Dependent Origination from the Pali Suttas

This booklet offers a direct interpretation of Dependent Origination using the teachings and definitions
found in the Pali suttas. The general format of this booklet follows the Sammaditthi Sutta (MN 9) in the
Majjhima Nikaya, which offers a more detailed explanation of the ‘ignorance’ condition than the
otherwise equivalent Paticcasamuppada Vibhanga Sutta (SN 12.2) of the Samyutta Nikaya.

This booklet also gives an opinion about the Mahanidana Sutta (DN 15) in the Digha Nikaya and other
questionable suttas, such as SN 12.25 and SN 12.51, which are often used to explain Dependent Origination.

The writer of this booklet offers foremost acknowledgement to Bhikkhu Sujato, whose fabulous Sutta
Central endeavor (with its search facilities) has made possible the research in this booklet.

What is Dependent Origination?

SN 12.2, MN 28 and AN 3.61 appear to literally say Dependent Origination is about how sorrow,
lamentation, pain, grief, despair and suffering originate (uppāda) or arise (samudaya), as follows:
And what is dependent co-origination (paṭiccasamuppādo)? Ignorance is the condition for (prerequisite)
formations (saṅkhārā; plural ) . Formations are the condition for consciousness. Consciousness is the
condition for name-form. Name-form is the condition for the six sense bases. The six sense bases is the
condition for contact. Contact is the condition for feeling. Feeling is the condition for craving. Craving is
the condition for attachment. Attachment is the condition for becoming. Becoming is the condition for
birth. Birth is the condition for aging & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief & despair to come to be
(sambhavanti). Such is the arising (samudayo) of this entire mass of suffering.
SN 12.2

Now this has been said by the Blessed One: “One who sees dependent origination sees the Dhamma; one
who sees the Dhamma sees dependent origination.” And these five aggregates when subjected to attachment
are dependently originated. The desire, clinging, cherishing and holding on in these five aggregates when
subjected to attachment is the arising of suffering. The removal of desire and lust, the abandonment of
desire and lust in these five aggregates when subjected to attachment is the cessation of suffering.’
MN 28

Now it is for one who feels that I proclaim: ‘This is suffering,’ and ‘This is the arising of suffering,’ and
‘This is the cessation of suffering,’ and ‘This is the path leading to the cessation of suffering.’

And what is the noble truth of the arising of suffering? Ignorance is the condition for formations …. birth is
the condition for aging & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief & despair to come to be. Such is the
arising of this entire mass of suffering.
AN 3.61

Also, MN 38 appears to say Dependent Origination is visible here-&-now, with immediate results:
You have been guided by me with this Dhamma, which is visible here and now, immediately effective,
inviting inspection, onward leading, to be individual experienced by the insightful.
MN 38

Therefore, dependent origination appears to be about how sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief & despair arise
from the perception or idea of ‘aging & death’ in the here-&-now.

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What is the meaning of ‘arising’ (‘samudaya’) and ‘origination’ (‘uppāda’)?
SN 22.5 suggests the word ‘samudaya’ refers to the arising and mixing of attachment or defilement
towards/with the five aggregates, as follows:
And what is the arising (samudayo) of form, feeling, perception, formations and consciousness? It’s when a
monks approves (abhinandati ), welcomes (abhivadati ) and keeps (tiṭṭhati) clinging (ajjhosāya).
SN 22.5

This arising or ‘mixing’ of defilement with mind and body appears well described in MN 149, as follows:
For him — infatuated, attached, confused, not remaining focused on their drawbacks — the five clinging-
aggregates head toward future accumulation. The craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied
by passion & delight, relishing now this & now that — grows within him. His bodily disturbances & mental
disturbances grow. His bodily torments & mental torments grow. His bodily distresses & mental distresses
grow. He is sensitive both to bodily stress & mental stress.
MN 149 (Bhikkhu Thanissaro translation)

It follows the word ‘uppāda’ is expected to have the same general meaning of ‘samudaya’, as found in
Chapter 26 of the Samyutta Nikaya about inanimate or non-mental phenomena, as follows:
Yo kho, bhikkhave, cakkhussa [genitive case] … pathavīdhātuyā [genitive case] … uppādo ṭhiti
abhinibbatti pātubhāvo, dukkhasseso uppādo, rogānaṁ ṭhiti, jarāmaraṇassa pātubhāvo
Monks, the eye’s… the earth element’s… origination, continuation, production and manifestation is the
origination of diseases, the manifestation of aging & death.
SN 26.9

In other words, the ‘uppāda’ above appears to refer to the origination of the preexisting eye or preexisting
earth element subjected to defilement, craving and attachment. It appears here the eye and earth element
are pre-existing prior to the origination because the grammatical case is genitive or possessive. Also,
DN 11 clearly says the earth element cannot cease without remainder (thus it cannot physically ‘arise’).

What is ignorance?
Ignorance or not-knowing (avijjā) is defined in MN 9 and SN 12.2 as follows:
Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about the origin of suffering, not knowing about the cessation
of suffering, not knowing about the way leading to the cessation of suffering — this is called ignorance.
MN 9; SN 12.2

MN 9 includes the three āsavā within the ignorance condition, as follows:

There are these three fermentations: the fermentation of sensuality, the fermentation of becoming, the
fermentation of ignorance. This is called fermentation.
From the origination of fermentation comes the origination of ignorance. From the cessation of
fermentation comes the cessation of ignorance.
From the origination of ignorance comes the origination of fermentation. From the cessation of ignorance
comes the cessation of fermentation.
MN 9

Here, the three āsavā are:

(i) sensuality (the outflow of the underlying tendency of kāmarāgānusayo);
(ii) becoming (an impulse for new becoming and, most likely/commonly, a reemergence of past becoming);
(iii) ignorance (the outflow of the underlying tendency of avijjānusayo that must accompany the above āsava).
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The Pali word ‘āsava’ can be practically translated as ‘fermentations’, ‘outflows’, ‘eruptions’ or ‘cankers’;
which describes how the three āsavā are the dynamic process of underlying tendencies (anusaya; refer
to AN 7.11 and MN 64) bubbling up, flowing out or erupting from the (subconscious) mind. These
include the basic instinctual mentalities of people, such as the reproductive, sexual and survival instincts.

In other words, MN 9’s inclusion of āsavā within ignorance explains ignorance is not merely a static lack
of knowledge and blindness but a dynamic lack of knowledge that allows the underlying tendencies
(asusaya) to flow out or erupt (āsavā), such as in the form of the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa)1. It is
probably ideal to view the āsavā and ignorance not as thoughts; but as energies, impulses or drives.

What is saṅkhārā?
‘Saṅkhāra’, similar to ‘dhamma’, is a word used in the Pali suttas in a very diverse range of contexts,
with an equally diverse range of meanings.

Of importance, in MN 9 and SN 12.2, saṅkhārā (with the ‘ā’ nominative declension) is the only term of
the twelve conditions in plural case. The three sub-categories of saṅkhārā in MN 9 and SN 12.2, namely,
kāyasaṅkhāro, vacīsaṅkhāro and cittasaṅkhāro, are each in singular nominative case (with the ‘o’ declension).
It follows the use of the plural ‘saṅkhārā’ gives the impression the three singular saṅkhāro are expected,
for the most part (but not always), to arise together, simultaneously.

This apparent simultaneous arising of the three saṅkhārā in MN 9 and SN 12.2 can be contrasted with
the Abhidhamma Paṭiccasamuppāda Vibhaṅga, which uses the singular ‘saṅkhāro’; probably because
the Vibhaṅga appears to express its view the condition of saṅkhārā includes puññābhisaṅkhāro (meritorious),
apuññābhisaṅkhāro (demeritorious) and āneñjābhisaṅkhāro (imperturbable) formations, which cannot
arise together in a single mind moment. This literally shows the Abhidhamma diverges from the Sutta
Pitaka. This also shows how the convoluted SN 12.51 (which also describes the three Abhidhamma
sankhara as types of attachment/upadana) is a questionable sutta and possibly a later insertion into the
suttas to reflect the later Abhidhamma doctrine.

Therefore, returning to MN 9 and SN 12.2, the only literal explanation or definition of these three
subcategories of saṅkhārā in Dependent Origination is found in MN 44 and SN 41.6, as follows:
In & out breathing is the kāyasaṅkhāro. Initial thought and sustained thought is the vacīsaṅkhāro.
Perception and feeling is the cittasaṅkhāro.
Breathing is related to the body; bound with the body; this is why breathing is the [prerequisite or
sustaining] condition for the body.
Having first initiated and sustained one's thoughts, one then breaks out into speech. This is why initial
thought & sustained thought is the [prerequisite or sustaining] condition for speech.
Perception & feeling is related to the mind; bound with the mind; this is why perception & feeling is the
[prerequisite or sustaining] condition for the [mental defilements & qualities of the] mind (citta).
MN 44; SN 41.6

It appears obvious by the explanation of ‘vacīsaṅkhāro, above, where thought causes speech, the above
three sankharo are prerequisite or causal conditions for the three prefixes (kaya, vaci and citta) above.

For example, as clearly described in MN 148, perception & feeling are requisite or causal conditions
for the arising of defilements of greed, hatred & delusion of the citta (mind), as follows:
1AN 10.61 explains the five hindrances are the ‘food’ (āhāra) of ignorance, which means as long as the hindrances, caused by ignorance,
continue to exist, ignorance will also continue to exist, because the five hindrance obscure the arising of wisdom.

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 With contact as condition there arises a feeling felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant.
When one is touched by a pleasant feeling, if one delights in it, welcomes it and remains holding to it, then
the underlying tendency to lust lies within one.
When one is touched by a painful feeling, if one sorrows, grieves and laments, weeps beating one’s breast
and becomes distraught, then the underlying tendency to aversion lies within one.
When one is touched by a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, if one does not understand as it actually is the
origination, the disappearance, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in regard to that feeling, then the
underlying tendency to ignorance lies within one.
MN 148
In other words, kāyasaṅkhāro, vacīsaṅkhāro and cittasaṅkhāro appear not the same as the kāyasaṅkhāraṃ,
vacīsaṅkhāraṃ and manosaṅkhāraṃ (singular accusative case ‘aṃ’ declension; generated by abhisaṅkharoti)
found in mundane suttas about kamma (such as SN 12.25 and AN 4.171). Manosaṅkhāraṃ is mental
kamma/action itself; generated by abhisaṅkharoti (refer to kiñca saṅkhāre vadetha in SN 22.79). In
contrast, it appears cittasaṅkhāro (perception & feeling) is a prerequisite condition for mental action.

In conclusion, the three saṅkhārā in MN 9 and SN 12.2 appear to refer to in-&out breathing, initial-&-
sustained thought and perception-&-feeling. When ignorant āsavā flow out or ‘arise’ (‘samudaya’),
these cause the in-&-out breathing to become agitated and generally simultaneously cause thoughts with
their associated feelings & perceptions to arise; what are called ‘distracting thoughts’ in suttas, such as
described in MN 19 and 20. Also, kāyasaṅkhāro here appears the very same kāyasaṅkhāro found in MN 118.

It is important to note these saṅkhārā appear not ‘volitional’. The common translation ‘volitional formations’
in this context appears misleading, without basis in the Pali suttas (however is found in the Abhidhamma
Paṭiccasamuppāda Vibhaṅga). ‘Volition’ (‘cetana’) is first mentioned at the namarupa condition (in MN 9
and SN 12.2); which later again arises at/with the craving condition (per SN 12.63; DN 22; etc).

What is viññāṇaṁ?
Consciousness (viññāṇaṁ) refers to the six types of sense consciousness, which sutttas such as MN 38,
SN 22.53 and SN 12.67 say cannot arise without sense organs, sense objects and the other aggregates. The
six types of consciousness listed in MN 9 and SN 12.2 are:
There are six classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,
body-consciousness, mind-consciousness. This is called consciousness. From the arising of formations comes
the arising of consciousness. From the cessation of formations comes the cessation of consciousness.
MN 9
In the suttas, there are various truncated teachings of Dependent Origination that include consciousness. Some
suttas say consciousness arises after, i.e., ‘dependent upon’, sense organs and sense bases, such as MN 18,
MN 148. Other suttas say consciousness arises after, i.e., dependent upon, namarupa, such as in SN 12.67,
SN 22.82. It follows, in the complete twelve-condition formula, found in MN 9 and SN 12.2, each of the
six sense consciousnesses may not necessarily arise/operate immediately after the arising of saṅkhārā.

In short, it is experientially logical consciousness is listed as the 3rd condition of Dependent Origination
because two types of consciousness would certainly arise immediately after the arising of saṅkhārā, namely,
mind consciousness (arising dependent upon the arising of vacisankharo & cittasankharo) and, as known by
the adept Anapanasati practitioner, body consciousness (arising dependent upon the arising of kayasankharo).

In conclusion, when the arising of ignorance causes a saṅkhāro (singular) or all three saṅkhārā (plural)
to arise, it appears those saṅkhārā cause consciousness to become established or preoccupied upon those
saṅkhārā. It follows the arising saṅkhārā is the condition for the arising of consciousness.

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What is nāmarūpaṁ?
The term ‘nāmarūpa’ appears to be from the Brahmanism that must have preceded the Buddha. The
more primitive or theistic Chandogya Upanishad (attached to the Sama Veda) appears to say:
That Deity, having entered into the three gods (three elements of earth, fire & water), saw, ‘I shall manifest
name and form, the unmanifested name and form which, as seeds, exist in me’… Name and form came into
existence on account of this action of multiplication brought about by the triplication of the (three) elements
by the Will of the Supreme Being…

Since the Pali Suttas confirm knowledge of the Sama Veda and since the quote above includes “the Will of
the Supreme Being/Deity”, it appears the Buddha adopted ‘namarupa’ from the above context because
Dependent Origination also includes “the will” (“cetana”) in its conception of ‘namarupa’. While the term
‘nāmarūpa’ literally means ‘name-form’ (the differentiating of the undifferentiated into names of forms),
the Chandogya Upanishad appears to show ‘namarupa’ primarily refers the creative power of the will.

Of note, in some Pali suttas spoken to Brahmins and Brahma Gods, such as SN 7.6, MN 49 and DN 11,
‘nāmarūpa’ appears to logically retain its Brahmanistic meaning because, contrary to MN 9, SN 12.67, etc,
(which refer to the mutual dependence of consciousness and namarupa), SN 7.6, MN 49 and DN 11 refer to
the existence or operation of some type of consciousness when nāmarūpa ceases.

In short, it appears obvious by the definition of nāmarūpa in MN 9 and SN 12.2 the Buddha redefined the
term ‘nāmarūpa’ to describe the creativity of human ‘mentality-physicality’ (‘mind-body’) as follows:
And what is nāmarūpaṁ? Feeling, perception, intention, contact and attention (vedanā, saññā, cetanā, phasso,
manasikāro). This is called nāma. The four primary elements and form derived from the four primary elements
(cattāro ca mahābhūtā, catunnañca mahābhūtānaṁ upādāyarūpaṁ). This is called rūpaṁ.
MN 9; SN 12.2

In summary, when ignorance causes the stream of Dependent Origination to arise/develop in its ignorant
direction, what appears to occur at nāmarūpa is the mind feels, perceives, has contact with and makes
wrong intentions and gives inappropriate attention towards the ignorant saṅkhārā it has become consciousness
of. Or to borrow from the Chandogya Upanishad, the will (intention) gives attention to manifesting or
magnifying the basic small impulses/asava and ideations/sankharas into large objects of sense gratification.

This process of willful attention cultivating a basic primal thought is well described in MN 19 as follows:
Whatever a monks frequently thinks about and considers becomes their minds’s inclination (nati). If they
often think about and consider sensual thoughts, they have given up the thought of renunciation to cultivate
sensual thought. Their mind inclines (namati) to sensual thoughts.
MN 19
As suggested by the Visuddhimagga, that ‘nama’ also means ‘nati’ (‘inclination’) and ‘bends/inclines’
(‘namati’) appears literally found in SN 12.40, which follows SN 12.39, as follows:
Tasmiṁ patiṭṭhite viññāṇe virūḷhe nāmarūpassa avakkanti hoti.

When consciousness is established/fixated and grows, there is an emergence of mentality-physicality.

SN 12.39

Tasmiṁ patiṭṭhite viññāṇe virūḷhe nati hoti.

When consciousness is established/fixated and grows, there is an inclination.

SN 12.40

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Therefore, in respect to the ignorant stream of Dependent Origination, it appears nāmarūpa culminates
in the arising of ignorant intentions and inappropriate attention (ayoniso manasikara); as indicated by
manasikara being the final constituent of nama. This appears where the will, intention or volition
(cetana) first arises in dependent origination.

‘Rūpa’ here appears to refer to the simultaneous agitation/tension/restlessness of the physical body,
which influences it (the body) and the mind (nama) to externally pursue the objects of the saṅkhārā.

For example, the saṅkhāra may arise: “I need to smoke a cigarette”. Soon after, the rūpa becomes tense.
If nāma has appropriate attention, it makes the intention of rejecting that saṅkhārā, such as reflecting
(per MN 19): “smoking causes cancer and loss of wealth; I made the determination to give up smoking”.
However, when nāmarūpa is controlled by the power/temptation of ignorance, āsavā and saṅkhārā, nāma
gives inappropriate attention to the saṅkhārā and makes the decision/intention to pursue cigarettes to smoke.

In conclusion, nāmarūpa appears the first crossroad where the ignorant stream of Dependent Origination
can be cut because nāmarūpa includes the first internal contact with the non-volitional sankharas. But
when the stream of dependent origination flows in an ignorant manner, the condition of nāmarūpa refers to
the mind and body “inclining” (“namati’) via unwise intention, inappropriate attention and physical arousal
to purse an external object of gratification via the sense bases that matches the prior asava and sankhara.

What is saḷāyatana and phassa?

Saḷāyatanaṁ and phasso refers to the six sense bases and six sense contacts, namely:
And what are the six sense bases? The sense bases of the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind/intellect.

And what is contact? There are these six classes of contact. Contact through the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body
and mind/intellect.

MN 9; SN 12.2

It is notable saḷāyatanaṁ refers to the ‘six’ sense bases. Therefore, when the 11th condition called ‘jāti’
includes within its definition the term ‘āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho’ (‘acquisition of their sense objects’), this
appears to not refer to the ‘six’ sense bases because the prefix ‘saḷ’ (‘ṣaḍ’ in Sansrkti) is absent.

In conclusion, when nāmarūpa gives inappropriate attention to an internal saṅkhāra, that internal saṅkhāra,
rather than remaining a mere internal contact at nāmarūpa, then becomes a saḷāyatana at the mind base (due
to it now dominating and guiding the mind), which also causes other relevant saḷāyatana to activate in
search of the relevant external object of gratification. Phasso is sense contact with a relevant sense object.
Of note, this Dependently Arisen contact is tainted by ignorance, as described in SN 22.81, as follows:
… touched by that which is felt born of contact with ignorance (avijjāsamphassa), craving arises.
SN 22.81

What is vedanā and tanha?

Vedanā and tanha are described in MN 9, SN 12.2, MN 38 and MN 148, as follows:
There are these six classes of feeling: feeling born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born of
nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of body-contact, feeling born of mind-contact.
There are these six classes of craving: craving for forms, craving for sounds, craving for odours, craving for
flavours, craving for tangibles, craving for mind-objects.
MN 9; SN 12.2 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

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 On seeing a form with the eye… hearing a sound with the ear… smelling an odour with the nose… tasting a
flavour with the tongue… touching a tangible with the body… cognizing a mind-object with the mind, he
lusts after it if it is pleasing; he dislikes it if it is unpleasing…. Engaged as he is in favouring and opposing,
whatever feeling he feels — whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant—he delights in that
feeling, welcomes it and remains holding to it… Now delight in feelings is clinging.
MN 38 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

Bhikkhus, dependent on the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises; the meeting of the three is contact;
with contact as condition there arises a feeling felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant.
When one is touched by a pleasant feeling, if one delights in it, welcomes it, and remains holding to it, then
the underlying tendency to lust lies within one. When one is touched by a painful feeling, if one sorrows,
grieves and laments, weeps beating one’s breast and becomes distraught, then the underlying tendency to
aversion lies within one. When one is touched by a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, if one does not
understand as it actually is the origination, the disappearance, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in
regard to that feeling, then the underlying tendency to ignorance lies within one.
MN 148 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

It appears these feelings and cravings are not thoughts. It appears feelings are a qualitative sensation and
cravings are energetic urges or drives. It follows various suttas use terms such as “fire”, “sticky”, “flood”,
etc, to describe craving. For example, the thoughts “I like this; I dislike this; I want this; I don’t want this; I
want to understand this”, etc, appear to not be feelings and cravings. Instead, they appear to be types of
attachment (upadana) born from/including feelings and cravings. Suttas such as MN 1 and MN 140 use
the word maññati/ maññita (conceives; deems; imagines) to describe the creation of “I” thoughts.

Upadana
‘Upadana’ is generally translated as ‘attachment’, ‘grasping’ and ‘clinging’. The translation ‘clinging’
appears not the most accurate because the word ‘upadana’ literally means to ‘take up’; where as
‘clinging’ appears to describe not letting of something already taken up or grasped.

In Dependent Origination ‘upadana’ is defined using four word compounds, as follows:

Cattārimāni, bhikkhave, upādānāni— kāmupādānaṁ, diṭṭhupādānaṁ, sīlabbatupādānaṁ, attavādupādānaṁ.
Idaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, upādānaṁ.
There are these four types of grasping - sensual grasping, views grasping, precepts & observances grasping
and self-theory grasping. This is called grasping.
MN 9; SN 12.2

These four word compounds are often translated with the joiner “to” (example, “attachment to sensuality”).
While not an important distinction worth arguing about , the view of this booklet is the first word of
each compound is an adjective, describing a type of attachment wholly manifesting at this 9th condition
(rather than something attached to that precedes this 9th condition).

For example, after contact with a sense object, feeling and craving, the thought may arise: “This object
is beautiful”. The thought, idea, notion or theme (nimitta) of “beautiful” itself appears to be the arising of
sensual attachment. In other words, the “beautiful” is not inherently part of the sense object but, instead,
a product of attachment itself. Note: MN 38 says “delight (nandi) is attachment”.

Similarly, after contact with a sense object, the thought may arise: “That situation is unfair and unjust”.
Here, this view is itself attachment (rather than something that previously existed and was attached to).

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Similarly, after contact with a sense object, feeling and craving, the thought may arise: “That situation
is unfair and unjust. There should be a law or rule about this”. Again here, the notion of rules and
precepts is itself attachment (rather than the rules and precepts inherently preexisting externally).

Similarly, after contact with a sense object, feeling and craving, the thought may arise: “That situation is
unfair and unjust. I do not like it”. Again, here, the arising of a self-view of “I” is attachment. Again, here,
there is not a preexisting “I” that is attached to. The formation of the thought of “I” is attachment itself.
Suttas supporting the above interpretation include SN 12.12 and SN 22.81, below:
"Who, O Lord, craves?" "The question is not correct," said the Exalted One. "I do not say that 'he craves.' Had
I said so, then the question 'Who craves?' would be appropriate. But since I did not speak thus, the correct
way to ask the question will be 'What is the condition of craving?' And to that the correct reply is: 'Feeling is
the condition of craving, and craving is the condition of clinging.'"
"Who, O Lord, clings?" "The question is not correct," said the Exalted One, "I do not say that 'he clings.' Had I
said so, then the question 'Who clings?' would be appropriate. But since I did not speak thus, the correct way
to ask the question will be 'What is the condition of clinging?' And to that the correct reply is: 'Craving is the
condition of clinging; and clinging is the condition of the process of becoming.' Such is the origin of this
entire mass of suffering.
SN 12.12 (Nyanaponika Thera translation)

Regards form as ‘self’. That regarding, bhikkhus, is a mental formation…. When the uninstructed worldling is
touched by a feeling born of ignorant-contact, craving arises: thence that mental formation is born of that.
SN 22.81

Bhava
As previously mentioned, MN 9 includes the tendency to and/or reemergence of past ‘bhava’ as one of
three basic ‘asava’ (‘mental outflows or fermentations’), as follows:
Tayome, āvuso, āsavā - kāmāsavo, bhavāsavo, avijjāsavo.

There are these three outflows/fermentations. The fermentation of sensuality, becoming and ignorance.
MN 9

Therefore, ‘bhava’, being an ‘asava’, appears to be something ‘mental’. For example, MN 117 says the
Noble Path is without ‘asava’; thus without ‘bhava’. MN 121 says the experience of Emptiness (Sunnata)
is without bhavāsava, even though life continues, as follows:
Katamā ca, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi ariyā anāsavā lokuttarā maggaṅgā?
And what is right view that is noble, without asava, supramundane, a factor of the path?
MN 117

So ‘suññamidaṁ saññāgataṁ kāmāsavenā’ti pajānāti, ‘suññamidaṁ saññāgataṁ bhavāsavenā’ti pajānāti, ‘s

uññamidaṁ saññāgataṁ avijjāsavenā’ti pajānāti, ‘atthi cevidaṁ asuññataṁ yadidaṁ — imameva kāyaṁ
paṭicca saḷāyatanikaṁ jīvitapaccayā’ti.
They understand: ‘This field of perception is empty of the fermentations of sensuality, becoming and
ignorance. There is only this that is not emptiness, namely that associated with the six sense fields
dependent on this ‘body’ [‘kaya’; ‘collection/group’ of aggregates] and with life (jīvita) as its condition.
MN 121

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‘Bhava’, as a mental state, leading to ‘identity’, which is also mental, appears also described in MN 44:
The craving that leads to new becoming (ponobbhavikā ), mixed up with delight & lust, taking pleasure in this & that,
namely, sensual craving, craving-to-be and craving-not-to-be. This is the origin of identity (sakkāya samudayo).
MN 44
In its basic imperative (2nd person) form, ‘bhava’ is used simply as mental becoming, as follows:
Khippaṁ vāyama paṇḍito bhava - Strive swiftly to become a wise person!

Dhp 238

Dukkhassantakaro bhava - Become one who makes suffering pacify!

Nibbidābahulo bhava – Become one devoted to disenchantment!

Snp 2.11

It follows, this booklet regards ‘bhava’ to mean ‘becoming’ (rather than ‘existence’ or ‘being’) because
‘bhava’ appears to refer a transformational process of the mind ‘becoming’ something it previously was
not. While the translations of ‘existence’ and ‘being’ can certainly refer to illusory or beguiling mental
states, they seem easily construed as physical states or physical lifetimes.

AN 3.76 & 77 appear to define ‘becoming’ as consciousness ‘established’ in a sense object, as follows:
Avijjānīvaraṇānaṁ sattānaṁ taṇhāsaṁyojanānaṁ hīnāya dhātuyā viññāṇaṁ patiṭṭhitaṁ evaṁ āyatiṁ punabbh
avābhinibbatti hoti
Hindered by ignorance, beings fettered by craving, in a lower element, consciousness is established (patiṭṭhita).
That is how future new becoming production exists.
AN 3.76

Avijjānīvaraṇānaṁ sattānaṁ taṇhāsaṁyojanānaṁ hīnāya dhātuyā cetanā patiṭṭhitā patthanā patiṭṭhitā eva
ṁ āyatiṁ punabbhavābhinibbatti hoti.
Hindered by ignorance, beings fettered by craving, in a lower element, intention is established (patiṭṭhita),
aspiration is established (patiṭṭhitā ). That is how future new becoming production exists.
AN 3.77

The word ‘established’ (‘patiṭṭhitā ‘) appears clearly described in SN 22.53 as occurring in the here-&-now:
Rūpupayaṁ vā, bhikkhave, viññāṇaṁ tiṭṭhamānaṁ tiṭṭheyya, rūpārammaṇaṁ rūpappatiṭṭhaṁ nandūpasec
anaṁ vuddhiṁ virūḷhiṁ vepullaṁ āpajjeyya… Rūpadhātuyā ce, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno rāgo pahīno hoti.
Rāgassa pahānā vocchijjatārammaṇaṁ patiṭṭhā viññāṇassa na hoti.

As long as consciousness continues, it is involved with form, supported by form, established on form
(rūpappatiṭṭhaṁ). With a sprinkle of delight, it would grow, increase and mature… If a monk has given up
lust for the form element, the support is cut off and there is no establishment (patiṭṭhā na) of consciousness.
SN 22.53

AN 3.76 & 77 appear to also define ‘becoming’ in Dependent Origination as maturation, finalization,
result or bearing (‘vepakka’; see unambiguous usage in AN 6.63) of kamma as follows:
Kāmadhātuvepakkañca, ānanda, kammaṁ nābhavissa, api nu kho kāmabhavo paññāyethā ti?
Ānanda , if a sensual element bearing kamma had not existed, could sensual becoming be
known/manifest?”
AN 3.76

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It follows, in Dependent Origination, the suttas define ‘bhava’ as three types, namely:
Tayome bhavā - kāmabhavo, rūpabhavo, arūpabhavo.
There are three types of becoming - sensual becoming, material becoming, immaterial becoming.
MN 9; SN 12.2

Sensuality appears to include cognizable forms, sounds, odours, tastes and touches that are wished for,
desired, agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual desire (kāmūpasaṁhitā) and provocative of lust
(MN 13). Therefore, an example of sensual becoming is the mind established in the taste of food,
propelled by craving, such as thinking while eating: “This food is so delicious; I am such a good cook”.

‘Materiality appears to most commonly refer to jhana but may possibly also refer to material things that
are not sensual yet desired and identified with, such as a house. While a house may not be a sensual
pleasure, it may give rise to the becoming of ownership or security, such as: “I am glad I own a house”.

Immateriality appears to most commonly refer to the meditation immaterial spheres but may possibly
refer to anything mental that is not sensual, such as reputation or merit. For example, when Abhidhamma
refers to ‘meritorious’ and ‘imperturbable’ becoming, surely this is immaterial becoming. Suttas such
as DN 9 (non-physical self), MN 21 (immaterial self), MN 102 (sky is formless) and Thag 19.1 (immaterial
mind traveler wanderer) appear to use the term ‘arupa’ in ways not connected to the immaterial meditations.

In conclusion, the suttas appear to refer to ‘becoming’ as a transformational process where the mind
becomes something it was previously not (Dhp 238; Snp 2.11); and this begins to occur when the mind
becomes ‘established’ or ‘fixated’ (‘patiṭṭhita’) in a sensual, material or immaterial object; which then
gives rise to a ‘mental narrative’ and the illusion of ‘fixed real existence’ or ‘true-self-identity’ (MN 44).

A term sometimes used for ‘real’ or ‘fixed existence’, namely, ‘atthi’, is found as a wrong view in suttas
such as SN 12.15 (in ‘atthita’) and SN 44.10 (within ‘atthattā’). While some suttas, such as Iti 49 in its
description of eternalist (using the term ‘bhavaratā’) and annihilationist (using the term ‘vibhavaṁ’)
wrong views, may give an impression ‘atthi’ may be synonymous with ‘bhava’, this is obviously not so
because Iti 49, when referring to the right path, refers to practicing for cessation of what has come to be.
And how do those with vision see? It’s when a monk sees what has come to be as having come to be
(bhūtaṁ bhūtato). Seeing this, they are practicing for disenchantment, dispassion and cessation
regarding what has come to be. That is how those with vision see.

Iti 49

It follows the right view of ‘bhava’ (unlike the wrong views of ‘atthita’ in SN 12.15 or ‘existing self’ in
SN 44.10) is the right view ‘bhava’ is something conditioned and transient; ultimately produced from
ignorance, as described in SN 12.20, below:
Bhavo, bhikkhave, aniccaṁ saṅkhataṁ paṭiccasamuppannaṁ khayadhammaṁ vayadhammaṁ virāgadham
maṁ nirodhadhammaṁ.

Becoming is impermanent, conditioned, dependently originated, liable to end, vanish, fade away and cease.
SN 12.20

Thus SN 12.15 says when the ‘arising’ (‘samudaya’) of the world (i.e., the dependent arising of becoming)
is seen with right view, the view of ‘non-existence’ (‘natthita’) does not occur (because it is seen how
becoming has transiently come to be via mental conceiving); yet when the ‘cessation’ (‘nirodha’) of the
world (i.e., the cessation of becoming) is seen with right view, the view of ‘fixed-existence’ (‘atthita’)
does not occur (because it is seen how becoming is something that ceases thus has no fixed existence).

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Jati
MN 9 and SN 12.2 define ‘jati’ as follows:
Katamā ca, bhikkhave, jāti? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhi tamhi sattanikāye jāti sañjāti okkanti
abhinibbatti khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho Ayaṁ vuccati, bhikkhave, jāti
What is birth? Whatever this and that beings in this and that category/class/group of beings, their birth;
their completing birth, their emergence, their production, the manifestation of their aggregates, the
acquisition of their sense spheres (sense objects). This is called birth.
MN 9; SN 12.2 (writer’s translation)

This definition is also found in SN 12.27, SN 12.28, SN 12.33, MN 141, DN 22 and also in relation to the
First Noble Truth in the sutta commentary The Paṭisambhidāmagga. However, it is not found in DN 15.

The core phrase in this definition (also shared with the definition of ‘marana’) is: “this and that beings in
this and that category/class/group of beings”.

The words ‘beings’ (‘sattānaṁ’) or ‘a being’ (‘satto’) is defined in SN 5.10 and SN 23.2 as “a view”, “a
convention” and “strong attachment”, as follows:
Why now do you assume 'a being' (satto)?
Mara, have you grasped a view (diṭṭhigataṁ)?
This is a heap of sheer constructions:
Here no being (satta) is found.
Just as, with an assemblage of parts,
The word 'chariot' is used,
So, when the aggregates are present,
There's the convention (sammuti) 'a being' (satto).
SN 5.10 (Bhikku Bodhi translation)

Satto sattoti bhante, vuccati kittāvatā nu kho bhante, sattoti vuccati?

'A being,' lord. 'A being,' it's said. To what extent is one said to be 'a being'?
Any desire, passion, delight or craving for form… feeling… perception… fabrications… consciousness,
Radha: when one is caught up (satto) there, tied up (visatto) there, one is said to be 'a being’ (‘satto’).
SN 23.2 (Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation)

The word ‘convention’ (‘sammuti’) in SN 5.10 above is also found (as ‘sammuccā’) in MN 98, which is
also about Dependent Origination, as follows:
In human bodies in themselves, nothing distinctive can be found. Distinction (vokāra) among human beings is
purely verbal designation (samaññāya pavuccati).
Who makes a living among men, by agriculture, you show know is called a farmer. He is not a Brahmin. Who
makes a living among men, by varied crafts, you show know is called a craftsman. He is not a Brahmin.
For name and clan are assigned (pakappitaṁ) as designations (saṁaññā) in the world, originating in
conventions (sammuccā), they are assigned (pakappitaṁ) here and there.
For men are farmers by their acts; and by their acts are craftsmen too.
So that is how the wise truly see, seers of Dependent Origination, skilled in action and its results.
MN 98 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)
It follows, based on the above, it appears ‘jati’ may refer to the birth of views or ideas of types of ‘beings’.

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nāmagottaṁ pakappitaṁ;
Sammuccā samudāgataṁ, pakappitaṁ.
For example, MN 87 says about the social convention or social category of a monk:
Angulimala, go to that woman and on arrival say to her, 'Sister, since I was born in the noble birth
(ariyāya jātiyā jāto), I do not recall intentionally killing a living being'.
MN 86
Or MN 44, similar to Dependent Origination, says craving and becoming cause ‘identity’, as follows:
The craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied by passion & delight, relishing now here & now
there — i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming: This, friend
Visakha, is the origination of self-identification (sakkāya) described by the Blessed One.

MN 44 (Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation)

Interestingly, and possibly ironically (to later Theravada doctrine), in Hinduism, the word ‘jati’ also
means ‘social identity’ or ‘social category’. Yet the word ‘jati’ appears not found in the pre-Buddhist
Vedas in this context; where it appears only the word ‘varna’ is found. Wikipedia says:
Jāti , literally "birth", is a group of clans, tribes, communities and sub-communities and religions in India.
Each jāti typically has an association with a traditional job function or tribe. Religious beliefs or linguistic
groupings may define some jatis. A person's surname typically reflects a community (jati) association:
thus Gandhi = perfume seller, Dhobi = washerman, Srivastava = military scribe, etc. In any given location
in India 500 or more jatis may co-exist, although the exact composition will differ from district to district.
Wikipedia

Wikipedia above certainly sounds similar to the content of MN 98 (quoted previously) and the phrase
“this and that beings in this and that category/class/group of beings” found in MN 9 and SN 12.2.

It appears ironic as later-Buddhism invented literal reincarnation stories called “Birth Stories” (Jataka) and
as Abhidhamma (Vibhanga) changed the definition of jati from the birth of “beings” (“sattanam”) to the
birth of “things” (“dhammam”), Hinduism appeared to use the possible original Buddhist meaning of “jati”,
even though there are Hindu scholars today unable to trace the origin of the word “jati” in Hinduism.

In conclusion, ‘jati’ in Dependent Origination appears to refer to the mental conception of views of various
categories or classes of “beings”; such as “mother”, “father”, “son”, daughter”, “wife”, “husband”,
“farmer”, “craftsman”, “monk”, “myself”, “Buddha”, “Nazi”, “Communist”, “anti-vaxxer”, etc.

Linguistic matters
About the word “jati”, it is a noun, for which the verb form is “jayati”. “Jayati” is used in the suttas to
refer to the birth of mental phenomena, as follows:
Monks, these four things are born (jāyanti). Which four? Affection born (jāyati) of affection. Aversion
born (jāyati) of affection. Affection born (jāyati) of aversion. Aversion born (jāyati) of aversion.
AN 4.200

When one is gladdened, rapture is born (pamuditassa pīti jāyati).

SN 35.97

“Jati” also appears used as the birth of mental phenomena, as follows:

They regard form as self. That regarding is just a mental formation. And what is its source, what is its origin, from
what is it born (jātiko), and inception of that mental formation? When an uneducated ordinary person is struck by
feelings born of contact with ignorance, craving arises. That mental formation is born from that (tatojo).

SN 22.81

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“Jati” is also used in “jatidhamma”, which refers to objects of attachment or acquisition, as follows:
And what may be said to be subject to birth (jātidhammaṃ)? Wife and children are subject to birth,
men and women slaves, goats and sheep, fowl and pigs, elephants, cattle, horses, and mares, gold and
silver are subject to birth. These acquisitions (upadhayo) are subject to birth; and one who is tied to
these things, infatuated with them, and utterly committed to them, being himself subject to birth,
seeks what it also subject to birth.
MN 26

About the word “upadhi” (“upadhayo”; plural) above, SN 12.66 excludes ‘bhava’ and ‘jati’ and says
‘upadhi’ is the condition for ‘aging & death’, as follows:
‘The many diverse kinds of suffering that arise in the world headed by aging-and-death: this suffering
has acquisition (upadhi) as its source, acquisition as its origin; it is born (jātikaṁ ) and produced from
acquisition. When there is no acquisition, aging-and-death does not come to be.’

SN 12.66 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

As for “childbirth”, the word generally used in the suttas is ‘vijāyati’, as follows:
When nine or ten months have passed, the mother gives birth (vijāyati) at great risk to her heavy burden.

MN 38 (Bhikkhu Sujato translation)

The other words in the definition of ‘jati’ are also found in the suttas listed below and appear to have no
inherent meaning related to rebirth, reincarnation or physical birth:
 Sañjāti, used in DN 12 about revenues ‘produced’ in the towns of Salavatika, Kasi and Kosala.
 Okkanti/okkamati, used in SN 25, AN 3.22, AN 6.9, etc, about entering the Path; AN 5.158 about
entering into timidity; Snp 2.7 using weapons descending from ancient times; Iti 83 about physical
appearance becoming ugly; AN 7.71 about entering into drowsiness; SN 51.22 about the Buddha
entering perception of bliss. The similar term avakkanti/avakkamati is used in SN 12.39, SN 12.58
and 12.64 about the entering/emergence of mentality-physicality; SN 22.47 about the sense faculties
coming-into-play when the conceit “I am” is not abandoned; MN 121 about entering into emptiness.
 Abhinibbatti, used in MN 93 about a fire producing heat; SN 26.9 about the ‘production’ of the
earth element leading to suffering; MN 96 about ‘production of individuality’ ('attabhāvassa
abhinibbatti'); SN 22.100 about ‘producing aggregates like an artist painting a figure of a man or
woman’; and in AN 3.34 about here & now phenomena, as follows:
Any kamma, bhikkhus, fashioned through greed, born of greed (lobhajaṁ), caused by greed
(lobhanidānaṁ), originated by greed (lobhasamudayaṁ), ripens wherever individual character
(attabhāvo) is produced (nibbattati). Wherever that kamma ripens, it is there that result is
experienced, either here & now (diṭṭheva dhamme), later (upapajje) or following that (apare
pariyāye). A person unknowing: the actions performed by him, born of greed, aversion & delusion,
whether many or few, are experienced (vedaniyaṃ) right here (idheva): no other ground is found.
AN 3.34 (Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation excerpt).

It seems ‘abhinibbatti’ is most notably commonly mistranslated as ‘rebirth’ in AN 10.65. This

appears to be a mistranslation because suttas such as MN 2 and MN 21 alternatively explain how
cold and heat, hunger and thirst, excrement and urine, contact with fire, contact with punishment,
weapons, anger, relatives, friends, etc, are tolerated without suffering.
 Pātubhāvo, used in SN 46.42 about how seven factors of enlightenment manifest when a Buddha
manifests; AN 5.143 about how manifestation of a Buddha, an explainer of the Teachings, an
understander of the Teachings, a practitioner of the teachings and a grateful person is rare; SN 26.9

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 about the manifestation of the earth element; in SN 35.21 about the manifestation of aging & death; in
MN 28 about how consciousness does not manifest in there are no visual sights.
In short, as described in MN 98, the term ‘khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo’ may refer to how the five aggregates
manifest or transform in respect to the various “beings” (such as a ‘farmer’ manifesting a strenuous
physical body and mind of endurance; or a ‘merchant’ manifesting their physical body to travel and
using their mind shrewdly) which defines their “category of being” (such as ‘farmer’ or ‘merchant’).
 Paṭilābho, used in SN 55.1 about obtaining the four factors of stream-entry; AN 8.2 about obtaining
the wisdom fundamental to the holy life; AN 4.171 about acquiring individual character (attabhava);
MN 106 about obtaining equanimity; SN 42.8 about acquiring a view; Dhp 333 about acquisition of
wisdom. As previously mentioned it appears certain ‘āyatanānaṁ’ in jati does not appear to refer to
the six sense bases because the Pali for ‘six’ is absent.
In short, as described in MN 98, the term ‘āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho’ may refer to the sense spheres or
sense objects certain “beings” (such as a ‘farmer’ or ‘merchant’) seek to acquire (such as ‘crops’ or
‘money’) which defines their category of being (such as ‘farmer’ or ‘merchant’).
In conclusion, there appears little or no evidence in the Suttas ‘jati’ refers to ‘physical birth’ or ‘rebirth’.

Past births
The suttas contain the following stock phrase included within the Three Knowledges of an Arahant:
When my mind had become concentrated like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable,
workable, steady, and imperturbable—I extended it toward recollection of past abodes/dwellings (pubbenivāsaṁ).
I recollected many kinds of past abodes/dwellings. That is: one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty,
forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand births (jātiyo)…
MN 4

The Pali word ‘nivāsa’ above appears to literally means ‘homes’, as shown in SN 22.2 and SN 22.87:

Sir, we wish to go to a western land to take up residence (nivāsaṃ) there.

SN 22.2

At that time Venerable Vakkali was staying in a potter’s shed (nivesane), was sick, suffering, gravely ill.
SN 22.87

It appears ‘vāsa’ and possibly ‘nivesa’ are related words used in the following contexts:
Bhikkhus, there are these ten abodes (vāsa) of the noble ones in which the noble ones abide in the past, present or
future. What ten? Here, a bhikkhu (1) has abandoned five factors; (2) possesses six factors; (3) has a single guard (4)
and four supports; (5) has dispelled personal truths, (6) totally renounced seeking, (7) purified his intentions,
(8) tranquilized bodily activity, and become (9) well liberated in mind and (10) well liberated by wisdom.
AN 10.20

And how does one not live at home? Any desire, lust, delight, and craving, the engagement and clinging, the
mental standpoints, adherences (ābhinivesā) and underlying tendencies… these the Tathagata has
abandoned, their root destroyed, made like a palmyra stump, deprived of the conditions of development, not
destined for future arising. Therefore the Tathagata is said to be not dwelling at home.
SN 22.3

It follows there appears one single sutta, namely, SN 22.79, explaining the possible meaning of recollecting
past nivāsa thus past jati; to possibly mean recollecting past attachments to aggregates as ‘self’, as follows:
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Bhikkhus, those ascetics and brahmins who recollect their manifold past abodes (pubbenivāsaṁ) all recollect
the five aggregates subject to clinging or a certain one among them. What five? When recollecting thus, bhikkhus: ‘I
had such form in the past,’ it is just form that one recollects. When recollecting: ‘I had such a feeling in the
past,’ it is just feeling that one recollects. When recollecting: ‘I had such a perception in the past,’ it is just
perception that one recollects. When recollecting: ‘I had such volitional formations in the past,’ it is just
volitional formations that one recollects. When recollecting: ‘I had such consciousness in the past,’ it is just
consciousness that one recollects….
Therefore, bhikkhus, any kind of form whatsoever … Any kind of feeling whatsoever … Any kind of perception
whatsoever … Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever … Any kind of consciousness whatsoever, whether
past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near, all consciousness
should be seen as it really is with correct wisdom thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my self.’
This is called, bhikkhus, a noble disciple who dismantles and does not build up; who abandons and does not
cling; who scatters and does not amass; who extinguishes and does not kindle…. He abandons feeling …
perception … volitional formations … consciousness and does not cling to it.
SN 22.79 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

Jarāmaraṇaṁ
MN 9 and SN 12.2 define aging & death as follows:
Katamañca, bhikkhave, jarāmaraṇaṁ? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhi tamhi sattanikāye jarā jīraṇatā
khaṇḍiccaṁ pāliccaṁ valittacatā āyuno saṁhāni indriyānaṁ paripāko; ayaṁ vuccati jarā. Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ
sattānaṁ tamhā tamhā sattanikāyā cuti cavanatā bhedo antaradhānaṁ maccu maraṇaṁ kālakiriyā
khandhānaṁ bhedo kaḷevarassa nikkhepo; idaṁ vuccati maraṇaṁ.

And what is aging and death? Whatever this and that beings in this and that category/class/group of
beings; their brokenness of teeth, greyness of hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of vitality, degeneration of the
faculties; this is called aging. Whatever this and that beings from this and that category/class/group of
beings; their demise, passing away, breakup, disappearance, dying, death, completion of time, the breakup
of the aggregates, the laying down of the carcass: this is called death.

MN 9; SN 12.2

The same as ‘jati’: aging & death appears to occur to beings in a category/class/group of beings; such
as to a ‘mother’, ‘father’, ‘sister’, ‘brother’, ‘son’, etc. Therefore, the suttas contain such texts as follows:
And how, sir, could my faculties not have deteriorated? For my dear and beloved only child has passed
away. Since their death I haven’t felt like working or eating. I go to the cemetery and wail: ‘Where are you,
my only child? Where are you, my only child?’
MN 87 (Bhikkhu Sujato translation)

For a long time you have experienced the death of a mother (mātumaraṇaṁ)… death of a father
(pitumaraṇaṁ)… brother… sister.. son.., daughter… loss of relatives… loss of wealth... loss through illness.

SN 15.3

Similar to jātidhamma, MN 26 includes jarādhammā and maraṇadhammā, which occur to ‘acquisitions’:

And what may be said to be subject to aging... illness... death...? Spouses & children... men & women
slaves... goats & sheep... fowl & pigs... elephants, cattle, horses, & mares... gold & silver are subject to aging...
illness... death... . Subject to aging... illness... death... are these acquisitions and one who is tied to them,
infatuated with them, who has totally fallen for them….

MN 26 (Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation)

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As previously mentioned, SN 12.66 appears to literally say the cause of aging & death is ‘acquisition’
(‘upadhi’) rather than sickness, disease, cancer, Covid-19, etc, as follows:
As he explores he understands thus: ‘The many diverse kinds of suffering that arise in the world headed
by aging-and-death: this suffering has acquisition (upadhi) as its source, acquisition as its origin; it is born
(jātikaṁ ) and produced from acquisition (upadhi). When there is acquisition, aging-and-death comes to
be; when there is no acquisition, aging-and-death does not come to be.’

SN 12.66 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

It follows the suttas appear to say the enlightened free from self-view do not experience ‘death’ (‘marana’),
as follows:
Appamādo amatapadaṁ; pamādo maccuno padaṁ. Appamattā na mīyanti; ye pamattā yathā matā.

Heedfulness is the path to the Deathless. Heedlessness is the path to death. The heedful die not. The
heedless are as if dead already.

Dhp 21 (Acharya Buddharakkhita translation)

‘Asmī’ti, bhikkhu, maññitametaṁ…Sabbamaññitānaṁ tveva, bhikkhu, samatikkamā muni santoti vuccati.

Muni kho pana, bhikkhu, santo na jāyati, na jīyati, na mīyati, na kuppati, na piheti.

Bhikkhu, ‘I am’ is a conceiving… By overcoming all conceivings, bhikkhu, one is called a sage at peace.
And the sage at peace is not born, does not age, does not die; he is not shaken and does not yearn.

MN 140 (Bhikkhu Bodhi translation)

It follows in SN 22.85 the monk Yamaka was censured for saying an Arahant is annihilated after death:
Now at that time a mendicant called Yamaka had the following harmful misconception: “As I understand
the Buddha’s teaching, a mendicant who has ended the defilements is annihilated (ucchijjati) and destroyed
when their body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death (na hoti paraṁ maraṇā).”

SN 22.85 (Bhikkhu Sujato translation)

In SN 22.85, Yamaka was taught the right view that the ending of the life of an Arahant is merely the
ending of the five aggregates (rather than ‘death’), as follows:
If, friend Yamaka, they were to ask you: ‘Friend Yamaka, when a bhikkhu is an arahant, one whose taints
are destroyed, what happens to him with the breakup of the body, after death?’—being asked thus, what
would you answer?
I would answer thus: ‘Friends, form is impermanent; what is impermanent is unpleasurable; what is unpleasurable
has ceased and disappeared. Feeling … Perception … Mental formations … Consciousness is impermanent;
what is impermanent is unpleasurable; what is unpleasurable has ceased (niruddhaṁ) and disappeared
(atthaṅgata).’ Being asked thus, friend, I would answer in such a way.
Good, good, friend Yamaka!
SN 22.85
Therefore, in DN 16, when the Buddha passed away, those who suffered appeared to view the Buddha
as “a being” or as “The Blessed One”; where, alternately, the enlightened regarded the Buddha’s
passing merely as the impermanence of condition phenomena (saṅkhārā), as follows:
When the Buddha passed away, some of the monks, with arms raised, falling down like their feet were
chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamented: “Too soon the Blessed One has become fully extinguished!
Too soon the Holy One has become fully extinguished! Too soon the Seer has vanished from the world!”But
the monks who were without passion endured, mindful and clearly comprehending, reflecting: “Conditioned
phenomena (saṅkhārā) are impermanent (aniccā). How could it possibly be otherwise?”
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DN 16
To conclude, it appears aging & death in Dependent Origination refer to the aging & death of “a being”
or “beings”. As previously written, it appears, according to SN 5.10 and SN 23.2, a being is merely “a
view”, “a convention” and “strong attachment”.

In summary, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, despair and suffering appear to arise because of the view
or perception of the aging & death of ‘a being’ that was mentalally born from mental becoming, attachment,
craving, feeling and ignorance. This appears to be similar to secular definitions of ‘grief’, as follows:
Grief is the response to loss, particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died, to which a
bond or affection was formed.

Wikipedia
The matter of sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, despair and suffering appears clearly explained in SN 22.1,
which says sorrow and suffering only occur in relation to change when there is attachment, as follows:
And how is one afflicted in body but unafflicted in mind? There is the case where a well-instructed disciple
of the noble ones… does not assume form to be the self, or the self as possessing form, or form as in the self,
or the self as in form. He is not seized with the idea that 'I am form' or 'Form is mine.' As he is not seized
with these ideas, his form changes & alters, but he does not fall into sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress or
despair over its change & alteration.
He does not assume feeling to be the self... He does not assume perception to be the self..."He does not
assume fabrications to be the self... He does not assume consciousness to be the self, or the self as
possessing consciousness, or consciousness as in the self, or the self as in consciousness. He is not seized
with the idea that 'I am consciousness' or 'Consciousness is mine.' As he is not seized with these ideas, his
consciousness changes & alters, but he does not fall into sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress or despair over
its change & alteration. This, householder, is how one is afflicted in body but unafflicted in mind.
SN 22.1 (Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation)

Here ends this booklet’s interpretation about Dependent Origination from MN 9 and SN 12.2.

The Appendix that follows will provide an opinion on the Mahanidana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, other
questionable suttas and the evolution of Theravada doctrine about Dependent Origination by briefly tracing
through the Paṭisambhidāmagga, then Abhidhamma Vibhanga, culminating in the Visuddhimagga.

Page 17 of 22
 APPENDIX
Mahanidana Sutta (DN 15)
There is much, positive and negative, that can be said or theorized about DN15:
1. DN 15 appears to have become the preeminent sutta on Dependent Origination in Theravada
Buddhism, even though it only defines nine (instead of twelve) conditions and even though it
defines the conditions of consciousness, namarupa and birth different to the remainder of the suttas.
2. It uses a Brahmanistic definition of namarupa, which supports views of Bhikkhu Sujato the Digha
Nikaya was composed for debate with, propagation to and conversion of Brahmins2.
3. Its use of the term “mother’s womb” (“mātukucchismiṁ”) appears to align it with a genre of possible
later-day miraculous suttas, which refer to “beings” entering the mother’s womb with mindfulness
and clear comprehension (DN 23, 24) and new born infants walking and talking (MN 123; which
contradicts MN 64).
4. The definitions of namarupa and jati in DN 15 are not found in the Paṭisambhidāmagga or the
Abhidhamma (which recognize the definitions in MN 9 and SN 12.2).
5. The above said, the predominant subject matter of DN 15 appears lofty or supramundane, namely,
about delineations of “self”.
6. Since DN 15 appears about delineations of “self” and defines namarupa as the “naming” of forms,
the question (which cannot be definitely answered) can be asked: “Which consciousness is entering
the mother’s womb in DN 15?” Is it a disembodied reincarnating consciousness, as commonly
explained, and found in MN 123? Or is it the consciousness of the mother, who by naming the form
in her womb, comes to delineate “self” pertaining to her baby existing in her womb?
7. Of note, similar to SN 12.10 and SN 12.67, consciousness and namarupa are the condition for each
other because sankhara is not included as the condition for consciousness.
8. However, the fact consciousness and namarupa are said to be the condition for each other and the
fact name namarupa appears said to be “naming” in relation to rupa-kaya and nama-kaya, it appears
consciousness cannot be a disembodied consciousness entering a womb because it seems such a
consciousness must have nama-rupa (naming-form) as its condition.
9. In conclusion, while DN 15 can offer some insightful teachings about delineations of “self”, it appears
unable to facilitate the insight penetration of Dependent Origination the Buddha spoke about.
10. For example, DN 15’s definition of “birth” offers no clue birth may be the production of views
about categories of beings because the word “beings” (“sattanam”) is absent.
11. In short, DN 15 appears not Dhamma well-spoken (MN 38); not plain, clear and unconvoluted (MN 22).

2 https://discourse.suttacentral.net/t/the-long-discourses-dhamma-as-literature-and-compilation/11523
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SN 12.51
As previously mentioned, the main topic of SN 12.51 appears to be sankhara. It spells sankhara as
‘plural’, even though the three sankhara it highlights cannot arise in the same mind moment. Also, in its
conclusion, it appears to say the three highlighted sankhara are types of attachment, when it says:

Yato kho, bhikkhave, bhikkhuno avijjā pahīnā hoti vijjā uppannā, so avijjāvirāgā vijjuppādā neva puññābhis
aṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti na apuññābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti na āneñjābhisaṅkhāraṁ abhisaṅkharoti.

When a monk has given up ignorance and given rise to knowledge, they don’t generate a meritorious
formation, a demeritorious formation or an imperturbable formation.

Anabhisaṅkharonto anabhisañcetayanto na kiñci loke upādiyati

Not fashioning or generating, they don’t attach to anything in the world.

Anupādiyaṁ na paritassati, aparitassaṁ paccattaññeva parinibbāyati.

Not grasping, they’re not anxious. Not being anxious, they personally attain Nibbana.

Khīṇā jāti, vusitaṁ brahmacariyaṁ, kataṁ karaṇīyaṁ, nāparaṁ itthattāyā’ti pajānāti.

They understand: ‘Birth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been
done, there is no return to this state.’‘

SN 12.51

The fact this appears to be a one-off sutta in the Sutta Pitaka, the fact it aligns with the Abhidhamma
explanation of sankhara and the fact it appears rather confusing gives rise to the impression SN 12.51
was not spoke by the Buddha or by an Arahant and is a later-day insertion into the Sutta Pitaka.
SN 12.25
Unlike DN 15 and SN 12.51, SN 12.25 appears consistent with the body of the Sutta Pitaka. However,
SN 12.25 includes the terms kāyasaṅkhāraṃ, vacīsaṅkhāraṃ and manosaṅkhāraṃ (with singular accusative
case with the ‘aṃ’ word ending), which are commonly found in non-transcendent suttas about kamma,
such as AN AN 4.17. Manosaṅkhāraṃ is mental kamma or mental action itself; while cittasaṅkhāro in a
requisite condition for mental action (kamma).

It follows, while SN 12.25 contains a mixture of supramundane and mundane doctrines, it is clear by
the introduction and content of SN 12.25 that is core subject matter is “kamma”. Being so, per the
mundane classification of “kamma” given in MN 117, it seems SN 12.25 must be classified as a
mundane sutta therefore not providing a definitive explanation of supramundane Dependent Origination.

Also, the term ‘sukkhadhukkha’ in SN 12.25 appears to mean “happiness and suffering” (as found in
suttas such as MN 149, SN 14.12, AN 3.61, etc) rather pleasant and unpleasant vedana (as commonly
explained). The use of sukhadukkha again points to SN 12.25 being a general mundane sutta because it
seems the term ‘sukhadukkha’ represents the end process of kamma (rather than mere vedana).

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it seems Dependent Origination is completely explained in MN 9 and also SN 12.2. As
stated in MN 38, Dependent Origination is to be experienced individually in the here & now. SN 12.3
calls Dependent Origination the “wrong path of practice”. It follows Dependent Origination appears not
about reincarnation over three lifetimes, as the later-day Theradavin Mahaviharians seem to propagate.

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Later Texts
The Paṭisambhidāmagga is later text placed into the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Suttas. It appeared to
introduce some terms found in the Abhidhamma and later in the Visuddhimagga. Otherwise, the
Paṭisambhidāmagga was composed with Abhidhamma to provide Abhidhamma a reference point in the
Suttas for its divergent doctrines. Who knows? For Dependent Origination, the Ñāṇakathā section introduces
the terms ‘paṭisandhi viññāṇaṁ’, ‘kammabhava’ and ‘upapattibhava’ as follows:
Purimakammabhavasmiṁ moho avijjā, āyūhanā saṅkhārā, nikanti taṇhā, upagamanaṁ upādānaṁ, cetanā bh
avo. Ime pañca dhammā purimakammabhavasmiṁ idha paṭisandhiyā paccayā.
In past kammabhava is delusion, which is ignorance; exertion, which is formations; fondness, which is
craving; holding, which is attachment; intention, which is becoming. These five things in past kammabhava here
are the reuniting condition.
Idha paṭisandhi viññāṇaṁ, okkanti nāmarūpaṁ, pasādo āyatanaṁ, phuṭṭho phasso, vedayitaṁ vedanā. Ime p
añca dhammā idhupapattibhavasmiṁ purekatassa kammassa paccayā.
Here, there is reuniting, which is consciousness; entering, which is mentality-physicality; sensitivity, which is
sense spheres; permeation, which is sense contact; what is felt, which is feeling. These five things in the
upapattibhava here are the condition of the earlier fashioned kamma.
Idha paripakkattā āyatanānaṁ moho avijjā, āyūhanā saṅkhārā, nikanti taṇhā upagamanaṁ upādānaṁ, cetanā
bhavo. Ime pañca dhammā idha kammabhavasmiṁ āyatiṁ paṭisandhiyā paccayā.
Here, the resultant (ripened) sense spheres are delusion, which is ignorance; exertion, which is formations;
fondness, which is craving; holding, which is attachment; intention, which is becoming. These five things here in
kammabhava are the future reuniting condition.
Āyatiṁ paṭisandhi viññāṇaṁ, okkanti nāmarūpaṁ, pasādo āyatanaṁ, phuṭṭho phasso, vedayitaṁ vedanā.
Ime pañca dhammā āyatiṁ upapattibhavasmiṁ idha katassa kammassa paccayā.
In the future, there is reuniting, which is consciousness; entering, which is mentality-physicality; sensitivity,
which is sense spheres; permeation, which is sense contact; what is felt, which is feeling. These five things
are in the future upapattibhava with the condition of the present fashioned kamma.
Itime catusaṅkhepe tayo addhe tisandhiṁ vīsatiyā ākārehi paṭiccasamuppādaṁ jānāti passati aññāti paṭivijjhati.
So the four summations [of past cause, present result, present cause, future result], the three periods of time,
the three unions and the twenty modes from dependent origination he knows, sees, recognizes and penetrates
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Kāmadhātu abhiññeyyā; rūpadhātu abhiññeyyā; arūpadhātu abhiññeyyā. Kāmabhavo abhiññeyyo; rūpabhavo a
bhiññeyyo; arūpabhavo abhiññeyyo. Saññābhavo abhiññeyyo; asaññābhavo abhiññeyyo;
nevasaññānāsaññābhavo abhiññeyyo. Ekavokārabhavo abhiññeyyo; catuvokārabhavo abhiññeyyo;
pañcavokārabhavo abhiññeyyo
The sensual element is to be directly known. The material element... The immaterial element.... Sensual
becoming is to be directly known. Material... Immaterial... Percipient... Non-percipient... Neither-percipient-
nor-non-percipient... One-constituent... Four-constituent... Five-constituent becoming is to be directly known.
Rough translation with probable minor inaccuracies

In defense of the above quote, in itself, it sounds rather benign. While not mentioning the conditions of
‘birth’ and ‘aging & death’, it does say ‘bhava’ is ‘intention’. Its introduction of ‘paṭisandhi viññāṇaṁ’,
on face value, does not appear to indicate any inference of ‘reincarnation’. It appears to merely say
consciousness ‘relinks’ or ‘reunites’ due to past kamma. Such an idea appears not alien to suttas, such
as SN 22.53, which are about the here & now ‘establishment’ (‘patiṭṭhitā ‘) of consciousness due to lust.

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Also, the Ñāṇakathā section of the The Paṭisambhidāmagga introduces other sets of phrases, as follows:
Uppādo abhiññeyyo; pavattaṁ abhiññeyyaṁ; nimittaṁ abhiññeyyaṁ; āyūhanā abhiññeyyā; paṭisandhi abhi
ññeyyā; gati abhiññeyyā; nibbatti abhiññeyyā; upapatti abhiññeyyā; jāti abhiññeyyā; jarā abhiññeyyā;
byādhi abhiññeyyo, maraṇaṁ abhiññeyyaṁ; soko abhiññeyyo; paridevo abhiññeyyo; upāyāso abhiññeyyo

Since the term ‘abhiññeyya’ above appears to mean ‘know via experience’, it appears the introduction
of the terms ‘paṭisandhi viññāṇaṁ’, ‘kammabhava’ and ‘upapattibhava’; plus the emphasis on the
general term ‘nibbatti’ rather than the more mental term ‘abhidnibbatti’ (found more commonly in the
suttas); plus the inclusion of ‘jati’ and ‘marana’ as things to be directly known via experience; do not
depart significantly from the here-&-now sutta interpretation of this booklet. However, it is interesting
how these terms later appear significantly yet differently in the Abhidhamma and Visuddhimagga.

Thus, following on from the Paṭisambhidāmagga, the Abhidhamma Paṭiccasamuppāda Vibhaṅga

refers to the Paṭisambhidāmagga when explaining bhava as derived from the Suttas, as follows:
1. The Section Derived from the Discourses
Herein, what is ‘with attachment as condition: becoming?’ Becoming is two-fold: kammabhavo and upapattibhavo.

Herein, what is ‘kammabhavo?’ Meritorious volitional formation (ābhisaṅkhāro) , demeritorious volitional

formation, impertubable volitional formation. This is ‘kammabhavo’. All deeds leading to becoming is
becoming as kammabhava.

Herein, what is ‘upapattibhavo?’ Sensual becoming, material becoming, immaterial becoming, perception
becoming, non-perception becoming, neither-perception-nor-non-perception becoming, one constituent
(vokāra) becoming, four constituent becoming, five constituent becoming. This is said to be ‘upapattibhavo’.

The Abhidhamma’s own view of ‘bhava’ in Dependent Origination is self-declared in its Vibhanga,
appearing to refer to the four aggregates, as follows:

2. The Section Derived from the Abstract Teaching

Tattha katamo upādānapaccayā bhavo? Ṭhapetvā upādānaṁ, vedanākkhandho saññākkhandho saṅkhārakk
handho viññāṇakkhandho - ayaṁ vuccati “upādānapaccayā bhavo”.
Herein, what is ‘with attachment as condition: becoming?’ Except for attachment, the feeling aggregate, the
perception aggregate, the formations aggregate, the consciousness aggregate: this is said to be ‘with attachment as
condition: becoming.
ṭiccasamuppādavibhaṅ
In addition, as previously mentioned, the Abhidhamma appeared to redefine ‘jati’ and ‘marana’ as the
birth and death of ‘things’ (‘dhamma’) rather than the birth and death of ‘beings’ (‘satta’), as follows:
1. Suttantabhājanīya
Tattha katamā bhavapaccayā jāti? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhi tamhi sattanikāye jāti sañjāti okkanti abhin
ibbatti, khandhānaṁ pātubhāvo, āyatanānaṁ paṭilābho— ayaṁ vuccati “bhavapaccayā jāti”.

Tattha katamaṁ maraṇaṁ? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ sattānaṁ tamhā tamhā sattanikāyā cuti cavanatā bhedo antaradhānaṁ
maccu maraṇaṁ kālakiriyā khandhānaṁ bhedo kaḷevarassa nikkhepo jīvitindriyassupacchedo—idaṁ vuccati “maraṇaṁ”

2. Abhidhammabhājanīya

Tattha katamā bhavapaccayā jāti? Yā tesaṁ tesaṁ dhammānaṁ jāti sañjāti nibbatti abhinibbatti pātubhāvo
— ayaṁ vuccati “bhavapaccayā jāti”.
Tattha katamaṁ maraṇaṁ? Yo tesaṁ tesaṁ dhammānaṁ khayo vayo bhedo paribhedo aniccatā antaradhānaṁ
— idaṁ vuccati “maraṇaṁ”.

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This Abhidhamma departure from the original Sutta teachings appears to continue in the Visuddhimagga,
where, similar to the Abhidhamma above, ‘things’ or ‘aggregates generated’ (‘khandhānaṃ nibbatti’;
rather than self-views, self-identities or beings generated) appear to be regarded as ‘bhava’, as follows:
Aparo arūpabhave sampattiṃ anubhavissāmīti tatheva ākāsānañcāyatanādisamāpattiyo bhāveti,
bhāvanāpāripūriyā tattha tattha nibbattati. Tatthassa nibbattihetubhūtaṃ kammaṃ kammabhavo,
kammanibbattā khandhā upapattibhavo, khandhānaṃ nibbatti jāti, paripāko jarā, bhedo maraṇanti.

19. Yet another thinks, “I shall enjoy the delights of immaterial becoming,” and with the same condition he
develops the attainments beginning with the base consisting of boundless space. Owing to the fulfilment of
the development he is reborn (nibbattati) in one of these states. The kamma that is the cause of his rebirth
(nibbatti) there is kamma-process becoming (kammabhavo), the aggregates generated (nibbattā) by the kamma
are rebirth process becoming (upapattibhavo), the generating (nibbatti) of the aggregates is birth, their maturing
is ageing, their dissolution is death.

Tattha bhavatīti bhavo. So kammabhavo upapattibhavo cāti duvidho hoti. Yathāha – ‘‘bhavo duvidhena atthi
kammabhavo, atthi upapattibhavo’’ti (vibha. 234). Tattha kammameva bhavo kammabhavo, tathā
upapattiyeva bhavo upapattibhavo. Ettha ca upapatti bhavatīti bhavo. Kammaṃ pana yathā sukhakāraṇattā
‘‘sukho buddhānaṃ uppādo’’ti (dha. pa. 194) vutto, evaṃ bhavakāraṇattā phalavohārena bhavoti
veditabbanti. Evaṃ tāvettha atthato viññātabbo vinicchayo.

250. 1. As to meaning: Herein, it becomes (bhavati), thus it is becoming (bhava). That is twofold as kamma-
process becoming (kammabhavo) and rebirth-process becoming (upapattibhavo), according as it is said:
“Becoming in two ways: there is kamma-process becoming and there is rebirth-process becoming” (Vibh 137).
Herein, the kamma process itself as becoming is “kamma-process becoming”; likewise the rebirth process
itself as becoming is “rebirth-process becoming.” And here, rebirth is becoming since it becomes; but just as
“The arising of Buddhas is bliss” (Dhp 194) is said because it causes bliss, so too kamma should be understood
as “becoming,” using for it the ordinary term for its fruit, since it causes becoming. This, firstly, is how the
exposition should be known here “as to meaning.”

253. Rebirth-process becoming briefly is aggregates generated by kamma. It is of nine kinds, according as it is
said: “Herein, what is rebirth-process becoming? Sense-desire becoming, fine-material becoming, immaterial
becoming, percipient becoming, non-percipient becoming, neither-percipient-nor-non-percipient becoming,
one-constituent becoming, four-constituent becoming, five constituent becoming: this is called rebirth-process
becoming” (Vibh 17).

The kamma with sense-desire clinging as its condition that is performed and generates sense-desire becoming is
“kamma-process becoming (kammabhavo).” The aggregates generated (tadabhinibbattā khandhā ) by that are
“rebirth process becoming” (“upapattibhavoti”); similarly in the case of fine-material and immaterial becoming.

While the excerpt above, with its questionable translation of ‘rebirth’ for ‘nibbati’, is the translation of
Ñāṇamoli Bhikkhu (Osbert John S Moore), it is included to show the departures in terminology starting
with the Paṭisambhidāmagga; which then later appeared in the Abhidhamma and Visuddhimagga.

The above ends this Appendix, which has no intention to make any definitive conclusions but, instead,
is intended to merely briefly show the evolution of terminology and ideas in respect to Dependent
Origination that depart from the Suttas. BOOKLET END

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