. Co-efficient of velocity (Cv)
iii. Co-efficient of discharge (Cd)
Orifice
Coefficient of Contraction
The ratio between area of jet at Vena Contracta and area of orifice.

𝐴𝑐
Cc = <1 Where,
𝐴𝑜
Dc = Dia. of contracted jet
𝜋 Do = Dia. of orifice
𝐷𝐶2
For circular orifice ⇒ Cc = 4
𝜋 2
= (D c
2/D 2)
o
𝐷𝑜
4

Generally Cc ≈ 0.64 for shaped edge orifices

but it varies between 0.61-0.69 depending on shape, size and head H over the orifice
Orifice
Co-efficient of Velocity
The ratio between the actual velocity of jet of fluid at Vena Contracta and the
theoretical velocity of jet.

𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡
Cv = =
𝑉𝑡ℎ 2𝑔ℎ

Generally Cv ≈ 0.98 for shaped edge orifices

but it varies between 0.95-0.99 depending on shape, size and head H over the orifice
Orifice
Co-efficient of Discharge
The ratio between the actual discharge from an orifice to the theoretical discharge of
the orifice.

Generally Cd is taken as 0.62, but it varies from 0.61 to 0.65

 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic
Coefficients
Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd)
• The water is allowed to flow through an orifice fitted
to a tank under a constant head at H.
• The water is collected in a measuring tank for the
time t.
• The height of water in the measuring tank is
observed and noted.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ∗ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
Qact =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡
Cd = =
𝑄𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 ∗ 2𝑔𝐻
 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic
Coefficients
Co-efficient of Velocity (Cv)
• Suppose C-C represents the vena contracta of the jet of
water coming out of the orifice under constant head H.
• Consider a liquid particle is at C-C when time t=0 and it
takes the position P along the jet.

Vertical distance = y = ½ gt2 (t=x/V)

𝑔𝑥2
y= ½ g (x2/V2) ⇒ V=
2𝑦

Vth = 2𝑔𝐻
 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic
Coefficients
Co-efficient of Contraction (Cc)
As we know that:
Cd = Cv x Cc

𝐶𝑑
⇒ Cc =
𝐶𝑣
Large Orifice
If H < (5 x depth of orifice), then the orifice is called large orifice.
For small orifice velocity is considered constant and Q = Cd. A. 2𝑔𝐻, but for large the
velocity can’t be considered constant. Consider an area with thickness dh.
Large Orifice
Area of strip = b x dh
Vth = 2𝑔𝐻
By integrating between H1 and H2, we get
Mouthpieces/Tubes
• A tube/mouth piece is a short pipe whose length is not more than two or three
times the diameter.
• There is no sharp distinction between a tube and a thick walled orifice.
• A tube may be of uniform diameter or it may diverge
Problem 1
The head of water over an orifice of diameter 40 mm is 10 m. Find the actual discharge
and actual velocity of the jet at the vena contracta. Take Cd = 0.6 and Cv = 0.98

Solution:
Q (actual) = 0.01054 m3/s
V (actual) = 13.2 m/s
Problem 2
The head of water over an orifice of diameter 100 mm is 10 m. The water coming out
of the orifice is collected in a circular tank of 1.5 m diameter. The rise of water in this
tank is 1 m in 25 seconds. Also the coordinates of the point on the jet, measured from
vena contracta are 4.3 m horizontal and 0.5 m vertical. Find Cd, Cv and Cc

Solution:
Cd = 0.643
Cv = 0.96
Cc = 0.669
Nozzle
A nozzle is a tube of changing diameter, usually converging as shown in figure if
used for liquids.

Pressure at 1 is P1 & Dia is D1

Pressure at 2 is P2 & Dia is D2

Nozzle
Jet is a stream coming out of a nozzle, orifice or a tube.
Nozzle
Nozzle (Head loss)
𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22 1 2
z1 + + = z2 + + + hL
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑣22
+ = + hL = H z1= z2 & P2 = 0 (atm)
𝛾 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣22 𝑉22 x 1 v2 = Cv 2𝑔𝐻

+ hL =
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐶𝑣2
⇒ v22= Cv (2gH)
𝑉22 x 1 𝑉22 𝑉22 x 1
hL = - ⇒H=
2𝑔 𝐶𝑣2 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐶𝑣2

Head loss hL is a function of velocity head &

𝑉22 x 1
hL = ( 2- 1) Co-efficient of velocity of the nozzle.
2𝑔 𝐶𝑣
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Efficiency of a nozzle = η = x 100 = Cv2 x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Problem 3
A pipe, 100 mm in diameter has a nozzle attached to it at the discharge end, the
diameter of the nozzle is 50 mm. The rate of discharge of water through the nozzle is
20 litres/s and the pressure at the base of nozzle is 5.886 N/cm2. Calculate Cd. (Assume
that the base of nozzle and outlet of nozzle are at the same elevation)

Solution:
V1 = V2/4
V2 = 11.205 m/s
Cd = 0.909
Venturimeter , Orifice Meter & Pitot Tube
• Already discussed in previous topic

 Pitot tube:
It measures sum of velocity head and pressure head
 Piezoemeter:
It measures pressure head
 Pitot-Static tube:
It is combination of piezometer and pitot tube.
It can measure velocity head. In the pitot static tube, one
tube is inserted inside the other bent tube. Inner tube acts as
a pitot tube and outer as piezometric tube(s). The outer tube
also has holes transverse to the direction of flow. Sometimes
these tubes are also connected to differential manometer.
Flow measurement in Open Channels
Notches Weirs
• Metallic • Concrete/Masonry structures
• Doesn’t Raise W/L on u/s side • Raises W/L on u/s side only
• Smaller in size • Bigger in size
• Used in labs mostly • Used in field
 Flow measurement in Open Channels
Notch
A notch may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or vessel such that the liquid
surface in the tank is below the top edge of the opening. A notch may be regarded as an
orifice with the water surface below its upper edge. It is generally made of metallic plate. It
is used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel of tank.
Weir
It may be defined as any regular obstruction in an open stream over which the flow takes
place. It is made of masonry or concrete. The condition of flow, in the case of a weir are
practically same as those of a rectangular notch.
Nappe
The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir
Sill or crest
The top of the weir over which the water flows is known as sill or crest.
 Classification of Notches/Weirs
Classification of Weirs
Classification of Notches
According to shape
According to shape
Rectangular weir
1. Rectangular notch Trapezoidal weir (Cippoletti weir)
2. Triangular notch According to nature of discharge
3. Trapezoidal Notch Ordinary weir
Submerged weir
4. Stepped notch
According to width of weir
Narrow crested weir
Broad crested weir
According to nature of crest
Sharp crested weir
Ogee weir
 Discharge over Rectangular Notch/Weir
H= Head of water over the crest
L= Length of Notch or weir
For finding Q, an elementary strip of
thickness dh at depth h from free surface is
selected.
Area of strip= dh x L & Vth = 2𝑔ℎ
The discharge through strip = dQ

The total discharge can be found by

integration between 0 and H.
Discharge over Triangular Notch (V-Notch)
The same procedure is applied for triangular notch as adopted for rectangular one with
different geometry.
Advantages of triangular notch over
rectangular notch
I. The expression for discharge for a right angled V-notch is simple.
II. For measuring low discharge, a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a
rectangular notch.
III. Only one reading (H) is required for computation of discharge.
IV. Ventilation of a triangular notch is necessary.
Problem 4
The head of water over a rectangular notch is 900 mm. The discharge is 300 litres/s.
Find the length of the notch, when Cd = 0.62

Solution:
L or B = .192 m = 192 mm
Problem 5
Water flows over a rectangular weir 1 m wide at a depth of 150 mm and afterwards
passes through a triangular right angled weir. Taking Cd of rectangular and triangular
weir as 0.62 and 0.59 respectively, find the depth over the triangular weir.

Solution:
Q = 0.10635 m3/s
H=H1 = 0.3752 m
 Assignment
1. Derive the formula for trapezoidal notch

2. Study the effect of end contraction and approach velocity on the

discharge through rectangular notch/weir and relate it with the
Francis formula for rectangular notch.