CURRENT ELECTRICITY PART -4

KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS:

Electrical network: It is a combination of various circuit elements and electrical sources

connected in a complicated manner.

Node or junction : It is a point at which more than two conductors meet or it is a point where two
or more branches meet

Loop or mesh is a closed path for electric current in an electrical network .

SIGN CONVENTIONS:

While applying the Kirchhoff’s second law, the sign convention used is as follows:
1. The product of current and resistance is taken negative if one moves in the direction of current
(i.e., from higher potential to lower potential) and it is taken positive if one moves in a direction
opposite to the current (i.e., from lower potential to higher potential)
2. The emf of a cell is taken positive if one moves in the direction of increasing potential (i.e.,
from negative pole to positive pole) and it is taken negative if one moves in the direction of
decreasing potential (i.e., from positive pole to the negative pole)
3. Internal resistance of the cell is taken as another resistance between the terminals

I. KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW ( Junction Rule )

Kirchhoff’s first law : At any junction in a closed electrical network, the sum of the currents
entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

Explanation:
For the junction A, we have,

I1 + I5 + I6 = I2 + I3 + I4

Kirchhoff’s first law follows from the fact that when currents are steady there is no
accumulation of charges at a junction or at any point in a conductor. The total current flowing in
must be equal to total current flowing out. Thus, Kirchhoff’s first law is a consequence of
principle of conservation of charge.

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II. KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW ( Loop rule )

The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in
the loop is zero i i.e., E + IR = 0

Consider a closed electric circuit as shown in figure containing two cells of emfs E 1, E2 and three
resistors of resistances R1 , R2 , R3 . The currents are as indicated in the figure.

Applying Kirchhoff’s second law (or loop rule)

to the loop ABEFA,
- I2 R2 -I1R1 + E1 = 0
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop BCDEB,
-E2 - I3 R3 + I2 R2 = 0

The Kirchhoff’s second law is a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy. The
cell supplies energy which is spent in the resistances. In a closed loop the net amount of energy
lost by the cells is equal to the net amount of work done in the resistances.

WHEATSTONE’S NETWORK:-
Wheatstone’s network is used to find the ratio of two resistance values or to determine the value of
an unknown resistance.
It consists of four resistors P, Q, S and R connected in cyclic order in the form of a quadrilateral as
shown in figure. A cell of emf E is connected between one pair of opposite corners A and C while
a galvanometer of resistance G is connected between the other pair of opposite corners B and D. If
the resistances are adjusted such that the current through the galvanometer is zero, the network is
said to be balanced. In this case, the galvanometer shows no deflection.

Condition for balance:

Applying KCL to the nodes B & D, we get
I1 = Ig + I3 ………….(1)
I2 + Ig = I4 ………….(2)
Applying KVL to the mesh ABDA

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- I1 P – Ig G + I2R = 0 ……………… (3)
And for the mesh BCDB
-I3Q + I4S + IgG = 0 ……………. (4)
The current Ig through the galvanometer can be altered by varying the resistances in the bridge.
Suppose the resistances are altered such that Ig = 0, then the Wheatstone’s network is said to be
balanced.
Substituting Ig = 0 in equations (1), (2), (3) & (4) we get
 I1 = I3 ……………….(5)
 I2 = I4 ……………….(6)
- I1 P + I2R = 0  I1 P = I2R…………(7)
-I3Q + I4S = 0  I3Q = I4S……………(8)
I1 P I R
Dividing equation (7) by (8), we get = 2
I 3Q I4S
But from equations (5) & (6), I1 = I3 & I2 = I4
P R
 = or PS = QR
Q S

This is the condition for balance. Thus, if two resistances are known, the ratio of the other two can
be found. If three resistances are known, the value of the fourth resistance can be determined.

METRE BRIDGE:

Meter Bridge is the practical form of Wheatstone’s network. It is based on the principle of
Wheatstone’s bridge.

METRE BRIDGE: WHEATSTONE’S NETWORK:-

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It is an instrument that works on the principle of balancing Wheatstone’s network. It consists of a
uniform resistance wire of length 1 m ( 100cm) stretched on a wooden board. Its ends are
connected to thick metal strips that are provided with terminals A and C for connection.
Between these two metal strips another long straight metal strip is placed so that two gaps
are formed as shown in figure. A standard resistance box S is connected across the right gap and
the unknown resistance X is connected across the left gap. A cell of emf E is connected between A
and C. A sensitive galvanometer is connected to B with its other end connected to a sliding
contact. By adjusting the position of the sliding contact on the wire, the position D is found for
which there is no deflection in the galvanometer. Now the meter bridge is said to be balanced.
By comparing meter bridge circuit with Wheatstone’s network we find that,
X replaces P
S replaces Q
Resistance of the wire AD replaces R
Resistance of the wire DC replaces S
P R X Resistance of the wire AD
Since the bridge is balanced, we have =  =
Q S S Resistance of the wire DC
But resistance of the uniform wire is proportional to its length.
 AD = l and DC = 100 – l
X l Sl
Hence, = or X= where l is in meter
S 100 − l 100 − l
Since S and l are known, X can be calculated.

POTENTIOMETER:-
potentiometer is a device used to compare the e.m.f. (electromotive force) of two cells, to
measure the internal resistance of a cell, and potential difference across a resistor.
Potentiometer is an instrument used for measuring the emf or internal resistance of the cell.

Principle:
Potential difference across any portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of
that portion provided cross sectional area of wire and current flowing through the wire is constant.
If I is the current flowing through the wire and V is the potential difference across the length l of
the wire.
l Iρ
Then, V = IR = I = l where  = is a constant.
A A
V V
Thus, = , a constant. Here, =  is called potential gradient.
l l
It is the potential drop per unit length. V  l

APPLICATIONS:
1. Comparison of emfs of two cells using potentiometer:

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A standard cell is connected between the terminals A and B of potentiometer wire with a rheostat
Rh and a key K in series. Two cells of emfs 1 & 2 to be compared are connected
such that their positive terminals are connected to A where the positive terminal of the standard cell
was connected. The negative terminals of these two cells are connected to two
terminals 1 and 2 of a two way key. The common terminal 3 of the two-way key is connected to
the jockey J through a galvanometer.
The key K is closed and the rheostat Rh is adjusted so that a suitable constant current flows in the
potentiometer wire. The two way key is closed between 1 and 3. The jockey is moved on the
potentiometer wire. The balancing length l1 is noted when galvanometer shows zero deflection.
Now, the potential difference across the first cell is equal to the potential difference across the wire
of length l1. That is, E1 =  l1
Where  is the potential drop per unit length of the wire.
Next, the key is closed between 2 and 3 of the two way key. Again the jockey is moved on the
potential wire. The balancing length l2 is noted when galvanometer shows zero deflection. Now,
potential difference across the second cell is equal to the potential difference across the wire of
length l2. That is E2 = l 2
E  l1 l
Thus, 1 = = 1
E2  l 2 l2
Using this relation the ratio of the emfs of two cells is calculated. (If emf of one of the cells
is known the emf of the other cell can be found).

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 2. Determination of internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer:-

A standard cell is connected to the terminals A and B of a potentiometer in series with a

rheostat Rh and a key K in series. The cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected such that
its positive terminal of the standard cell is connected. The other terminal of this cell is connected to
the jockey J through a galvanometer G. A resistance box R and a key K 1 are connected in series
across the cell of emf E and internal resistance r. To begin with, the key K 1 is kept open. The key
K is closed and the position of jockey on the potentiometer wire is adjusted till galvanometer shows
zero deflection. The balancing length l1 is noted. Now emf of the cell is equal to potential
difference across the wire of length l1 .
 E = l1 …………………(1)
where  is the potential drop per unit length of the wire.
Now key K1 is closed and suitable resistance R is taken in the resistance box. The position
of the jockey on the potentiometer wire is adjusted till galvanometer shows zero deflection. The
balancing length l2 is noted. Now the terminal potential across the cell is equal to the potential
difference across the wire of length l2 .
 V = l2 ……………(2)
E l l ER
Equation (1) / (2) gives = 1 = 1 But V =
V l 2 l2 R+r
E l R+r l r l
 = 1 or = 1 or 1+ = 1
ER l2 R l2 R l2
R+r
r l l −l
or = 1 -1= 1 2
R l2 l2
(l1 − l 2 )
r=R
l2
Knowing the values of R, l1 and l2 the internal resistance r of the cell can be determined.

Important Questions for PU

1. What is the significance of kirchhoff’s voltage rule? 1M

2. What is the significance of kirchhoff’s current rule? 1M
3. Write the condition for balance of wheatstone’s network. 1M
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4. On what principle a meter bridge work? 1M
5. What is a potentiometer? 1M
6. Why is potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter? 1M
7. How does the balancing point of a Wheatstone bridge get affected when
i) Position of cell and Galvanometer are interchanged?
ii) Position of the known and unknown resistances is interchanged?
8. Explain with a neat circuit diagram, how will you compare emf of two cells using a
potentiometer? 3M
9. State and explain Kirchoff’s laws of electrical network. 5M
10. State the principle of working of potentiometer.
11. Obtain the balancing condition for wheatstone’s network 5M

Illustrations

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Numericals

1. Two cells of emf 2 V and 1.5 V having internal resistances 1  and 2  respectively are
connected in parallel across a 10  resistor. Calculate the current in each cell and the current
through the 10  resistor.
2. Two cells of emf 2 V and 3 V have internal resistances 2  each. Their positive terminals are
joined by a wire of resistance 2  and the negative terminals by a wire of resistance 4 . The
mid points of these wires are joined by another wire of resistance 5 . Find the current through
the cells and the p.d across the 5  resistor.
3. Two cells of emf 3 V and 2 V and internal resistances 1.5  and 1  respectively are connected
in parallel across 3  resistor, such that they tend to send the current through the resistor in the
same direction. Calculate the potential difference across3 .
4. Four resistors 12 , 15 , 10  and 4  are connected in the form of a Wheatstone’s bridge in
cyclic order. Is the network balanced? If not, calculate the resistance to be connected in parallel
with the resistance of 10  to balance the network. [10 ] .

5. Four resistors 12 , 15 , 10  and 4  are connected in the form of a Wheatstone’s bridge in

cyclic order. Is the network balanced? If not, calculate the resistance to be connected in parallel
with the resistance of 10  to balance the network. [10 ] .
6. The four arms of a Wheatstone’s bridge in figure have the following resistances. AB = 100 ,
BC = 10 , CD = 5  and DA = 60 . A galvanometer of 15  resistance is connected across
BD. Calculate the current through the galvanometer when a potential difference of 10 V is
maintained across AC.
7. I n a Wheatstone’s bridge, the four resistance arms of the bridge are AB = 2 , BC=3, CD = 4
 and DA = 1 . A cell of emf 2 volt and negligible internal resistance is connected across AC
and a galvanometer of resistance 10  is connected between B and D. Find the current through
the galvanometer

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8. An unknown resistance in the left gap of a metre bridge and a standard resistance of 10  in the
right gap gives a balancing length of 0.6 m. Find the balancing length if the standard resistance
in the right gap is 15 .
9. A resistance coil immersed in melting ice is compared with a standard resistance of 2  using a
metre bridge. The null point is found to be 0.5 m from the zero end. When the temperature is
raised to 250oC, the null point is found to be at 0.667 m from the same end. Calculate the
temperature coefficient of resistance of the material.
10. Two resistances are connected in the two gaps of a metre bridge. The balance point is 20 cm
from the zero end. A resistance of 15 ohm is connected in series with the smaller of the two
resistances when the null point shifts to 40 cm. What is the value of the smaller resistance?
11. With a resistance P  in the left gap and another resistance Q  in the right gap of a metre
bridge, the balance point is obtained at 40 cm. When a resistance of 6  is connected across Q,
the balance point shifts to 50 cm. Find the value of P.
12. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of
the wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is
the emf of the second cell?
13. Figure shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for the determination of internal resistance of a 1.5 V
cell. The balance point of the cell in open circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 Ω is used in
the external circuit of the cell, the balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the potentiometer
wire. Determine the internal resistance of the cell.

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