The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-03400-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Powder metallurgy of stainless steels and composites: a review

of mechanical alloying and spark plasma sintering
Samuel Ranti Oke 1,2 & Oladeji Oluremi Ige 1,3 & Oluwasegun Eso Falodun 1 & Avwerosuoghene M. Okoro 1 &
Mahlatse R. Mphahlele 1 & Peter Apata Olubambi 1

Received: 15 October 2018 / Accepted: 28 January 2019

# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Although SPS has been studied for a rapidly growing number of materials, there is limited number of researches on the
fabrication and microstructural characterization of stainless steels processed by SPS. This article reviewed and provided a critical
discussion on the mechanical alloying (MA) and spark plasma sintering (SPS) of dispersion-strengthened stainless steel with
emphasis on process parameters, reinforcement efficiencies, microstructural evolutions, and mechanical properties. The influence
of spark plasma sintering process parameters on microstructure, phase evolution, and mechanical properties of reinforced
stainless steels is reviewed in this work. The role of alloying elements and ceramic reinforcements, their dispersion into the
stainless steel matrix, and the importance of matrix-reinforcement interface are highlighted. Current and potential areas of
applications of PM stainless steel and suggestions for future research are discussed in this paper.

Keywords Powder metallurgy . Stainless steels . Mechanical alloying (MA) . Spark plasma sintering (SPS) . Properties

1 Introduction to powder metallurgy stainless
steels
Stainless steels are important iron-based alloys that have
found wide spread application due to their unique me-
chanical and corrosion properties. Generally, stainless
steels contain a minimum of 10.5% chromium (Cr) in
iron (Fe) which is the minimum amount required to
protect the steel from chemical attack. The type of stain-
less steel is determined by the percentage of Cr present [1, 2].
Aside the Cr content, the properties and selection of stainless
steels for specific applications are influenced by other alloying
elements such as nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), molybdenum
(Mo), nitrogen (N), carbon (C), sulfur (S), niobium (Nb), sil-
icon (Si), and titanium (Ti) [3]. For example, Mo is added to
* Samuel Ranti Oke
sroke99@outlook.com
1
Center for Nanoengineering and Tribocorrosion, School of Mining,
Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg, South Africa
2
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal
University of Technology Akure, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
3 tenite. They combine the properties of ferrite and austenite
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria
stainless steel to enhance pitting resistance; N and Mn for
increased strength; Ti for improved ductility; and Cu and Al
for precipitation hardening.
Based on the microstructure, stainless steels are categorized
into five major families namely ferritic, austenitic, martensitic,
and duplex stainless steel [4]. The ferritic steels are predomi-
nantly high in chromium, magnetic stainless steels that con-
tain low content of carbon and nickel. They are defined by a
body-centered cubic (BCC) grain structure. Ferritic steels can-
not be strengthened by heat treatment but have good ductility
and resistance to stress-corrosion cracking [5]. Martensitic
steels are obtained by the addition of carbon to the Fe-Cr
system. Their structure is similar to that of carbon steels.
They are hardenable and are defined by a body-centered
tetragonal (BCT) structure at room temperature [6]. The
austenitic stainless steels usually contain 16 to 26% Cr
and up to 35% Ni. The composition of this class of steel
stabilizes the face-centered cubic (FCC) austenite structure
at ambient temperature. They possess better corrosion re-
sistance when compared to the ferritic and the martensitic
stainless steels and are thus commonly applied in the
chemical industry [7, 8]. While ferritic, austenitic, and
martensitic consist of single-phase structures, the structure
of duplex stainless steel is a dual phase of ferrite and aus-
phases to yield a steel with improved yield strength and

better resistance to stress corrosion cracking compared to
austenitic grades [9, 10].
The classes of stainless steels mentioned above have suc-
cessfully been fabricated through powder metallurgy routes
such as hot isostatic pressing, high temperature-high pressure,
and spark plasma sintering [11]. All PM routes involve the
process of blending fine stainless steel powders, compacting
the blended powders into a desired shape, and then heating the
compacted steel in a controlled atmosphere to bond the com-
pacts (sintering). Austenitic and ferritic grades are the most
widely synthesized through PM and are well documented in
literature. However, there is scanty works on the PM of mar-
tensitic and duplex stainless steels. The PM of stainless steels
has gained attention in recent years. This is attributed to the
fact that sintered stainless steel parts now find industrial ap-
plications such as aerospace, automobile, recreational, and
chemical processing among others [11, 12].
The composition of sintered stainless steels differs slightly
from their wrought counterparts due to processing techniques.
For example, sintered stainless steels other than martensitic
grades have lower carbon contents compared to wrought
stainless steels. The low composition of carbon in PM steels
is significant for two reasons: (1) enhancement of ductility and
formability (form it into different shapes of stainless steel and
(2) the tendency of precipitation of carbides at grain bound-
aries (sensitization) in stainless steel which may cause the steel
to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion or stress corrosion
cracking is minimized [13]. Again, the composition of nitro-
gen in stainless steels is limited (about 0.2%) in wrought
steels. Liquid state production of stainless steel often results
in precipitation of secondary nitride phases and solute segre-
gations in the spacing between dendrite arms during solidifi-
cation [14] when N exceeds 0.2%. The composition of N in
stainless steel can be raised beyond the level attained in
wrought steel when processed through PM. Rawers et al. have
demonstrated that mechanical alloying followed by powder
injection molding in a nitrogen gas atmosphere is an effective
way to accomplish raised levels of nitrogen in stainless steel.
Cisneros et al. [15] reported that the use of PM technique can
fabricate stainless steel with N composition of about 5 wt%.
Owing to the benefits of high N contents in stainless steels,
PM can be used to successfully produce stainless steels with
very high strength, hardness, elastic modulus, and fatigue
strength. This is understandable because N has been found
to increase the values of σ and k in the Hall–Petch relation.
However, the choice of some PM steels for certain appli-
cations is limited by their relative softness and susceptibility to
galling and wear [16]. While literatures on the tribological
properties of PM stainless steel are scanty, there exist some
researches on the comparison of dry sliding characteristics of
sintered and wrought ferrous alloys [11, 17, 18]. The authors
ascribed similar wear mechanisms for both alloys, although
there is a strong dependence on porosity and microstructure
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
for PM materials. Efforts have been made by researchers to
improve the properties of stainless steel by dispersion second-
phase particles into the steel matrix. Details of dispersion-
strengthened stainless steels are presented in the next section
of this paper.
1.1 PM of dispersion-strengthened stainless steel
composites
Many efforts have been targeted towards the development of
high-performance reinforced steels that have promise for nu-
clear and high-temperature engineering applications such as
highly efficient gas turbines, boiler tubes, pressure vessels,
automobiles exhaust, motor engines, catalytic heat ex-
changers, and combustion systems etc. Conventional steels
used in applications pose many unsolved problems; among
them, degradation of mechanical properties at high tempera-
tures, and poor resistance to creep, fatigue, and thermal shock.
Attempts to solve these problems have involved dispersing
second phases such as particulates, platelets, whiskers, and
fibers in the micron-size range at the matrix grain boundaries.
The second-phase particles are attractive due to their unusual
properties such as high melting point and hardness [19, 20].
The fabrication of dispersion-strengthened stainless steels
is hardly achieved through conventional melting and casting
process due to challenges of differences in density, melting
point, and thermal conductivity between the reinforcing phase
and stainless steel matrix. This often results in a non-
homogeneous structure which may degrade the mechanical
and corrosion properties. To solve this problem, the powder
metallurgy (PM) route has been reported to be a viable option.
Several PM techniques, such as hot pressing, extrusion, or hot
isostatic pressing (HIP), HP-HT, have been used to fabricate
stainless steel composite but the challenge to obtain a highly
dense composites remains unresolved with the use of this PM
techniques [21]. This drawback has motivated the use of spark
plasma sintering (SPS) technique for the fabrication of
dispersion-strengthened stainless steels to achieve enhanced
densification and mechanical properties. SPS is a non-
equilibrium processing technique that has gained researchers’
interest in recent years [22]. It has been successfully used to
preserve the grain size of structures within the nanoscale range
due to shorter sintering period, higher degree of densification,
and lower sintering temperature [23]. The effectiveness of the
technique relies on electrical spark discharge phenomenon; a
pulse current is used to generate plasma which raises the tem-
perature at powder contact; this is proceeded by powder sur-
face activation and melting, necking at powder contact, atomic
diffusion, and plastic flow of sintered compacts [23, 24]. The
detailed principle and mechanism of SPS are discussed in
subsequent sections in this review.
Although SPS has been studied for a rapidly growing num-
ber of materials, there are limited number of researches on the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
fabrication and microstructural characterization of DS steels
processed by SPS. Studies were mainly related with the opti-
mization of a sintering process and with the effect of sintering
conditions on physical properties and microstructure.
Tribological and mechanical properties of steel-based com-
posites reinforced with ceramic particles were also taken into
consideration. For example, Patankar and Tan [25] examined
the role of SiC in the sintering process of composites based on
the 316 L stainless steel. It was found that the addition of SiC
significantly improved the density of the composites. This fact
was attributed to the reaction of SiC with a steel matrix,
resulting in the formation of a low-melting Fe–SiC phase. In
contrast, Mukherjee and Upadhyaya [26] investigated the ef-
fect of Al2O3 particles (added in an amount of up to 8%) on
the sintering behavior and properties of ferritic steel. The
highest mechanical properties were obtained in materials con-
taining 4–6 vol% Al2O3. Tjong and Lau [27] studied compos-
ites with matrix based on the 304 L steel reinforced with TiB2
particles (5–20 vol%). They proved that the addition of TiB2
particles was very effective in improving the wear resistance,
hardness, and toughness of the composite. An attempt is made
in this article to review and provide a critical discussion on the
spark plasma sintering of dispersion-strengthened stainless
steel composites with emphasis on process parameters, rein-
forcement efficiencies, microstructural evolutions, and me-
chanical properties. The review is intended to cover literatures
on the subject.
2 Powder synthesis of stainless steels and its
composites
2.1 Mechanical alloying
Mechanical alloying (MA) has been considered the most fa-
vorable processing route for the synthesis of elemental pow-
ders and non-equilibrium structures. This technique has been
Fig. 1 The mechanism of ball-
powder-ball collision during
milling process [33]
used to synthesize a range of alloys and composites starting
with blended elemental powders [28, 29]. The products that
have been synthesized using MA include intermetallics, qua-
sicrystalline alloys, amorphous alloys, nanocrystalline alloys,
and dispersion-strengthened composites at near ambient tem-
perature [29, 30]. The mechanism of MA is anchored on re-
peated cold welding, fracturing, and rewelding of elemental
powder blend in high-energy ball mills [31]. During MA,
there exists material transfer by diffusion which is often ac-
companied by transformation to metastable phases with a
nanosized structure. The compelling force of the phase trans-
formations during MA is the enthalpy of formation and relax-
ation of powder interphase boundaries which often result in a
non-equilibrium reaction product [32]. The schematic dia-
gram of MA is shown in Fig. 1.
The appropriate selection of milling parameters is critical to
achieve a homogenously synthesized stainless steel powder
blends. Milling parameters which include ball to milling
speed, powder ratio (BPR), milling time, and interval between
milling duration play key roles on the structural evolution of
the powder blends [34]. Therefore, it is imperative to optimize
these milling parameters to ensure homogeneous powder
blends and uniform dispersion of reinforcements in stainless
steel matrix. Considering the above milling parameters, it is
important to state that the critical milling speed is a critical
parameter at which centrifugal force becomes equivalent to
gravitational force [29, 35]. Therefore, critical speed of ball
mill is expressed by the following relation:
nc ¼ 1=2π√ðg=ðR−rÞÞ ð1Þ
where R represents the radius of the ball mill and r is the radius
of the grinding mill. However, the centrifugal force inside the
ball mill can be determined by using this relation:
Fc ¼ ðmv∧ 2Þ=R ð2Þ
where R represents the radius of the ball mill, m is the mass of
the grinding ball (kg), and v is the velocity in m/s.

A number of studies have been devoted to synthesize aus-
tenitic, ferritic, and duplex stainless steel alloys and their com-
posites through MA. Stainless steel elemental powder parti-
cles interact with each other and/or the reinforcing particles to
form a ground material having a new phase composition upon
milling. The interaction between powder particles is depen-
dent on the energy of one collision, the collision frequency,
and the total MA time. Shashanka and Chaira [33] described
high energy planetary ball milling as an appropriate mechan-
ical alloying technique for the synthesis of nano-structured
stainless steel powder blend. They regarded the method as
cost effective and highly feasible. Several researchers [33,
36] have synthesized duplex and ferritic stainless steel powder
blend using dual-drive planetary and Fritsch Pulverisette plan-
etary mills with emphasis on the extend of dispersion and
phase transformation mechanisms occurring during milling.
2.1.1 Phase transformation during mechanical alloying
of austenitic stainless steel
A lot of research has been dedicated to the study of ferrite
austenite phase transformations occurring during planetary
milling of stainless steels elemental Fe, Cr, and Ni powders.
The composition range of stability of ferrite and austenite is
dependent on the percentage content of Cr and Ni as shown in
Fig. 2a. Based on the concentration range of stability of α and
Fig. 2 a The concentration range of stability of ferrite and austenite in Fe–Cr–Ni alloys. b XRD traces of Fe–18Cr–8Ni powder particles. c XRD traces of
Fe–15Cr–15Ni powder particles. d XRD traces of Fe–15Cr–25Ni powder particles after different milling times [38]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
γ, it is expected that increasing Cr and Ni content will promote
the formation of α and γ structure, respectively [37]. The
phase transition of three selected alloys of Fe–18Cr–8Ni,
Fe–15Cr–15Ni, and Fe–15Cr–25Ni alloys during planetary
milling under argon atmosphere was studied by Enayati and
Bafandeh [38]. The MA of Fe–18Cr–8Ni powder mixture
underwent gradual transition from a dual phase α and γ struc-
ture to a single-phase BCC martensite structure (Fig. 2b).
Similar trend was noticed during the MA of Fe–15Cr–15Ni
composition, with the resulting structure being a single-phase
BCC solid solution (α) (Fig. 2c). However, a different behav-
ior is reported with the increase in the Ni content for the Fe–
15Cr–25Ni composition. The increase in Ni is noted to favor
γ transformation. Figure 2d shows that the MA for 10 h yields
FCC γ co-existing with BCC α solid solution. As MA
progressed up to 50 h, the fraction of γ increased, resulting
in a fully austenite structure. The phase transition of nano-
structured BCC and/or FCC solid solutions depends on Ni
content and milling intensity [39].
During milling of austenitic stainless steel chips with com-
position Fe–20Cr–7.03Ni–1.62Mn–0.4S–0.05C, dual struc-
ture consisting of austenite and martensite phases resulted from
the partial transition from ferrite content to martensite phase.
The formation of a fully austenized structure is deprived due to
low Ni content and milling time [40]. However, heat treatment
can be employed to restore a complete austenitic phase.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Annealing conditions at 700 °C for 1 h resulted in a full aus-
tenite structure. In another study by Oleszak et al. [41], the
formation of austenite and martensite phases in milled 316 L
(Fe–17Cr–13Ni–2.2Mo–0.2Mn–0.8Si–0.02C) austenitic
stainless steel rely on the milling time. A dual austenite and
martensite phase was noted at lower milling times, an increase
in milling time led to a significant decrease in the martensite
phase. A similar view was shared by Huang et al. [42] in their
work on the planetary milling of 304 stainless steel powder
with composition 17.2Cr–8Ni–73.4Fe.
The phase transformation occurring during MA of stainless
steel powder blends could be linked to the energy stored by
elemental powder particles as a result of immense plastic de-
formation at high strain rates. This is accompanied by the
creation of a high concentration of crystalline defects such
as interstitials, vacancies, dislocations, stacking faults as well
as grain boundaries [43, 44]. The energy associated with the
above defects can influence the thermodynamics of the phase
transition during MA by raising the free energy levels of α and
γ crystalline phases and thus changes the stability range of α
and γ phases with respect to the equilibrium state. Also, the
intense phenomena such as cold working, recovery, and grain
refinement occurring during MA leads to the formation nano-
structured grains, fine grain size structure have been reported
to favor austenite phase stabilization [39, 45].
2.1.2 Phase transformation during mechanical alloying
of nitrogen atmosphere
The atmosphere under which milling is conducted affects
phase transition, contamination, structure, and properties of
the resulting powder blends. The phase balance of ferrite
and austenite in stainless steels can be controlled or altered
with the addition of nitrogen or milling in nitrogen atmo-
sphere. Nitrogen is regarded as a strong austenite stabilizer;
its effects on mechanical and corrosion properties of stainless
steels have been studied [46]. Nitrogen can be introduced into
stainless steels via a gas–solid reaction (MA of stainless steel
powders in nitrogen atmosphere) and solid–solid reaction
(MA of stainless steel powders with nitride powders) [38,
47]. The transition of ferrite to austenite phase will proceed
during MA of austenitic steel in nitrogen environment. This is
expected due to the strong austenite stabilizing effect of nitro-
gen and the diffusion of nitrogen atoms into the interstice of
ferrite crystallites. In addition, the nitrogen content in stainless
steels can be increased through milling under a nitrogen atmo-
sphere or milling with proper nitride powders. The increase in
nitrogen content in Fe–18Cr–11Mn stainless steel powder
with milling time and phase transformation of ferrite to aus-
tenite has been reported [48]. Though a review on the struc-
tural evolution that occurs during mechanical alloying of
stainless steels under nitrogen environment was done by
Salahinejad et al. [15] but was limited to researches conducted
before 2012.
Recently, Duan et al. [49] confirmed the phase transforma-
tion of α-Fe to γ-Fe during milling of Fe–18Cr–8Mn stainless
steel powders through simultaneous dissociation of chromium
nitrides and nitrogen molecules. The authors attributed the
structural transformation of ferrite to austenite to the presence
of increased amount of nitrogen atoms diffusing into interstitial
sites of α-Fe crystallites and stored energy in powders. Apart
from nitrogen effect, refinement of the structure played a cru-
cial role on the austenitization transition in MA process. The
volume fraction of grain boundaries increased with grain re-
finement, which led to the increase of enthalpy or strain energy
of powders and the transformation of phase [15, 49, 50]. The
authors also reported that the nitrogen content of the as-milled
powder increased with increase in milling time up to 3.69%
which is more than 0.1% the equilibrium solubility limit of
nitrogen in Fe at room temperature (Fig. 3). The severe ball-
powder collisions, continual fracturing, and cold welding oc-
curring during MA process resulted in the dissociation of chro-
mium nitrides, creation of oxygen-free active powder surface,
and the diffusion of nitrogen atoms into steel lattice; this led to
the increase in the percentage of nitrogen in matrix powders.
2.2 Mechanical alloying of duplex and ferritic stainless
steel
Due to the wide range of application of duplex and ferritic
stainless steels, attention has been diverted to improve their
structures and properties. The properties of duplex and ferritic
steels can be improved tremendously by bringing down their
size to nano atomic level [51]. Though techniques such as
hydrostatic extrusion, hydraulic pressings, and ultrasonic shot
peening and equal channel angular processing have been
employed to refine the microstructure of stainless steels, plan-
etary milling has been reported to be a more promising plastic
deformation technique to achieve extreme refinement in struc-
ture of materials [52]. The effectiveness of planetary milling to
achieve particle refinement depends on various milling param-
eters such as ball to powder weight ratio (BPR), process con-
trol agents (PCA), milling speed, and milling time [33].
However, MA alloying of duplex and ferritic stainless steels
are gaining attention by researchers. There are scanty litera-
tures available on the planetary milling of duplex and ferritic
stainless steels. Shashanka and Chaira [33] were the first re-
searchers to report the effect of milling parameters during
synthesis of duplex stainless steel in dual drive planetary mill.
They studied in detail the effect of PCA (stearic acid), milling
speed, and BPR of 6:1 and 12:1 during planetary milling of
duplex and ferritic steel powders (Fig. 4). The stainless steel
powders milled in the addition of stearic acid have smaller
particle sizes compared to that milled without stearic acid.
The addition of stearic acid could inhibit excessive cold-
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

(b)

(a)

Fig. 3 a The variation of nitrogen content in powder mixtures milled at different times. b XRD patterns of as-milled powder at different milling times [49]

welding, reduce crystal size, reduce the time of milling to form
Fe–Cr–Ni solid solution, and increase the volume of defects
such as stacking fault, dislocations, and vacancy [53]. Meng
et al. [54] confirmed that ferrite to austenite phase transforma-
tion was favored at higher milling speed. The higher mill
speed raised the impact energy of balls on the powders, thus
increasing the rate of collision between ball–powder–jar. This
results in the reduction of powder crystallite size which favors
stability of austenite phase. The increase in ball to powder
ratio from 6:1 to 12:1 revealed powder particles with lesser
particle sizes. This is attributed to the increased rate of colli-
sion of balls on powder samples at 12:1. Figure 4 depicts the

Fig. 4 SEM images of duplex stainless steel powder milled for a 0 h, b 10 h at a mill speed of 75% CS; and ferritic stainless steel powder milled for c 0 h,
d 10 h at a mill speed of 75% CS [33]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
influence of increase in milling time on particle sizes of milled
stainless steel powders.
The dispersion of nano-ceramic oxide particles (Y2O3) in
ferritic stainless steel matrix can significantly improve the
creep resistance of the steel. MA is the most popular technique
for preparing oxide dispersion steels. During MA, the Y2O3
powders blend with Ti in the steel to form complex stable
nano-clusters of Y–Ti–O admixed powder inside the steel
[55]. The formation of stable nano clusters is, however, influ-
enced by the variables of milling. Pandey et al. [52] investi-
gated the effects of milling variables such as BPR (10:1, 15:1,
and 20:1) and milling speeds (250, 300, and 350 rpm) on pre-
alloyed ferritic steel powder (Fe–9Cr–2.25W–0.2Ti) and
Y2O3. The crystallite particle sizes of the milled ODS ferritic
stainless steel were noted to decrease with an increase in BPR
and milling speed. The reduction in crystallite size is as-
sociated with the internal strain stored in milled powders.
This phenomenon was however reported by Oke SR et al.
[17] to be attributed to annealing during milling. The op-
timum crystallite particle sizes were obtained at milling
speed of 300 and BPR 10:1. In a related research conduct-
ed by Rahmanifard et al. [56] on the effect of BPR (10:1
and 15:1) and milling speed (300 and 420 rpm) during
milling of ODS ferritic stainless steel, their findings were
similar to that of Pandey et al. [58]. The authors reported
the decrease in crystallite and particle sizes of ferritic
stainless steel powder and an increase in lattice parameter
with increase in milling speeds and BPR [57].
Nayak et al. [58] fabricated yttria dispersed and tungsten
dispersed duplex stainless steel composites by milling sepa-
rately elemental powders of duplex stainless steel composition
(Fe–18Cr–13Ni) with 1 wt.% nano yttria and tungsten in dual
drive planetary mill (DDPM) for 10 h. The authors reported
gradual transition from ferrite to austenite during milling. The
crystallite size of yttria and tungsten dispersed duplex stainless
steel after 10-h milling was found to be 7 nm and 5 mm,
respectively. The authors carried out annealing at 750 °C of
the 10 h milled powder under argon atmosphere to observe the
phase transformation in the dispersed steels. A phase
Fig. 5 a A schematic of the SPS process. b D C pulse current flow through the particles [61]
transformation from α to γ was observed with the formation
of oxides of Y, Fe, and Cr.
3 Spark plasma sintering of stainless steels
and composites
3.1 The spark plasma sintering process
and mechanism
Schematically, the SPS process is illustrated in Fig. 5a. The SPS
combines the pulse DC currents and pressure to achieve pow-
der consolidation. The SPS system comprises uniaxial press,
lower and upper punches electrodes, DC pulse generator, vac-
uum chamber, pressure, and temperature probes coupled with
in-built water cooled system [59]. The mixed powders to be
consolidated are held in a graphite die and punch assembly; the
temperature in the assembly is raised by passing a DC current
while uniaxial pressure is applied on the assembly [60]. The
flow of DC current across powder contacts is shown in Fig. 5b.
The flow of DC pulsed current causes electrical discharge at the
stainless steel powder particle contact points and could generate
plasma at powder contacts [61]. The spark discharge generated
has been reported to effectively remove contaminations and
momentarily increase the temperature of powder surface and
contacts [62]. The heat generated in the process enhances pow-
der surface activation and partial melting, formation of neck at
contact points, atomic diffusion, and plastic flow occurs [63].
Joule heating and plastic deformation effects also enhance den-
sification of the sinter, leading to improved sintering efficiency
and restriction of grain growth.
The success of the SPS process has been highlighted by
significant achievements; for example, the ultrafine-grained
microstructure obtained by SPS allowed a significant increase
of strength and hardness of SPS sintered 316 L stainless steel
[63], joining of 316 L stainless steel rods with improved
rupture strength [64], a remarkable increase in densifica-
tion duplex and ferritic steels [65], excellent compressive
properties, higher toughness, reduced impurity segregation at

grain boundaries and improved bonding quality [66], and ho-
mogenous dispersion of ceramic reinforcement in stainless
steels [67]. From previous publications, the ceramic reinforce-
ments that have been dispersed in stainless steels using SPS
are presented in Table 1.
3.2 Spark plasma sintering of austenitic stainless
steels
Austenitic steels are widely used in automotive, aerospace,
marine, biomedical, and food industries. This wide range of
applications is certainly due to their excellent properties, such
as the high resistance to corrosion and abrasion, high resis-
tance to oxidation at elevated temperatures, and satisfactory
strength [68, 69].
3.2.1 Effect of tungsten addition
The high temperature capability of austenitic stainless steel
can further be enhanced by dispersing tungsten (W) into the
steel matrix; W and alloys are choice materials for plasma
facing of helium cooled divertor in fusion reactor owing to
its benefits of high thermal conductivity, hot strength, low
sputtering yield, high sputtering threshold, good thermal sta-
bility, and low irradiation swelling [70–72]. Tan et al. [73]
harnessed the attractive properties of W and fabricated func-
tionally graded 316L-W via MA and SPS. The sintering con-
ditions (1050 °C, 45.5 MPa, 5 min) favored the evolution of
Fe7W6, Fe3, W3C, and Fe2W (Fig. 5b) phases which are
retained between the W particles and the 316L matrix. The
addition of W plays a major role in enhancing the composite’s
hardness with a maximum micro-hardness value of 690.31
HV obtained for the 316L-50W layer milled for 5 h (Fig. 6).
The increase in hardness is attributed to the presence of Fe7W6
phase which is harder and more rigid than W [74]. Another
study by Tan et al. [75] affirmed the suitability of 316L/316L-
Table 1 Ceramic materials used as reinforcement in dispersion-
strengthened stainless steels fabricated via SPS
S/N Stainless steel type Reinforcements
1 Austenitic Oxides: Al2O3, Y2O3
Nitrides: BN
Borides: TiB2
Carbides: TiC, WC, CNT
2 Ferrite Oxides: Al2O3, Y2O3, La2O3
Nitrides: TiCN
Borides: -
Carbides: TiC, SiC,
3 Duplex Oxides: Y2O3, ZrO2
Nitrides: TiN
Borides: -
Carbides: TiC, WCp
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
50W/Wp for divertors and first wall materials, where less
thermal loads is required.
3.2.2 Effect of boride and carbide additions
Borides and carbide-based ceramics have been reported to be
potential candidates for strengthening stainless steel matrix
composites due to their excellent hardness and stability with
the steel matrix. Titanium diboride (TiB2) exhibits attractive
properties such as high hardness, high melting point, good
thermal conductivities, chemical stability, and high wear re-
sistance [76, 77]. Sulima et al. [78] studied in detail the mi-
crostructure of TiB2-reinforced austenitic stainless steel fabri-
cated via SPS and HP-HT powder metallurgy techniques. The
two sintering techniques had a substantial influence on the
microstructure and grain sizes of the composites. The findings
revealed the formation of chromium-iron-nickel phase for
composites sintered via HP-HT while the microstructure of
the TiB2-reinforced steel sintered by SPS is characterized by
the presence of complex borides and chromium-iron phase
(Fig. 7). The complex borides are precipitated within the grain
boundaries of TiB2 and the steel matrix. The authors attributed
the formation of complex borides to the chemical composition
of the composite and complex phenomena that occurs during
SPS (surface activation, diffusion, surface melting, necking
between the particles of sintered powder, and plastic flow
[79, 80]). Studies by Sulima et al. [67] reported a maximum
relative density range of 97–99% for TiB2-reinforced steel
composites sintered at 1100 °C. The Young’s modulus, micro-
hardness, and compression strength of composites increased
with the increase of sintering temperature from 1000 to
1100 °C.
Further research by Sulima [81] confirmed segregation of
boron at the grain boundaries and the occurrence of complex
borides of iron, chromium, and nickel in the microstructure of
boron aided austenitic steel-based composites produced by
SPS. The size of the complex borides and other new phases
formed in the composite increased with increasing sintering
temperature and time. It has been reported that the addition of
small amount of boron to steel powders can effectively acti-
vate the sintering process [82, 83]. Skalon and Kazior [83]
have demonstrated the formation of complex borides (Cr,
Mo, Fe) in the process of pressure-free sintering of austen-
itic stainless steel. In those studies, a small amount of bo-
ron was used as a sintering activator. In that case, sintering
took place in the liquid phase, which was formed by a
eutectic reaction between the matrix and the boride phase
(Fe, Cr, Mo)2B [81, 84].
The SPS process is recognized for the fabrication of high-
quality, fully dense sintered compacts at relatively lower
sintering temperature and in a shorter time than conventional
sintering processes. The densification range reported by
Sulima et al. [67] was in agreement with other researches. Li
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

(a) (b)

Fig. 6 a The average hardness of each layer of 3 samples. b XRD patterns of the sintered 316L-50W layer [73]

et al. [85] synthesized TiB2-reinforced austenitic stainless
steel matrix composite using Spark Plasma Sintering tech-
nique. The authors reported a maximum density value of
98.6% after sintering for 5 min. In another study, Li et al.
[86] fabricated an in situ TiB2–TiC particulates reinforced
austenitic steel matrix composites using SPS technique. The
sintering temperature and holding time had a significant
influence on the densification, hardness, and phase evo-
lution of the sintered composites. Their findings showed
that the maximum densification (99.2%) and hardness
(83.8 HRA) were obtained at sintering condition at a
temperature of 1050 °C for 5 min. Tjong and Lau
[27] reported that the addition of TiB2 particles improves the
mechanical strength of sintered 304 stainless steels. The 0.2%
offset yield strength and hardness of composites increased
with increasing TiB2 volume content.
Ni et al. [87] reported that the TiC addition to the aus-
tenitic stainless steel brings beneficial effects on mechani-
cal properties and oxidation resistance. Experimental data
showed that both at ambient and elevated temperature, ten-
sile strengths of austenitic stainless containing 5 vol.% TiC
were notably higher than those of the matrix without TiC
addition. Also, it was observed that the creep resistance of
austenitic-stainless steels increased significantly by TiC
addition at the elevated temperature of 923 K. Oxidation
test at 1073 K revealed that TiC addition to the austenitic
stainless steels raised the oxidation resistance of the steel
remarkably.

Fig. 7 TEM microstructure of steel-8TiB2 composite sintered by SPS with corresponding point analysis (EDS) [78]

3.2.3 Oxide dispersion-strengthened austenitic steel
Xu et al. [88] produced ODS 304 austenitic steel containing
0.35 wt.% Y2O3. The study investigated the influence of Y2O3
and concluded that the tensile and yield strength of ODS alloy
were greatly improved compared with 304 austenitic steel at
the expense of ductility both at room temperature and high
temperatures. In a related study, Phaniraj et al. [89] prepared
mechanically alloyed austenitic steels (Fe–20Ni–14Cr–
2.5Mo–2Mn–2.5Al-wt.%) dispersed with 0, 0.5, and 5 wt.%
yttria and tested their cyclic oxidation behavior at 800 °C in
air. It was found that addition of yttria improves the resistance
to scale spallation but higher yttria content does not affect the
oxidation rate of the alloy significantly.
4 Spark plasma sintering of ferritic stainless
steels
Dispersion-strengthened ferritic stainless steel has gained con-
siderable attention in recent years as promising candidate
structural materials for high temperature applications, for in-
stance in power plants and gas turbines, where an increase in
operating temperatures is a challenge [90]. They are also ma-
terials of choice for fossil and nuclear energy applications [91,
92]. Dispersion of fine or nano particles in ferritic steels can be
employed to improve the high-temperature mechanical prop-
erties and resistance to neutron irradiation embrittlement be-
cause these high stability particles could impede dislocation
movement and interaction within and at grain boundaries ef-
fectively [93]. PM is one effective method for fabricating fer-
ritic steels with uniform dispersion of nano-particles.
Conventionally, hot isostatic pressure and hot extrusion are
PM routes used to consolidate the DSFS but anisotropic prop-
erties and processing costs are considered challenging issues.
Recently, spark plasma sintering (SPS) has been utilized to
sinter the powder at a higher heating rate, lower temperature,
and shorter dwell time [55]. Reported literatures on the
dispersion-strengthened ferritic steel alloy/composites fabri-
cated by SPS are reviewed in this session.
4.1 Influence of process parameters
The SPS process has successfully been utilized to consolidate
dispersion-strengthened ferritic steels with complex composi-
tions. Recently, the role of sintering conditions on the micro-
structure, relative density, and hardness of ferritic steel alloys
consolidated by SPS from base powders of Fe–16Cr with
0.5Y 2O3 and 0.5Y2O 3–1Ti (wt.%) was investigated by
Allahar et al. [94]. The authors reported a bimodal microstruc-
ture (fine, equiaxed, and coarse grains) which was similar to a
study carried out by Ji et al. [95]. They suggested that the fine
grains (Fe-16Cr-3Al-0.5Y 2O 3-1Ti) were attributable to
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
recovery and recrystallization during the sintering process
with the coarse grains (Fe-16Cr-3Al-0.5Y2O3) associated with
grain growth. The hardness value of DS alloys decreased with
the higher sintering temperature for the Fe-16Cr-3Al-0.5Y2O3
and Fe-16Cr-3Al-0.5Y2O3-1Ti DS alloys. Li et al. [57] in a
related research investigated the influence of SPS parameters
on mechanical properties Fe-14Cr-2W-0.3Ti-0.3Y2O3. The
formation of ultrafine grains was reported at low temperature,
and a mixed microstructure of fine grains and coarse grains
was observed in the steels sintered at high temperature. The
average grain sizes were also reported to increase from 290 to
2420 nm, with increasing sintering temperature (950 °C to
1025 °C) as indicated in Fig. 8.
It is worth mentioning that during MA, the grains of pow-
ders are refined and high-density defects are produced due to
severe and repeated plastic deformation, resulting in high
stored energy [96, 97]. Due to increase in temperature and
temperature differences (from the surface to the core of parti-
cles), nano-scale grains may grow or recrystallize very rapidly
during SPS. However, the formation of high density evenly
dispersed precipitates and short sintering time can impede the
growth of grains [98]. The hardness and tensile strength of the
samples reduced with increase in sintering temperature.
4.2 Influence of alloying elements
The effect of individual and combined addition of Ti, La2O3,
and Mo on the formation of Fe–14Cr nano structured ferritic
steel and microstructural evolutions was investigated by
Pasebani and Charit [99]. The authors reported that the
SPSed Fe–14Cr alloy recorded higher hardness at room tem-
perature which was due to the effect posed by strain harden-
ing. Such strain hardening capability in nanocrystalline Fe
consolidated via SPS was also reported by Srinivasarao B
et al. [100]. The addition of La resulted in the formation of
Cr–La–O-enriched NCs which was reported to improve the
stability of its microstructure at high temperatures. Combined
addition of La, Ti, and Mo to Fe–14Cr matrix significantly
improved the mechanical behavior and microstructural stabil-
ity further due to the high number density of Cr–Ti–La–O-
enriched NCs in the alloy. The formation of nanoclusters
enriched phases with a bimodal grain size distribution found
in this alloy during milling was supported by Laurent-Brocq
M et al. and Brocq M et al. [101, 102].
The challenge of dispersing Al in ferritic steel matrix is a
loss of strength, though some researchers have reported the
success of Al alloying for improving corrosion resistance.
Kimura et al. [103] clearly show in their work that Al addition
to 19Cr ODS ferritic steel significantly reduces the tensile
strength at high temperature, although its tensile strength is
still much higher than a reduced activation ferritic steel JLF-1.
Microstructural examinations revealed very distinct differ-
ences in the dispersion morphology of the oxide particles in
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 8 EBSD images of SPS Fe-14Cr-2W-0.3Ti-0.3Y2O3 sintered at a 950 °C, b 975 °C, c 10 00 °C, and d 1025 °C [57].
the ferritic steel with and without Al additions. The average
diameter size of the dispersed oxide particles with and without
Al addition was 7 and 3 nm, respectively. The size results in a
reduction in the number density of the oxide particles. As
stated by Yamashita * S et al. [104], the fine oxide particles
in the steel Al-free steel were mainly pyrochlore, while those
in the steel with Al addition were mostly rather larger yttrium
aluminum perovskites (YAP) and yttrium aluminum hexago-
nal (YAH) [105].
4.3 Influence of ceramic additions
Materials utilized in nuclear fission and fusion energy systems
are exposed to very high doses of neutron irradiation at ele-
vated temperatures. It is expected that this material maintains
their mechanical integrity at such high-temperature conditions
[106, 107]. Nano oriented feritic alloys are choice materials
for the above application due to excellent creep and irradiation
resistance [106]. The enhanced nanograins in the ferritic ma-
trix can assist mechanical enhancement and radiation resis-
tance, for which traditional oxide dispersion-strengthened
(ODS) alloys are not able to accomplish. The addition of ce-
ramic disperiods to ferritic steels can help enhance high-
temperature stability in severe chemical environments.
Silicon carbide (SiC) has successfully been used to reinforce
ferritic steel due to high strength and chemical stability in
severe environments [108].
Hu et al. [19] investigated the influence of SiC addition on
nanostructured ferritic steel (NFA) with different composi-
tions (97.5 vol% NFA-2.5 vol% SiC and 95 vol% NFA-
5 vol% SiC) sintered by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The
authors reported in Fig. 8 that the density of NFA-SiC com-
posites increases with the sintering temperature but decreases
with the SiC content. The Vickers hardness of the NFA-SiC
composite is enhanced at higher temperatures of 950 and
1000 °C (Fig. 9). The addition of SiC is also observed to
decrease the elastic modulus and increase the yield strength
of the NFA-SiC composites. Minor γ-Fe phase formation
from the main α-Fe matrix occurs in pure NFA but was hin-
dered in the NFA-SiC composite.
4.4 Oxide dispersion-strengthened ferritic stainless
steel
Garcıa-Rodriguez et al. investigated the effect of Y2O3 addi-
tion on the capability of mechanical alloyed and SPSed nano-
structured Cr–Al ODS steels [109]. The addition of Y2O3 was
reported to promote the evolution of complex YxAlyOZ nano-
oxides and coarser oxides containing W and Ti. The 14Al–
ODS–Ti alloy displayed improved tensile strength and

Fig. 9 Vickers hardness and yield strength of the pure NFA and NFA-SiC samples at different sintering temperatures [19]
microhardness, which is due to a smaller grain size. In a relat-
ed study, Hernandez-Mayoral et al. studied the effect of SPS
parameters on the microstructure of Fe–14Cr–2W–0.4Ti me-
chanically alloyed with Y2O3 [110]. Grain growth occurred
during SPS with larger and more homogeneously distributed
grains being obtained from powders formed at higher rotation-
al speed. Titanium was detected in the nanoclusters after SPS,
indicating further evolution during consolidation. The me-
chanical behavior of the SPS compacts was evaluated by ten-
sile and small punch testing. The material with the highest
nanocluster density (highest rotational speed) showed the best
mechanical response, although its porosity adversely affected
ductility. Torralba et al. also investigated the mechanical re-
sponse of ODS ferritic steels (pre-alloyed grade of Fe–20Cr–
5Al and Fe–14Cr–5Al–3W with the addition of Ti and Y2O3
as reinforcements) by mechanical alloying followed by spark
plasma sintering at 1200 °C and 64 MPa. They reported en-
hanced tensile properties of ODS alloys as compared to pre-
alloyed alloys.
5 Spark plasma sintering of duplex stainless
steels
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) is a prominent member of the
stainless steel family which combine the properties of both
austenitic and ferritic classes of stainless steel because of the
near balance of austenite and ferrite phases present in its mi-
crostructure [111, 112]. They have been successfully utilized
in aerospace, chemical, power generation, and biomedical in-
dustries and other demanding engineering applications [9,
113] due to possession of attractive properties such as high
corrosion resistance, good mechanical strength and ductility,
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
abrasion resistance, erosion resistance, and a very good
weldability [7, 111, 112].
It is, however, reported that conventional DSS alloys pos-
sess inferior wear resistance and suffer considerable loss in
mechanical strength at high temperatures. Such limitations in
mechanical properties limit their use in structural applications
in many industrial sectors [114, 115]. One promising approach
to improve the elevated temperature properties as well as the
mechanical, wear, and corrosion properties of DSS is by rein-
forcing it with nano-ceramic dispersoids [14]. Among these
reinforcements, nanostructured TiN, TiB2, and c-BN are at-
tractive ceramics due to their unusual properties like very high
hardness, high strength at elevated temperatures, good ther-
modynamic stability with steel, and good thermal conductiv-
ity making possible its use in several high-temperature appli-
cations [116]. Investigations by researchers characterizing du-
plex stainless steel composites prepared by SPS are, however,
scanty and focused mostly on oxide and carbide and boride
dispersion strengthening [86].
5.1 Influence of SPS process parameters
The challenge to obtain fully dense or near-full dense com-
posites and avoid grain growth during spark plasma sintering
is of great importance and could be carefully resolved by
appropriate selection of sintering process parameters to meet
demanded mechanical properties and wear resistance [117].
Sintering conditions are vital parameters to minimize the po-
rosity level of PM stainless steels, which utterly affects the
mechanical and corrosion properties. Furthermore, other pa-
rameters such as sintering atmosphere [118] and the presence
of ceramic-based additives [119] also have an influence.
Martin et al. [120] fabricated duplex stainless steel from aus-
tenitic AISI 316 L and ferritic AISI 430 L powders mix at 650
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
and 700 MPa and studied the influence of sintering atmo-
sphere (nitrogen and hydrogen) and cooling rates (furnace,
gas, and water) on the microstructure and mechanical proper-
ties. Their work reported that the cooling rate is the key factor
that influences the microstructure of duplex stainless steel
sintered in nitrogen. A low cooling rate in the furnace favors
the evolution of intergranular and transgranular precipitates.
The porosity in the sintered steel was reported to be affected
by sintering pressure and holding time but not by the cooling
process. Maximum values of ductility, tensile strength, and
microhardness were obtained at optimal processing conditions
of 750 MPa and 300 s [120].
Dobrzański et al. [121] affirmed that the mechanical prop-
erties of sintered duplex stainless steels are strictly connected
with the pore structure and cooling rate from sintering tem-
perature. Slow cooling rates result in the formation of sigma
phase precipitation thereby degrading the mechanical proper-
ties. The properties of sintered duplex stainless steel strongly
depend on the austenite/ferrite ratio and elements partitioning
between the two phases [122]. Preliminary research conduct-
ed by Oke et al. [14] studied the effect of SPS process param-
eters of sintering temperature and holding time on microstruc-
ture, densification, and hardness on TiN dispersion strength-
ened duplex stainless steel. Their study revealed a dual phase
of austenite (γ) and ferrite (α) structure with the austenite
Fig. 10 Microstructures of
composites with 5% TiN sintered
at a A, 1000 °C, 10 min, b B,
1100 °C, 10 min, c C, 1150 °C,
5 min, d E, 1150 °C, 10 min, and
e F, 1150 °C, 15 min [14]
phase decreasing as sintering temperature and holding time
increased (Fig. 10). This suggests phase transformation from
austenite to delta ferrite with temperature increase [123].
Density and hardness increased with sintering temperature
and holding time with maximum densification and hardness
achieved at 1150 °C and 15 min, respectively. Further increase
in sintering temperature beyond 1150 °C degrades the proper-
ties of the stainless steel due to partial melting of stainless steel
powder [51].
5.2 Effect of nanoceramic addition
The mechanical properties of sintered duplex stainless steel
fabricated from mixed powders of ferritic and austenitic
grades have been studied. The addition of oxide and boride
ceramics to duplex stainless steel have been reported to acti-
vate sintering and enhance densification process, thereby
aiding the closure of residual pores and increasing ductility.
Shashanka et al. synthesized spark plasma sintered duplex
stainless steels reinforced with nano-yttria particles [8]. The
authors reported an increase in density and strength with fer-
rite to austenite phase transformation. Nano-Y2O3 has also
been reported to improve interfacial bonding, inhibit grain
growth, and increase the hardness of the stainless steels
[124, 125]. In a related study, Olaniran et al. fabricated

oxide-dispersed duplex stainless steel (2205) dispersed with
partially stabilized zirconia (3 mol% yttria) at sintering condi-
tions of 1100 °C, 30 MPa, and 30 min in argon atmosphere
and demonstrated that addition of chromium and nickel can
enhance densification of duplex stainless steel composites
[126]. Han et al. fabricated and characterized TiC-duplex
stainless steel composites by SPS. The authors reported
even dispersion of TiC and reduced densification with
TiC content. The evolution of carbide precipitates phase
located at the duplex grain boundary with enhanced hard-
ness was also reported [127].
Regarding the influence of a nitrogen-sintering atmo-
sphere, a recent research conducted by Mariappan et al.
[128] reported that duplex steels sintered in nitrogen exhibited
an improved strength than those sintered in argon, although
the densification rates were better for steel samples sintered in
argon atmosphere. Previous works related with DSS sintered
in nitrogen showed that these materials have a complex mi-
crostructure [129] with an important precipitation of interme-
tallic secondary phases after slow cooling during sintering
(average cooling rate of 5 °C/min). Nitrogen can also be in-
troduced into duplex stainless steel stainless by dispersing
titanium nitride (TiN) into duplex steel matrix. TiN have been
reported to have high hardness and elastic modulus, high ther-
mal expansion, and coefficient of friction [130] and also form
discrete nano sized particles at grain boundaries which prevent
grain growth at very high temperature [130, 131].
Optimized SPS process parameters from previous study
[16] were used to consolidate the duplex stainless steel com-
posite with varied amount of TiN nanoparticles ranging from
0 to 8 wt%. The authors studied the influence of TiN nano-
particle addition on the densification mechanism, phase evo-
lution and transformation, density, micro-nano hardness, and
fracture surface of SPS consolidated duplex stainless steel
samples. The microstructure of the TiN dispersion-
strengthened duplex stainless steel revealed constituents of
ferrites (α), austenite (γ), and the evolution of new phases of
titanium and chromium nitride along the ferrite/austenite grain
boundaries. The intensity of the diffraction peak of the crystal
planes (200), (211) belonging to α-Fe was noted to progres-
sively decrease while the peaks for γ-Fe increased (Fig. 11).
This inverse relationship suggests α-Fe to γ-Fe transforma-
tion with TiN additions. This phase change is obviously due to
the addition of TiN nanoparticles. The diffused nitrogen from
the TiN during SPS occupies the interstice of the α-Fe crys-
tallites, creating a mismatch strain that induces α-Fe to γ-Fe
transformation [120, 122]. The diffusion of N from TiN sta-
bilizes the austenite which effectively expands the austenite
phase, and the austenite stabilization effect is improved with
the increase of nitrogen in steel. Previous studies have report-
ed that reverse phase transformation (i.e., ferrite to austenite)
may occur by different mechanisms depending on processing
routes [122]. The intense phenomena of creep, plastic
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 11 X-ray diffraction pattern of SPSed duplex stainless steel with
different TiN contents showing austenite, ferrite with the evolution of
Cr2N and Ti2N phases
deformation, and mass diffusion occurring during SPS could
influence the structure of the steel composites [132, 133].
The dominance of chromium nitride phases at the grain
boundaries could be attributed to two main causes. During
the SPS process, the applied electrical potential causes a cur-
rent flow through conductive particles of powder and is
followed by spark formation at the contact points but in the
case of TiN nanoceramics and conductive DSS, a potential
difference across stainless steel particles separated by the ni-
tride phases may develop [4]. Secondly, the applied sintering
conditions favor the diffusion of nitrogen from the TiN phase
to the duplex steel matrix and due to the fast cooling process
associated with SPS, the solubility of N in ferrite phase tends
to decrease. At this instant, there is not enough time for the N
to diffuse towards the austenite phase, which has higher de-
gree of N solubility, and is consequently trapped at the ferrite/
austenite grain boundaries forming small sintered-in nitride
phase. The preferential occurrence of chromium nitride phases
due to higher N and Cr contents at ferrite–austenite grain
boundaries has been reported [14, 134, 135]. The strength of
the TiN dispersion-strengthened steel also improved with TiN
addition. The increase in strength values is attributed to the
high hardness, good dispersion, and strengthening effect of
TiN nano particles in the steel. Good dispersion of reinforce-
ments aids the improvement the interfacial bonding between
steel matrix and reinforcements [136].
Prieto et al. [137] fabricated duplex stainless steels by
blending a ferritic stainless steel powder with an austenite
stabilizing element powder. The authors reported that the aus-
tenite stabilizing element diffuses in to the ferritic phase dur-
ing sintering and caused the destabilization and produced the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
bi-phased duplex microstructure. Marcu-Puscas et al. [138]
reported the preparation of duplex microstructure by inter dif-
fusing the alloying elements during sintering. The authors
investigated the phase transformation of mixtures of both aus-
tenitic and ferritic stainless steel powders during sintering. It
was also reported that the diffusion of Ni in the ferrite grain
causes destabilization of the austenite phase and the formation
of a mixed constituent.
6 Properties and application of sintered
stainless steels
6.1 Application in automobile industries
Sintered stainless steels have gained attention in various ap-
plications most especially in the automotive and biomedical
industry. The current demands within the automotive industry
have been for applications requiring high hardness, high
hardenability, improved mechanical, and corrosion perfor-
mance [88]. Again, the low manufacturing cost of sintered
parts with high tolerances, high yield of raw material utiliza-
tion (> 95%), as well as to the availability of a large choice of
powders with a wide range of chemical composition have spur
the high demand of sintered stainless steel parts [139]. It is esti-
mated that an automobile produced in the USA uses an average
of about 1000 PM parts of around 20 kg in weight with parts
applied in engine and transmission systems such as differential
gears, variable valve timing, and transmission gear systems.
Sintered ferritic steel grades have found extensive usage as
mounting brackets for the rear-view mirrors, the tone wheels
for antilock brake systems and also in automotive exhaust
applications such as exhaust flanges and mounting unit of
hot exhaust gas oxygen sensor (HEGOS) [139]. Stainless steel
grades such as 304L, 430L 17-4PH are preferred materials for
shock absorbers parts, engine valve seats, manifold flanges,
filters for hydraulic systems in engines, exhaust gas recircula-
tion systems, and exhaust converter outlet flange due to their
excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation and improved
mechanical properties [1–3]. To achieve enhanced mechanical
and corrosion properties to meet automobile applications, the
cooling rate during sintering of stainless steels must be con-
trolled to avoid embrittlement and precipitations of interme-
tallic phases [4–6].
6.2 Heat and Wear-resistant application
In recent years, the usage of sintered components for emission
systems, such as exhaust gas recirculation and turbochargers
systems, has attracted attention. The heat- and wear-resistant
materials based on stainless steel or high chromium cast iron
are mainly used for those systems. It is expected that the mar-
ket of exhaust parts using sintered stainless steels and
composites will expand in coming years. High-chromium
sintered materials have also been developed for use in higher
temperature environments. Capdevila et al. [140] presented
ferritic Fe–Cr–(Al) ODS steels as promising materials for high
temperature and high-pressure tubing applications, due to
their superior corrosion resistance in oxidizing and/or
sulphidising environments. Typical examples of such environ-
ments are in boilers and turbines of power generation plants.
In addition, ferritic/martensitic high-Cr ODS steels are potential
materials for future applications in fusion and generation-IV
fission reactor components, since this class of stainless steels
can function optimally at operating temperature of 920 K.
Ferritic ODS steel has high strength at high temperature, good
swelling, and irradiation resistance, this makes them promising
materials for cladding in long-term fast reactors [57].
6.3 Biomedical application
The PM processing techniques have contributed in the devel-
opment of surgical implant materials during the past two de-
cades. They find application in the fields of orthopedic and
dentistry where load bearing ability and the need for rigid and
reliable implant-to-bone fixation are essential. 316 L stainless
steel is widely applied as orthopedic implant devices due to
high corrosion resistance, excellent mechanical properties,
and low cost compared to cobalt–chromium and titanium al-
loys. However, there exist a problem of mismatch between the
elasticity modulus of 316 L stainless steel implant and the
elasticity modulus of human bone [8, 9]. To solve this prob-
lem, some researches have been conducted to fabricate porous
316 L stainless steel using PM. Dewidar et al. [141] revealed
the suitability of porous 316 L stainless steel as a promising
material for orthopedic implants by introducing pores during
sintering. The porous structure reduces property mismatch
between 316 L and the human bone, provides biological an-
chorage for neighboring bony tissues, and allows the transpor-
tation of body fluids via the interconnected pores [142].
Others: Other than the discussed applications, PM stainless
steel also finds application as components expected to under-
go welding, hearing aids flame arrestors, filters, distribution,
and metering of gases and liquids, as well as in household
applications.
7 Summary and suggestions for future
research
The use of powder metallurgy stainless steel parts in various
engineering applications has increased in recent years due to
their unique mechanical and corrosion properties. This paper
therefore reviewed various aspects of mechanical alloying and
SPS of dispersion-strengthened ferritic, austenitic and duplex
stainless steels with emphasis on role of different processing

methodologies, influence of process parameters, alloying and
reinforcement efficiencies, microstructural evolutions, me-
chanical properties, and areas of application.
The review is summarized as follows:
& The appropriate selection of milling parameters is critical
to achieve a homogenously synthesized stainless steel
powder blends. Also, phase transformations in stainless
steels during milling largely depend on milling parame-
ters, Ni and Cr content of the steel.
& The PM processing route utilized for the fabrication of
dispersion-strengthened stainless steels largely influenced
the microstructure and mechanical properties. The stain-
less steels fabricated by SPS appeared to have much im-
proved mechanical properties compared to other conven-
tional PM technique.
& Generally, the microstructure and properties of the
dispersion-strengthened stainless steels were greatly al-
tered with the addition of alloying elements and ceramic
particles. Dispersion-strengthened steels have better prop-
erties compared to unreinforced stainless steel.
& Dispersion-strengthened steels hold the prospect in a wide
range of industrial applications particularly in the automo-
bile, nuclear, and aerospace industries.
Maximizing the prospects of dispersion-strengthened stain-
less steels will be motivating for material scientists to embark
on. The powder metallurgy of stainless steels is evolving and
needs to be further researched.
MA have been extensively utilized for the synthesis of
stainless steel powders but there exists compositional varia-
tion between powder particles which may develop into band-
ed regions during sintering. Dispersion inhomogeneity and
fragments of inadequately alloyed powder particles is retained
in the final sintered product and act as defect or cavities. Other
mixing methods such as tubular mixing of powders should be
implored. Although SPS has been adjudged to have an advan-
tage over other PM techniques, the appropriate selection of
process parameter is critical and must be carefully selected.
There exist limited investigations on the SPS of dispersion-
strengthened duplex stainless steels which are focused mostly
on oxide and carbide dispersion strengthening. Sintering of
nitride-strengthened duplex stainless steel needs to be studied.
Studies on the understanding of sintering kinetics and thermo-
dynamics, plastic deformability, fracture, creep, fatigue, and
wear behavior of dispersion-strengthened stainless steels
should be given attention.
Funding information Financial support was provided by the National
Research Foundation of South Africa in association with The World
Academy of Science (NRF-TWAS) as well as the Global Excellence
and Stature (GES) of the University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic-
tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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