In Uence of Freezing Process and Frozen Storage On The Quality of Fruits and Fruit Products

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Influence of Freezing Process and Frozen Storage on the Quality of Fruits and
Fruit Products
Article in Food Reviews International · March 2016

DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2015.1075212
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Food Reviews International
ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20
Influence of freezing process and frozen storage

on the quality of fruits and fruit products
Giovana Bonat Celli, Amyl Ghanem & Marianne Su-Ling Brooks
To cite this article: Giovana Bonat Celli, Amyl Ghanem & Marianne Su-Ling Brooks (2016)
Influence of freezing process and frozen storage on the quality of fruits and fruit products,
Food Reviews International, 32:3, 280-304, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2015.1075212
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2015.1075212
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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
2016, VOL. 32, NO. 3, 280–304
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2015.1075212
Influence of freezing process and frozen storage on the quality

of fruits and fruit products
Giovana Bonat Celli, Amyl Ghanem, and Marianne Su-Ling Brooks
Department of Process Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The effects of freezing and frozen storage on bioactive compounds in Bioactive; cultivar;
fruit products have not been completely elucidated, and the out- preharvesting; pretreatment;
comes are often contradictory. Given the wide range of results, the shelf life
aim of this review is to explore the effects of freezing, thawing, and
Downloaded by [Dalhousie University] at 02:56 08 March 2016
storage conditions on the physicochemical quality of fruit products,

including the phytochemical content. We also discuss how growing
and environmental conditions can affect the freezing process and
product quality. Studies show that cultivar selection, preharvest fac-
tors, and ripening stage are important factors that contribute to the
freezing performance and the quality of fruit products.
Introduction
The daily consumption of fruits is positively related to health benefits and reduced
incidence and mortality by degenerative disorders, such as cancer and cardiovascular
diseases.(1–3) A considerable body of research has shown that fruits are a rich source of
essential micronutrients (such as vitamin C and folic acid) and other bioactive com-
pounds, including phenolic compounds.(4,5) These bioactives are “extranutritional” com-
pounds commonly found in small amounts in plants and that have chemoprotective roles
in human health, as demonstrated in epidemiological studies.(6)
Ripening has a marked effect on the bioactive content of fruits.(7,8) This physiological
process also influences the commercial value of fresh fruits by modifying the cell wall
texture and structure(9); however, these modifications will ultimately result in a higher
postharvest susceptibility to pathogens and mechanical damage, with a reduction in the
shelf life.(10) In this context, preservation techniques play an important role in ensuring
the quality and safety of processed fruit products.
Among these techniques, freezing is recognized as one of the main processes employed
for the long-term preservation and storage of fruit products.(11) In addition to the
preservation aspects, freezing also permits the transportation of products to remote
markets that do not have access to fresh fruits and allows seasonal fruits, such as berries,
and their products to be available to consumers throughout the year.
Freezing temperatures crystallize water, which accounts for approximately 85–90% of
the fruit, thereby reducing water activity (aw), biochemical changes, and microbial
growth.(12) Although it has been suggested that low temperatures (around −18 °C) could
CONTACT Marianne Su-Ling Brooks Su-Ling.Brooks@dal.ca Department of Process Engineering and Applied
Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 281
accelerate some reactions,(13) freezing normally reduces the velocity at which most mod-
ifications occur.
For some time, freezing was considered as an option for products that did not meet the
standards required for commercialization in the fresh market.(11) However, similarly to the
fresh market, consumers now demand affordable frozen products that are of high quality,
nutritious, and safe.(14) As the demand for healthier products has increased, the range of
various fruit products that are available to consumers has also increased. Due to the low
temperatures used during processing, freezing could theoretically prevent nutritional loss
during storage. However, the literature is sometimes contradictory regarding the effects of
freezing temperatures and storage conditions on the bioactive content of frozen fruit
products and needs further clarification. As we demonstrate throughout this review, these
discrepancies result from the wide range of processing conditions used for freezing,
storage, and thawing of fruits and their products, in addition to pretreatments and the
intrinsic characteristics of the fruit.
This review aims to discuss the influence of freezing on the quality of fruit products
and the potential implications of preharvesting conditions on the freezing performance.
First, we provide a description of the effects of low temperatures on the physical and
chemical qualities of frozen products, with emphasis on the phytochemical content,
followed by the influence of pretreatments on the quality of the frozen fruits. We then
describe some of the effects of preharvesting conditions on the quality of the harvested
fruit and the implications for the freezing process. Finally, we discuss the challenges of
freezing fruit products for the food industry, emphasizing the impact on shelf life and
health claims. Microbial quality will be addressed in a general way under the chemical
modifications section, and the reader is referred to other reports in the literature for
more information.(11,15) Also, the principles of freezing have been addressed in detail
elsewhere(12,16,17) and, therefore, will only be discussed briefly in this review when
appropriate.
Quality of frozen fruit products

The quality of fruits and their products is influenced by four characteristics: color/
appearance, flavor, texture, and nutritional value. Consumers will first evaluate the color
and appearance of the fruit before deciding whether to eat it, and then its flavor will help
determine if they will consume it again.(18) A fresh fruit can have its original quality
compromised or eliminated during processing. For this reason, consumers are willing to
pay more for high-quality products, which drives the frozen fruit industry to continually
improve its products so that they can compete with the fresh and minimally processed
items.
At the moment of harvest, fruits appear crisp because the water content in the plant is
normally high. The turgor (or turgor pressure) exhibited by plant cells is the result of
water entering the cells and causing the cell walls to stretch, creating a positive hydrostatic
pressure. Besides being a desirable characteristic in fruit products after harvesting, turgor
is vital for the organism, helping with the mechanical integrity of the plant and acting as a
driving force for cell expansion during growth. As a consequence, loss of turgor in the
field inhibits growth(19) and is perceived by the consumer as a low-quality product after
harvesting.
282 G. B. CELLI ET AL.
The quality of the frozen fruit products will depend mainly on technological processing
(including packaging) and the raw material, which in turn depends on agronomic factors
and time/temperature conditions during storage.(15,20) Freezing temperatures will primar-
ily affect the plasma membrane, both in the field and after harvesting.(19) Generally, ice
crystals are first formed in the extracellular environment due to the lower solute concen-
tration and higher freezing point.(21) The formation of ice crystals normally initiates
around −2 °C in the apoplastic spaces. When this occurs, the plant cell will be temporarily
supercooled.(22) If the cell wall is intact, it will act as an effective barrier that will prevent
the penetration of ice into the cell. However, the formation of ice in the extracellular
compartment will result in a difference in osmotic pressure that will pull the liquid water
out of the supercooled cells, resulting in the dehydration of the tissue (also known as
freeze concentration),(23) shrinkage of the protoplasm, and collapse of the cell wall.(22)
This phenomenon is intimately related to the freezing rate, freezing/thawing cycles,
postharvest modifications, and cell membrane permeability. The loss of water from the
intracellular compartment will affect turgidity, increase the intracellular solute concentra-
tion, and, consequently, affect the ionic strength, pH, and viscosity within the unfrozen
portions of the fruit, making it susceptible to chemical and enzymatic modifications that
can interfere with product quality.(12,17)
Different freezing systems are used by the food industry, and their selection will depend
on the fresh fruit and desired characteristics of the frozen product, as well as the economic
aspects of the process. Freezing processes can be grouped according to the heat-transmis-
sion medium into the following categories: plate freezing (cooled solid), immersion
freezing (cooled liquid), air-blast freezing (cooled gas), and cryogenic freezing (liquefied
gas).(13) The heat-transmission media will determine the freezing rates of the freezing
systems. This rate is described as the speed that the freezing front moves from the outer
portions of the food matrix inwards. This rate also depends on the initial temperature,
type of fruit, and packaging characteristics. These factors dictate the size of ice crystals, cell
dehydration, the localization of the ice crystals, and damage.(13)
For example, it has been reported that air-blast freezing is associated with the lowest
texture degradation in apples, whereas cryogenic freezing led to loss of firmness due to
freeze cracking.(24) On the other hand, Allan-Wojtas et al.(25) demonstrated that faster
freezing rates in liquid nitrogen and lower storage temperatures produced frozen blue-
berries with better quality. Although rapid freezing (−34 °C for 150 s) was associated with
an improved internal microstructure of individual berries, it also caused a fracture on the
berry skin as a consequence of thermal shock. They also noted the formation of large ice
crystals located below the skin that could lead to structural damage and the release of
anthocyanins. Maintenance of the microstructure and physicochemical quality was also
reported for litchi fruits submitted to immersion freezing and storage at −18 °C for 6
months in comparison with air-blast freezing.(26)
In another study, strawberries were submitted to different freezing-thawing conditions,
ranging from slow to fast freezing: forced convection at two temperatures (−20 and −30 °C)
and three velocities (2.58, 3.56, and 4.54 m s−1), and natural air circulation at −20 and −30 °C.
Thawing was also conducted under forced convection (at 6 °C, same velocities) and ambient
air (at 22 °C). High freezing and thawing rates resulted in fruits with better structure, since the
rapid seeding and growth of ice crystals did not damage the cell walls and ice was primarily
formed inside the cells. Reducing the freezing rates affected the shape of the cells, and there
was evidence of ice growing in the extracellular environment. Even slower freezing rates
resulted in a loss of membrane integrity with extracellular freezing, cell collapse, and water
loss. Thawing had a significant effect on fruit quality: lower ambient temperature and higher
air velocity were less detrimental to the structure than the other conditions that included
slower air velocity and higher temperature. As a result, reduction of water losses and exudates,
as well as maintenance of tissue integrity, could be achieved by high thawing rates.(27)
The following sections will describe the physical and chemical characteristics of fruit
products affected by the freezing process, long-term frozen storage, and eventual thawing.
They will be supported by several examples from the literature.
Physical modifications
Texture is an important characteristic of frozen fruit products that can be affected by
volume expansion during freezing and recrystallization. Volume expansion is character-

ized by the damage to cell membranes during the formation of ice crystals and empty
spaces that are evident in the microstructure. A consequence of this phenomenon is the
lack of product integrity once it is thawed, and it can be observed as excessive drainage or
loss of shape.(14) In addition, low temperatures can form a crust layer at the surface of the
product, which prevents volume expansion during freezing. This process leads to an
internal stress that is compensated by contraction and expansion cycles that can disrupt
the micro- and macrostructure.(13)
Recrystallization, in turn, can occur when the frozen product is subjected to large
variations in temperature, and this affects the number, size, shape, and position of the ice
crystals that were formed previously during freezing.(12) Although fast freezing is regarded
as the best technique to maintain the texture of frozen products, Chassagne-Berces et al.(28)
demonstrated that very fast rates (submerging in liquid nitrogen) were deleterious for the
structure of apple tissue. The negative impact on quality was also associated with the
recrystallization process that can occur during freezing. In addition to the freezing rate,
Pukszta and Palich(29) showed that the drip losses observed in frozen strawberries when
thawed was related to the length and temperature variations during storage.
Texture is also related to the pectin content. Pectins are commonly classified as
water-soluble, oxalate-soluble, and insoluble (or protopectin). It has been reported
that a high concentration of the protopectin fraction in strawberries is associated with
a higher texture index, which could be used to indicate if a fruit is a good candidate
for freezing.(20) Freezing of tomato cubes at −40 °C and subsequent storage at −20
and −30 °C for 12 months resulted in the significant reduction of protopectins and
pectins, which was accompanied by a loss of texture.(30) Freezing-thawing cycles can
facilitate the release of pectin and reduction of the degree of esterification due to
activation of pectin methylesterase by cell damage,(31,32) which will result in the
softening of the fruit product. Blanching can also activate pectin methylesterase.
Anthon and Barrett(32) showed that blanching of green beans and tomatoes activated
pectin methylesterase when heated at temperatures above 45 °C, which led to the de-
esterification of pectin. The presence of free carboxylic acid groups in the pectin
allows it to bind to calcium, which contributes to cell-to-cell adhesion and results in a
firmer texture due to pectin cross-linking.(32)
Another common issue observed in frozen fruit products is “freezer burn,” which is
characterized as a light-colored area on the surface that can negatively impact the con-
sumer’s perception of the product.(12) This phenomenon occurs when water evaporates
from the surface of the food product and can also lead to development of off-flavors.
Color is often considered as a physical quality of the fruits, and its objective measure-
ment is commonly referred to by its spectral data. However, since color is a consequence
of the chemical composition of the fruit, it will be discussed in the following section on
chemical modifications along with the effects of freezing on anthocyanins and carotenoids.
Chemical modifications
Freezing process conditions can affect the flavor, chemical composition, and, ultimately,
the color of fruit products depending on the compound being studied and the fruit matrix
under consideration. The effect of freezing on microbial and enzymatic activities can also
influence the chemical composition, and it is important to consider the effect of thawing
conditions on the quality of the frozen products.
Freezing is recognized as the postharvest technique that best preserves fruit flavor.(11)
Volatile substances greatly contribute to fruit flavor and are naturally produced as the fruit
ripens.(33,34) The type and concentration of compounds in the final product are intimately
related to the processing technique(35,36) and the degree of maturity of the fruit. Research
has also shown that the production of these compounds continues after harvesting, even
for nonclimacteric fruits such as strawberry.(37) However, freezing and subsequent thaw-
ing can have deleterious effects on the quality of the aroma of frozen fruits such as
strawberries in comparison with fresh fruits,(38,39) and there is also indication that hydro-
gen sulfide (H2S) is produced as a consequence of pH variations due to cell injury after
crushing and freezing.(40) In addition to flavor, color changes are readily perceived by the
consumer and related to frozen fruit products of lower quality. These modifications can
occur from the damage of chloroplasts and chromoplasts by ice formation and volume
expansion, development of enzymatic browning, and changes in natural colorants, includ-
ing the conversion of chlorophylls (green) to pheophytins (brown), complexation of
anthocyanins and other pigments from leukoanthocyanins, and degradation of
carotenoids.(11,41,42)
In relation to microbiological safety, frozen fruits are considered safe, as the
freezing temperatures reduce water activity and microbial growth.(12) In reality, the
freezing process can have a dual effect on the microbiological content of fruits. At the
same time that it reduces the spoilage caused by microbial activity, microorganisms
can be preserved until favorable conditions for proliferation are met, such as during
the temperature fluctuations experienced with storage and transportation.(43) Strawn
and Danyluk(43) have shown that Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. can
survive in frozen cut mangoes and papayas for 180 days at −20 °C. These fruits were
intentionally inoculated to evaluate the viability of these microorganisms during
freezing, and, as demonstrated, they could contribute to the dissemination of these
pathogens. In addition to freezing, the use of oxidation treatment such as chlorine can
have positive effects on the long-term microbiological elimination, as demonstrated in
blueberries.(44)
The development of off-flavors has been reported after fast freezing (at −80 °C) and a
1-year storage of papaya slices at −24 °C, and this has been attributed to enzymatic activity
(peroxidase, lipoxygenase, catalase, polyphenol oxidase, and pectin methylesterase). It has
been observed that peroxidase activity does not diminish under freezing conditions. In
addition, the freezing process is thought to increase the solubility of some peroxidase
fractions that are attached to cell membranes.(45) In the case of raspberry and apple, the
reported effects on flavor were minimal after fast freezing.(46,47)
The thawing process has been related to a darkening of whole highbush blueberries
stored at −13 °C for 2–3 months compared with the unfrozen control. Although some
differences were observed among the cultivars studied (“Elliot” and “Burlington”),
light microscopy revealed that both had pigment loss from epidermal and subepider-
mal cells of thawed berries.(11) Lowbush blueberry puree also became darker after
storage at −20 °C for 4 weeks, with further development of a yellow hue after 6 weeks,
possibly as a result of anthocyanin oxidation by ascorbic acid and hydrogen
peroxide.(48)
Although Robertson(42) reported a significant reduction (to less than one-third) of the
chlorophyll content of kiwi puree, stored at −18 °C for 36 days and thawed overnight at
room temperature, Venning et al.(49) showed that low temperatures (−18 °C and lower)
had no significant effect on the chlorophyll content of these fruits. In addition, a sig-
nificant decrease in the chlorophyll content was observed during storage at −9 °C. It was
suggested that these discrepancies resulted from the thawing method used, and not as a
consequence of the storage temperature. The authors indicated that several hours at 0 °C
or higher are sufficient to significantly degrade chlorophyll in comparison with storage at
low temperatures.(49) Variations in pH, water activity, and cultivar could also contribute to
these results.(50) “Abbot” kiwi slices had the most significant loss of chlorophylls (27%)
due to the freezing process when compared with the cultivars “Hayward,” “Bruno,” and
“Monty.” After storage at −18 °C for 10 months, the cv. “Monty” exhibited the most
significant change in chlorophyll content, with a two-thirds reduction. Similarly to the
previous study, changes in pH, temperature, water activity, and length of frozen storage
could have contributed to the degradation of the chlorophyll.(51) The differences observed
between cultivars could have resulted from the differences in ice crystal formation and
distribution during freezing. Another possible difference may be due to the regeneration
of peroxidase in frozen tissues, which would contribute to an increase in its activity in
“Abbott” and “Monty” varieties during long-term freezing storage in comparison with the
other cultivars.(51)
The following sections will cover the effects of freezing on biomolecules commonly
associated with nutritional quality in fruit products, namely, vitamin C, phenolic com-
pounds, and carotenoids (Table 1).
Vitamin C
The term vitamin C relates to all compounds that exhibit similar biological functions as
those of L-ascorbic acid (AA), including its oxidation product L-dehydroascorbic acid.(75)
Due to the important role it has in human health, vitamin C is recognized as an
essential hydrophilic micronutrient.(76) Losses of vitamin C are highly related to post-
harvest conditions, including long-term storage, elevated temperatures, low relative
humidity, physical damage of fruit during handling, and chilling injury.(75) Cano et al.(41)
Table 1. General effects on the phytochemical content of fruit products subjected to freezing process.
Freezing
Compound Effect Fruit conditions Storage Reference
Ascorbic acid/vitamin C Reduction Raspberry (whole) −80 °C (15 min) −20 °C/12 months (52)
Strawberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/24 h (53)
Blackberry (whole) −196 °C/5 min −20 °C/7 months (54)
−20 °C
Mango (slices) −40 °C (25 min) −18 °C/4 months (55)
Kiwi (slices) −40 °C (5.5 m/s) −18 °C/6 months (41)
Kiwi (pulp) Slow (>24 h) −18 °C/12 months (49)
Guava (puree) n.s. −18 °C/9 months (56)
Acerola (puree) −18 °C −18 °C/11 months (57)
No effect Orange (juice) −40 °C (24–48 h) −40 °C/1 month (58)
Phenolic compounds Reduction Serviceberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/10 months (59)
Strawberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/6 months (60)
Raspberry (whole) −35 °C/5 h −22 °C/6 months (61)
Clementine −196 °C −60 °C/12 months (62)
(homogenate)
Orange (juice) −40 °C (24–48 h) −40 °C/1 month (58)
Pomegranate (juice) −25 °C −25 °C/20 days (63)
No effect Black currant (whole) n.s. −20 °C/9 months (64)

Strawberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/24 h (53)
Blackberry (whole) −35 °C/5 h −22 °C/6 months (61)
Peach (slices) n.s. −12 °C/3 months (65)
Blackberry (pulp) n.s. −10, −18, −80 °C/4 (66)
months
Blueberry (extract) n.s. −20 °C/60 days (67)
Increase Blackberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/7 months (54)
Date (slices) n.s. −20 °C/1 month (68)
Black currant (juice) −18 °C −18 °C/12 months (69)
Anthocyanins Reduction Strawberry (whole) −20 °C (24 h) −12, −18, −24 °C/90 (70)
days
−20 °C −20 °C/24 h (53)
Date (slices) n.s. −20 °C/1 month (68)
Acerola (purée) −18 °C −18 °C/11 months (57)
Pomegranate (juice) −25 °C −25 °C/20 days (63)
Black currant (juice) −18 °C −18 °C/12 months (69)
No effect Black raspberry −70 °C (12 h) −20 °C/6 months (71)
(whole)
Blackberry (pulp) n.s. −10, −18 °C/4 months (66)
−80 °C/6 months
Blueberry (extract) n.s. −20 °C/60 days (67)
Increase Serviceberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/10 months (59)
Raspberry (whole) −35 °C −20, −30 °C/378 days (72)
Strawberry (whole) −37 °C −23 °C/1 month (73)
Blackberry (whole) −20 °C −20 °C/7 months (54)
Cherry (slices) −196 °C −20 °C (74)
Peach (slices)
Plum (slices)
Carotenoids Reduction Mango (slices) −40 °C (25 min) −18 °C/4 months (55)
Blackberry (pulp) n.s. −10, −18, −80 °C/2 (66)
months
No effect Apricot (slices) −196 °C −20 °C (74)
Cherry (slices)
Peach (slices)
Plum (slices)
Note. n.s. = not specified.
also suggested that reduction of vitamin C content after freezing could be related to drip
losses and not to a true degradation process, as water could act as a carrier agent. A
summary of the effects of the freezing process in different fruits and their products is
provided in Table 1.
The effect of freezing rate on vitamin C content was tested in Iranian strawberry (var.
“Kordestan”). Two conditions were evaluated: slow freezing at −20 °C for 24 hours (in a
domestic freezer) and quick freezing in liquid nitrogen at −50 to −100 °C for 11 minutes.
The authors also evaluated the following storage conditions: at −12, −18, and −24 °C in a
domestic freezer for 3 months. Storage at −24 °C had the least effect on vitamin C content,
with 8.9% reduction, compared with 64.5% when stored at −12 °C. Also, the greatest losses
occurred within the first 15 days of storage, possibly due to the freeze-concentration effect.
No significant differences were observed for ascorbic acid levels between slow and fast
freezing.(70)
Ripe red raspberries (cv. “Glen Ample”) were also subjected to different treatments
before storage at −80 °C for less than a day prior to extraction: frozen at −30 °C within 3
hours after harvesting; and stored at 4 °C for 3 days with further storage at 18 °C for 24
hours prior to freezing with liquid nitrogen, mimicking the route of the fresh fruit prior to
consumption. It was found that the vitamin C content decreased in fruits submitted to
temperature fluctuations prior to freezing in comparison with the fresh and immediately
frozen (−30 °C) berries.(77)

Ceballos et al.(78) demonstrated that the freezing rate impacted the quality of freeze-
dried soursop fruit pulp treated with maltodextrin, including the ascorbic acid content.
Slower freezing rates were related to higher ascorbic acid content, possibly by a lower
moisture content as a consequence of large ice crystals that affect mean pore diameter and,
consequently, the drying process.
Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites commonly found in higher plants and
characterized by the presence of hydroxyl groups on aromatic rings. They are an integral
part of the human diet and have been associated with several benefits to human health.(79)
Amongst the polyphenolic compounds, anthocyanins are the most important pigments in
higher plants, responsible for a wide range of flower and fruit colors,(80,81) and their
concentration increases as ripening progresses.(82,83) Isolated anthocyanins are quite
unstable and their stability is influenced by different factors, including pH, storage
temperature, presence of enzymes and other substances such as ascorbic acid, light, and
oxygen, and structure and concentration of the compound.(84)
Freezing is commonly regarded as a technique that has little deleterious effect on the
phenolic content of fruits. Table 1 provides an overview of the effects of the freezing
process and storage in different fruit products. Although some authors reported an
increase in the concentration of phenolic compounds after freezing,(85) other studies
have shown a significant reduction. For instance, analysis of sweet cherry (var. “Bing”)
showed a marked reduction of the total phenolic and anthocyanin contents when stored
at −23 °C after 6 months as compared with storage at −70 °C, possibly due to the
enzymatic activity of polyphenol oxidase.(86) These authors reported a reduction of 88%
in the anthocyanin content after 6 months, whereas storage at −70 °C for the same
period did not have much impact on these compounds. The profile of anthocyanins was
similar to that of fresh fruits; however, there was an indication that cyanidin glycosides
were more labile than other anthocyanins and an increase in the amount of anthocya-
nidin was observed, due to hydrolysis. In the case of frozen sour cherries, the content of
anthocyanins significantly increased when stored at −20 °C for up to 1 year. One
explanation could be the maturation stage of the fruits used in the study: less ripe fruits
could continue the biosynthesis of anthocyanins even at low temperatures when com-
pared with riper ones.(11)
In the case of blueberries, delphinidin-3-glucoside was considered the most unstable
anthocyanin, with 80% degradation after storage at −28 °C for 6 months, whereas pelargo-
nidin-3-glucoside was considered the most stable, accounting for only 9% of reduction.(87)
Although a reduction of 59% of the total anthocyanin content was reported,(82)
Lohachoompol et al.(88) reported no significant reduction after storage at −20 °C for 3
months and the results of anthocyanin and antioxidant activities were comparable to that of
fresh fruits. These results were confirmed by Ścibisz and Mitek(89) using highbush blue-
berries stored at −18 and −35 °C for 6 months. The discrepancies reported in these two
studies could be related to the cultivar used, as they can exhibit different wax content in the
cuticles. Berries from cultivars that contain lower wax content in the cuticle would be more
susceptible to punctures, leading to leakage of compounds and, consequently, reduction of
the anthocyanin content.(90) Another explanation is that the extraction of anthocyanins
could have been facilitated after freezing.(89)

Gil-Izquierdo et al.(58) evaluated different industrial techniques commonly used for the
production of orange juice, including freezing. Freezing is often used to preserve orange
juice when the demand is lower than the production. Samples were frozen at −40 °C for
24–48 hours (depending on the initial load) and stored for 1 month, with further thawing
and pasteurization (95 °C for 30 s). They concluded that freezing significantly reduced the
concentration of phenolics, with no effect on the total antioxidant capacity of the juice due
to the high stability of L-ascorbic acid, and that this difference could be a consequence of
the thawing process.
Similar to the process used for oranges, cranberries used for juice production are
commonly frozen-thawed before pressing, a process that contributes to juice yield and
greater pigment extraction. In cranberries, pigment is commonly found in the exocarp of
the fruit. Fruits stored at −18 °C and thawed at 3 °C overnight before chopping and
pressing generated similar juice yield and total anthocyanin content when compared with
fresh berries stored at 3 °C. Light microscopy showed a migration of anthocyanins from
the exocarp to the mesocarp and endocarp in frozen berries, improving the extraction of
these compounds during juice production (up to 60% of total content recovered). The
remaining amount was thought to be retained in the epidermal layer.(11)
Carotenoids
Similar to anthocyanins, carotenoids are natural pigments. They are responsible for the
yellow, orange, and red colors in fruits and flowers, and their concentrations also increase
with ripening. They have a basic linear and symmetric structure, composed of a 40-carbon
tetraterpene that can be modified in different ways, contributing to the great diversity
observed for the compounds in this class. Besides color, they exhibit provitamin A activity.
This substance is converted in the body to vitamin A under necessity, thereby improving
the immune system and decreasing the risk of degenerative diseases due to antioxidant
property.(91) The effects of freezing process and storage on different fruits are provided on
Table 1.
In a study by Graça Dias et al.,(92) the stability of carotenoids in orange, cherry, peach,
and apple was tested under freezing and long-term storage at −20 and −70 °C. Fruits were
peeled, seeds removed, cut in small pieces, and crushed. Freezing at −20 and −70 °C did
not have significant effects on the carotene composition of fruits stored for 13 (for
orange), 9.7 (cherry), 5.7 (peach), and 2.5 (apple) months. However, significant effects
were observed for β-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin (after 3.5 and 8.9 months, respectively)
in oranges stored at −20 °C in comparison with storage at −70 °C. For all the other fruits
studied, no differences were observed between −20 and −70 °C regardless of the storage
time. The authors noted that their results differed from what was found in the literature,
since in this study the storage conditions (container and headspace gas) were controlled
and oxygen was removed from the system.
In the case of mangoes, researchers reported significantly inferior color observed for
frozen mango pulp stored at −18 °C after 14 months when compared with canned pulp.(93)
Marín et al.(55) described a reduction of β-carotene content after 120 days of frozen storage
of the slices at −18 °C in four varieties of mango (“Smith,” “Lippens,” “Palmer,” and
“Davis-Haden”). Due to the lipophilicity of this compound, this difference is unlikely to be
explained by leaching losses. Possible reasons besides oxidative reactions include cis-trans
isomerization or epoxidation during processing.
Pretreatments and their effects on the quality of frozen fruit products

Fruit ripening consists of a series of irreversible biochemical processes that will lead to
modifications in the content of sugar, acids, texture, etc. Although crucial to the development
of characteristics that will make these fruits attractive and edible, the later stages of ripening
are accompanied by membrane deterioration and cell death.(94) Additionally, enzymatic
activity during postharvest handling,(95) processing, and long-term storage can be detrimen-
tal for the quality of fruit products, with production of off-flavors, color modifications, tissue
softening, and loss of phytochemicals. For instance, excessive softening of the fruit tissues
increases their susceptibility to microbial spoilage and physical damage, reducing the product
shelf life.(94) Inactivation of these enzymes prior to processing is often a required step to
maintain the quality of the fruits for an extended duration.(96)
Blanching is commonly used as a pretreatment prior to freezing, although its applica-
tion is limited in fruits when compared with vegetables. Osmotic dehydration using sugars
and syrups can also be used as a pretreatment and aims to reduce the amount of water
available for enzymatic reactions and as a barrier for oxygen, which contributes to
degradation processes. This section will briefly discuss the use of these pretreatments for
the maintenance of the quality in frozen fruit products.
Blanching
Blanching is a unit operation that can be used as a pretreatment before freezing. Here, hot
water, steam, or microwaves(97) are used to denature and inactivate enzymes such as
ascorbic acid oxidase,(75) polyphenol oxidase,(98) and peroxidase,(99,100) to remove air from
the tissues, and to preserve product quality. Although widely used for vegetables, blanch-
ing is not a common technique for fruits and, when used, mild conditions are necessary to
have a minimal effect on texture.(101) However, this is not a concern if blanching is used
prior to juice or puree production from frozen fruit.
Blanching with boiling water (for 11 minutes) and use of microwave treatment (650
W for 2 minutes) prior to slicing and freezing (at −24 °C) were positively correlated
with the quality of frozen bananas. Although the pretreatments used inhibited color
degradation, their effect on enzymatic activity depended on the maturity stage of the
fruits.(102)
Rossi et al.(103) evaluated the effect of steam-blanching applied for 3 minutes prior to
freezing on the phenolic content and antioxidant activity of highbush blueberry juice
prepared from frozen berries. Fruits were thawed at 5 °C for 12 hours before milling. The
authors reported a high recovery of anthocyanins (23% compared with 12% in untreated
berries). They attributed these results to the inactivation of polyphenol oxidase or
increased extraction yield as a result of skin permeability promoted by the steam treat-
ment, resulting in a product that was more blue and less red than the traditional one. The
blanching treatment also increased the antioxidant activity.
Steam-blanching treatment (for 3 minutes) prior to freezing was also used by Brambilla
et al.(104) on blueberry purée. These authors observed that blanching treatment promoted
a diffusion of anthocyanin from the vacuoles of epidermal cells to the center of the berries,
due to plasmolysis and cell wall softening. Although there was a reduction of anthocyanin
content in these berries when processed into purée, the losses were smaller than those for
the unblanched berries. The purée prepared from unblanched berries also exhibited
syneresis after thawing, whereas that obtained from blanched fruits had a jelly-like
structure.
Osmotic dehydration
The freezing process is efficient in crystallizing water, which will result in freeze
concentration. As the freezing progresses, the viscosity of the interstitial fluid will
increase up to a limit when vitrification occurs and the concentrated phase turns into
glass or an amorphous solid.(105) This phenomenon happens at a glass transition
temperature (Tg), where below the Tg, the mobility of the liquid molecules is reduced.
The extent of freeze concentration is limited during rapid cooling. For this reason, the
unfrozen water can be vitrified at a Tg below the glass transition temperature associated
with the maximum degree of freeze concentration (Tg’).(106) However, this portion of
water is available for enzymatic and deteriorative reactions that can degrade the fruit
and, again, negatively impact its quality. Since the solute concentration normally
increases as a consequence of freezing, cellular structures can be damaged with loss of
turgor. This phenomenon is observed in either fast or slow freezing processes, and
cryoprotectants, such as sugar, can be used through osmotic dehydration to reduce
physicochemical deterioration.(12,107)
Osmotic dehydration is achieved when the fruits are placed in hypertonic solutions,
such as concentrated sugar solutions. The dehydration rate and solid gain in the food
product are related to the type and concentration of sugar used in the process, for
example. As a result, cells will experience a counterflow of water and sugar moving
outwards and inwards, respectively. This has the effect of decreasing the freezing point
and promoting the formation of ice crystals inside the cells,(108,109) in association with a
modification on the viscosity of the unfrozen matrix. The addition of sugar results in an
increase of the Tg, ideally above the storage temperature.
The increase of Tg was reported for rambutan treated with sucrose, trehalose, and
mannitol prior to freezing at −40 °C and storage at −18 °C for up to 120 days. However,
the increase of Tg could not be used as a predictor of the product quality during storage
because all samples were in a rubbery state. The water loss, solid gain, and texture after
thawing did not differ significantly among the solutes evaluated, possibly by their similar
molecular weights.(110) The use of these solutes also had a positive effect on drip losses.
Forni et al.(111) tested different syrup compositions (sucrose, maltose, and sorbitol, plus
added ascorbic acid and sodium chloride as antioxidants) on the quality of apricot cubes.
The pretreatment was performed at 25 °C for 15 minutes under vacuum and for 45 and
120 minutes at atmospheric pressure. After osmotic dehydration, the samples were air
dehydrated, frozen at −40 °C (air speed of 4 m s−1), and stored at −20 °C for 8 months.
Degradation of color and ascorbic acid was associated with the sugar used in the
pretreatment: the lowest degradation was achieved with maltose in both pretreated con-
ditions tested and during storage (up to 4 months). This is possibly explained by the lower
water content and pH before air drying, which correlated with lower activity of phenolase
and, consequently, lower degradation of vitamin C. Also, fruits treated with maltose had
the highest Tg and lower T − Tg values, which would indicate lower structural collapse and
material density during drying when compared with the other samples.
Pretreatment with sucrose was tested with strawberry submitted to freezing process.
Fruits were treated in sucrose solution at 30 °C under atmospheric pressure or vacuum,
frozen at −40 °C (4 °C min−1), and stored at −18 °C for a month. Samples were then
thawed at 8 °C for 10 hours. Freezing resulted in losses of volatile compounds, and the
pretreatment helped maintain other compounds (such as esters and furaneol).(112)
Nonetheless, sucrose treatment prior to freezing did not affect the tissue integrity of
frozen strawberries.(27)
In a study by Dermesonlouoglou et al.,(113) watermelon was pretreated with solutions of
glucose, oligofructose, and high-dextrose-equivalent maltodextrin at 35 °C for 45–60
minutes, frozen at −40 °C for 24 hours, with further storage at −5 to −20 °C (up to 300
days). The osmotic dehydration had beneficial effects for the fruit stability, with little effect
on color and lycopene content. The fruit was peeled and cut into cylindrical pieces prior to
pretreatment, and the average moisture content was approximately 94% (dry weight
basis). As expected, osmotic dehydration reduced water activity and the product exhibited
sensory characteristics similar to those of fresh product. The freezing process and storage
at low temperatures had significant effects on lycopene levels, color, texture, and sensory
properties compared with nontreated samples. Degradation of lycopene was likely caused
by oxidative processes due to oxygen in the headspace, although the degradation was
lower compared with samples that were not pretreated. Degradation was also related to
the temperature of storage: lower temperatures (−12 to −20 °C) were better for maintain-
ing lycopene. During thawing, untreated samples lost a considerable amount of water and
sensory evaluation showed the deterioration of texture and taste over the storage time.
Pretreated samples were firmer at all temperatures studied and were preferred by the
sensory panel.
Kopjar et al.(114) showed that the use of glucose could prevent the degradation of
anthocyanins (90% average retention), phenolic compounds, and free radical–scavenging
activity. In this study, different sugars (sucrose, fructose, and glucose) and their mixtures
were applied to blackberries after harvesting, frozen, and stored at −18 °C for 5 weeks.
After 5 weeks, the samples were blended, and the mixture of fruit/sugar was kept at −18 °C
for 11 months before analysis.(114) The immersion in glucose solution could have resulted
in higher water loss and solids gain than in fruits treated with sucrose, possibly due to a
larger osmotic effect promoted by glucose at the same concentration.(115)
In the case of blueberry juices, Rizzolo et al.(116) tested the addition of maltose, sorbitol,
and glucose/fructose mixture on the stability of anthocyanin and soluble phenols stored at
−10, −20, and −30 °C for up to 6 months. The addition of maltose, sorbitol, and glucose/
fructose resulted in a shift of the Tg to −35.28, −45.08, and −42.55 °C, respectively, in
comparison with the raw juice (−43.90 °C). Storage at −30 °C had no effect on anthocya-
nin content, and the reduction in anthocyanin at −10 and −20 °C was not statistically
significant. It was demonstrated that the higher the storage temperature for longer periods
of time, the higher the total soluble phenolic content, as a result of changes in the total
anthocyanin content.(116)
The use of osmotic dehydration prior to freezing will result in an increase in the Tg’
when the appropriate sugar is added.(117) Studies have shown that treatment with glucose
is better than sucrose due to the larger osmotic pressure, which will result in more
diffusion of water out of the cells. However, a potential limitation of the osmotic
dehydration is the contribution to losses in ascorbic acid content and other hydrophilic
compounds, as reported for pineapple slices using sucrose solution prior to freezing at
−31.5 °C and thawing at 20 °C for 2 hours.(118) These losses could result from the
migration of water to the surface of the product with a high concentration of sugar,
leading to the leakage of ascorbic acid. The osmotic dehydration (120 minutes at 45 °C)
alone reduced 70–75% of the product moisture and 30% of the ascorbic acid content in
this fruits. The authors also noted that freezing-thawing process caused loss of firmness of
the final product.
Other factors determining the quality of frozen fruits and fruit products
It is evident that freezing and thawing processes are intimately related to the quality of
frozen fruit products, as previously demonstrated by several examples. Research and
review papers have focused mostly on the study of different cultivars and freezing
conditions. However, the freezing process is complex and needs to account for additional
factors such as the preharvesting (growing) conditions on the characteristics of the
resultant fruit and the subsequent impact on freezing performance and product quality.
For example, high freezing rates are associated with better-quality products; however, the
advantage presented by fast freezing could be suppressed by preharvesting conditions,
such as the growing area and seasonal variations, that can affect characteristics such as the
sugar content in the harvest fruit and potentially impact frozen fruit quality. Although we
have a good understanding of the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on fruit quality
characteristics such as texture, chemical composition, and color,(75,119–124) most authors
seem to neglect the relevance of environmental and cultural conditions on the industrial
freezing performance and processing conditions. This has limited the research available in
this field, and the relationship between these factors remains unclear.
For plants to survive adverse conditions such as drought or freezing, they have
mechanisms that enable them to adapt to stressful conditions and to maintain water
and cellular availability and turgidity. Three mechanisms are used by plants to
overcome drought conditions, namely, osmotic and elastic adjustments, and cold
acclimation. When plants undergo freezing, the effects of dehydration promoted by
this process are similar to those caused by drought. Plants can be subjected to drought
conditions during growth when the soil is dry, which can increase water loss after
harvesting. As a consequence, the cells accumulate osmotically active solutes (sugars,
ions, among others) in a process called osmotic adjustment to reduce the water
potential of the tissue and maintain water uptake,(19) in addition to contributing to
the freezing resistance.(125) The higher levels of solutes in the harvested fruit will affect
processing factors such as freezing point depression and freezing temperature.
Elastic adjustment is a process also observed in tissues with low water potential and is
used by the plant to enhance its tolerance to freezing conditions during growth. Here, the
volumetric elastic modulus is modified due to changes in the mechanical properties of the
cell wall. Two mechanisms have been proposed for the maintenance of turgidity: (a) wall
loosening, which will reduce wall tension, increase tissue elasticity, and facilitate water
uptake; and (b) conservation of intracellular water by hardening the cell wall, reducing
tissue elasticity and cell expansion. Elastic adjustment is facilitated by cell wall proteins
known as expansins that reduce the cell wall stress, leading to tissue softening.(19)
Cold acclimation, on the other hand, occurs as a response to low temperatures and will
lower the critical temperature for lethal injury, protecting membranes and proteins against
the deleterious effects of freezing.(126) This phenomenon can occur during preharvest
growth and postharvest storage. The effects of cold acclimation on the quality of fruits has
been better described after postharvest cold storage, at temperatures higher than the
freezing point, for peach,(126) persimmon,(127) guava,(128) red raspberry,(129) and highbush
blueberry plants.(130) In the field, it has been demonstrated that changes in the lipid
composition of the plasma membrane,(131–133) and accumulation of osmotically active
substances or proteins(134) in the cytosol, phenolic compounds (mainly lignin) in cell
walls, or anthocyanins in the epidermal cells(135) could be possible mechanisms by which
the plant reduces the membrane damage. The increase of unsaturated fatty acid in the
membrane is associated with a reduction of temperature at which the lipids change to a gel
state and, consequently, keep the membrane fluid. The osmotically active substances can
act as cryoprotectants, stabilizing the cell membrane and reducing the water potential.
The changes in the chemical composition of the fruits due to cold acclimation are
additional factors that will affect freezing; however, the detailed postharvest storage
conditions of fruits before freezing is not always related and little information is known
about the temperatures during the preharvest conditions. It has also been reported that
rapid increase of cytoplasmatic calcium concentration is associated with cold acclimation,
since these ions are necessary for the induction of cold-acclimation-associated genes.(19) In
fact, the use of calcium salts alone or in combination with other compounds (citric acid,
pectin, among others) before and after harvesting has shown to improve the quality of
refrigerated blueberry(136) and frozen strawberry.(137,138) Calcium ions can also form gels
with carboxylic acid groups of de-esterified pectin. These gels can entrap water, thus
contributing to the maintenance of cellular structure and fruit texture, as observed in
infused mangoes.(139,140)
The drip losses from the thawed frozen fruits observed by Gormley(141) can also be
related to the loss of turgidity in fresh fruits due to the imbalance between the continuous
loss of water by transpiration and lack of water uptake. Preharvesting factors, such as the
growing conditions, have been found to influence the water loss and subsequent quality of
the fruit after harvesting. For instance, soil fertility, temperature, and water content have
been reported to affect water losses from harvested vegetables by interfering with plant
growth, the structures of evaporating surfaces, and/or their composition.(19) These water
losses are important for freezing, and we have previously discussed the significance of the
loss of turgor on the intracellular solute concentration and the potential for chemical and
enzymatic degradation affecting the quality of the frozen fruit.
As another example, Asami et al.(142) demonstrated that the total phenolic content of
frozen strawberries varied depending on the agricultural practice used. In a 5-year trial,
Gormley(141) showed that frozen strawberries that were grown under different soil condi-
tions behaved differently during thawing. Fruits grown in peat soil had higher drip losses
when thawed, in comparison with those cultivated in mineral soil, independent of the
cultivar being investigated. It was hypothesized that peat soil, in addition to other
environmental factors, resulted in berries with looser cell structures that were easily
damaged by freezing, in addition to affecting the chemical composition of the fruits.

Also, these structural and chemical changes could result from a fast vegetative growth,
although the full mechanism was not completely elucidated.
It is also well accepted that the concentration of bioactives, including vitamin C and
phenolic compounds, differs in relation to their quantity and quality among fruit crops
and within the same species, and will influence the content of these compounds in
frozen fruit products. For instance, Kalt et al.(143) demonstrated that antioxidant capa-
city (measured by the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) method) and antho-
cyanin and total phenolic contents differed within a 1.75-, 1.60-, and 1.25-fold range,
respectively, among 135 genotypes of wild blueberries and 80 genotypes of cultivated
berries. It is not surprising that cultivar and variety will also influence the fruit behavior
during freezing, storage under freezing temperatures, thawing, and, consequently, the
quality of frozen product. A comparison of five strawberry cultivars, among the 2000
currently known, found that dripping losses after thawing can vary from 8% to 38%
depending on the cultivar, which can contribute to losses of bioactives.(20)
De Ancos et al.(46) studied four cultivars of raspberries: “Autumn Bliss” and “Heritage”
harvested in May (early season) and “Rubi” and “Zeva” harvested in October (late season).
Fruits were immediately frozen at −80 °C with liquid nitrogen for 15 minutes prior to
storage at −20 °C for 12 months. Freezing resulted in a slight increase in vitamin C: 3% in
late cultivars and 12% in “Heritage,” whereas the content in “Autumn Bliss” remained the
same. This increase could be explained by the damage to the fruit caused by the freezing
process, resulting in the added release of vitamin C. All cultivars exhibited a reduction in
the ascorbic acid content during the storage at low temperatures. The authors correlated
the stability after 90 and 180 days to the harvest period: losses of 20% in early cultivars and
24–27% in late cultivars after 90 days. Whereas the losses in early cultivars reached a
plateau between 90 and 180 days, the reduction of vitamin C reached 40% after 180 days
for late cultivars.(52)
Freezing also affected the cultivars differently in relation to the anthocyanin stability
and was related to the harvest season: extraction of pigments was facilitated in early
cultivars (“Heritage” and “Autumn Bliss”) and reduced in the later ones (“Rubi” and
“Zeva”), with improved extraction and degradation of cyanidin 3-glucoside, respectively.
The effect of low temperatures during long-term storage on early cultivars (“Heritage” and
“Autumn Bliss”) was low; in fact, there was an increase of 17% and 5%, respectively, in the
total pigment extracted, whereas for the late cultivars (“Rubi” and “Zeva”) total pigment
content was reduced by 4% and 17.5%, respectively. This was once again attributed to
cyanidin 3-glucoside degradation combined with variations in pH and soluble solids
content (°Brix). Interestingly, fresh berries from cultivars “Rubi” and “Zeta” had the
highest total anthocyanin contents, 96.08 and 116 mg/g fresh weight [FW], respectively,
whereas “Heritage” and “Autumn Bliss” had the lowest concentrations: 31.13 and 37.04
mg/g FW.(46) The cold acclimation could also justify these findings: although fresh
raspberries from late season cultivars contained almost 3 times more anthocyanins than
early ones (which could indicate higher synthesis of these compounds due to lower
preharvest temperatures), the extraction of pigments from frozen berries was lower for
the late season berries.
In addition to cultivar selection, the optimum harvest time and ripening stage for
freezing should be considered. There should be a balance between significant phytochem-
ical content and physical integrity when establishing the criteria for the frozen fruit with
best quality. The stage of ripening of the harvested fruit can significantly impact the
concentration of carotenoids and phenolic compounds; however, these positive changes
are accompanied by modifications of texture that can be difficult during harvesting and
utilization of these fruits by the food industry.(144) On the other hand, it has also been
demonstrated that ripening can decrease the amount of vitamin C found in citrus fruits.-
(145)
The study by Sriwimon and Boonsupthip(146) observed that partially ripe mango had
a firmer texture and lower drip loss after freezing/thawing than ripe mango. The infusion
of the product with mango juice also helped to maintain the texture and contributed to
the flavor of the partially ripe samples.
In another study, blackberries turned red when stored at −13 °C after 6 months, which
was explained by the incomplete ripeness of the fruits that were not visually recognized
during harvesting. Blackberries thawed slowly in the refrigerator contained 20–30% less
anthocyanin when compared with rapid thawing at room temperature. The same effect
was observed for red-colored blackberries, although to a lesser extent.(11)
The potential change in concentration of bioactives in frozen storage has significant
implications in the recommended shelf life of the frozen fruit products and the associated
health claims. These factors should be considered when labeling the nutritional content of
such products. Due to the variability in responses of different fruits to the freezing process,
it is necessary to study each freezing of fruit on a case-by-case basis.
Shelf life of frozen fruits and fruit products

The food industry should consider all the aspects regarding to raw material, processing,
and storage summarized on Table 2 when developing frozen fruit products of high quality.
Freezing performance should be investigated under representative conditions that are
relevant to the food industry. Studies conducted under laboratory and greenhouse condi-
tions are ideal for estimating and understanding the behavior of fruits during freezing
from an industrial perspective, although they will rarely include the temperature fluctua-
tions commonly encountered during preharvest conditions as well as during fruit trans-
portation and processing.(152)
Table 2. Characteristics of the fruit and process that should be

considered when developing frozen fruit products.
Characteristic of the fruit
Type of fruit to be frozen(24)
Appropriate selection of cultivar and/or variety(147,148)
Ripening state of the fruit(146,148)
Minima chemical/enzymatic degradation
Fresh fruit composition and pH
Processing
Packaging and presence/absence of oxygen(149)
Freezing/thawing protocol,(24,36,53,150) including pretreatment and storage length
Destination of the frozen product (for example, for juice production)(151)
Time between harvesting and processing
Temperature fluctuations in the food distribution chain(121)
Table 3. Practical storage life (PSL, in months) of frozen fruits at

different storage temperatures*.
Storage temperature
Fruit Type of product −12 °C −18 °C −24 °C
Strawberry Raw 5 24 >24
Raspberry
Peach
Strawberry Sugar 3 24 >24
Raspberry
Peach
Apricot Raw 4 18 >24
Cherry
Apricot Sugar 3 18 >24
Cherry
Fruit juice Concentrated — 24 >24
*From reference 153.
The shelf life of frozen fruits and their products is commonly based on the recom-
mendations of the International Institute of Refrigeration, namely, practical storage life
(PSL or acceptability time) and high-quality life (HQL).(153) PSL consists of the period of
proper storage after freezing during which the product will retain its physicochemical and
microbiological qualities (Table 3). HQL, on the other hand, comprises the storage period
after freezing until that when a noticeable difference is detected by 70% of a trained taste
panel, in comparison with a control stored at −40 °C.
The physicochemical qualities discussed in previous sections play an important role
when determining the shelf life of frozen fruit products. For instance, frozen fruits can
be described in terms of losses of nutrients, texture, flavor, tissue moisture, or
discoloration, whereas important parameters for frozen concentrated juices would
include cloudiness and yeast growth, in addition to the reduction of nutrients, flavor,
and color.(154)
Final remarks
The increased consumption of frozen fruit products observed in the last few years is
accompanied by the demand for products of high physicochemical quality. It is evident
that the quality of the final product is intimately related to the raw materials and the
conditions used during their processing and storage. In this context, higher freezing rates
and lower temperatures during storage and thawing are typically better for the main-
tenance of the overall quality of whole fruits and their products.
Vitamin C content is extremely sensitive to variations in the environmental conditions
after harvesting, and water losses can also influence the final concentration. A frozen
product with high vitamin C content can be best achieved when its concentration in the
fresh fruit is high before processing.
In several cases analyzed in this review, changes in the pH have been reported to lead to
degradation of anthocyanins. In addition, as a result of the degradation of complex
polyphenolic compounds, the total phenolic content of some fruits can increase signifi-
cantly. An example of this is shown by the black currant, from which an over 100%
increase has been reported.
Cultivars of the same fruit can exhibit a wide range of intrinsic characteristics,
including phytochemical content and stability, which will dictate their freezing perfor-
mance. Proper selection of cultivars most suitable for freezing is highly recommended.
Furthermore, the preharvest factors, such as growing and environmental conditions,
should also be considered, since they can mask the advantages promoted by rapid
freezing rates.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the National Council for Research and Development (CNPq, Brazil) and
the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada for financial support.
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Article in Food Reviews International · March 2016

Giovana Celli Amyl Ghanem

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Influence of freezing process and frozen storage

Giovana Bonat Celli, Amyl Ghanem & Marianne Su-Ling Brooks

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Inﬂuence of freezing process and frozen storage on the quality

storage conditions on the physicochemical quality of fruit products,

Quality of frozen fruit products

volume expansion during freezing and recrystallization. Volume expansion is character-

No eﬀect Black currant (whole) n.s. −20 °C/9 months (64)

frozen (−30 °C) berries.(77)

could have been facilitated after freezing.(89)

Pretreatments and their eﬀects on the quality of frozen fruit products

damaged by freezing, in addition to aﬀecting the chemical composition of the fruits.

Shelf life of frozen fruits and fruit products

Table 2. Characteristics of the fruit and process that should be

Table 3. Practical storage life (PSL, in months) of frozen fruits at

Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1990, 41, 187–223.

135. Chalker-Scott, L. Environmental signiﬁcance of anthocyanins in plant stress responses.

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