Cosmology

Steven Weinberg
University of Texas at Austin

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
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1 THE EXPANSION OF THE UNIVERSE 1

1.1 Spacetime geometry 2
Robertson–Walker metric 0 Co-moving coordinates q Proper distances q
Momentum decay q Spatial geodesics q Number conservation q Energy
& momentum conservation q Cold matter, hot matter, vacuum energy q
Global geometry & topology
1.2 The cosmological redshift 10
Emission time vs. radial coordinate q Redshifts blueshifts q Hubble
constant q Discovery of expansion q Changing redshifts
1.3 Distances at small redshift: The Hubble constant 13
Trigonometric parallax q Proper motions q Apparent luminosity: Main
sequence, red clump stars, RR Lyrae stars, eclipsing binaries, Cepheid vari-
ables q Tully–Fisher relation q Faber–Jackson relation q Fundamental
Plane q Type Ia supernovae q Surface brightness fluctuations q Result for
Hubble constant
1.4 Luminosity distances and angular diameter distances 31
Luminosity distance q Deceleration parameter q Jerk & snap q Angular
diameter distance
1.5 Dynamics of expansion 34
Einstein field equations q Friedmann equation q Newtonian derivation
q Critical density q Flatness problem q Matter-dominated expansion q
Radiation-dominated expansion q Vacuum-dominated expansion q De
Sitter model q S2m, nR, S2A q Age of expansion q Luminosity distance
formula q Future expansion q Historical note: cosmological constant 0
Historical note: steady state model
1.6 Distances at large redshifts: Accelerated expansion 45
Discovery of accelerated expansion q Newtonian interpretation q Gray
dust? q Discovery of early deceleration q Other effects q Equation of state
parameter w q X-ray observations q The cosmological constant problems
1.7 Cosmic expansion or tired light? 57
Surface brightness test q Supernova decline slowdown
1.8 Ages 59
Heavy element abundance q Main sequence turn-off q Age vs redshift

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1.9 Masses 65
Virialized clusters of galaxies: X-ray luminosity of clusters of
galaxies: S2BIS2m-
1.10 Intergalactic absorption 75
Optical depth q Resonant absorption q 21 cm absorption q Lyman a
absorption q Gunn–Peterson trough q Alcock–Paczyliski analysis
1.11 Number counts 82
Number vs. z and Evolution q Radio source surveys
1.12 Quintessence 89
Scalar field theories q Power-law potential q Tracker solution q Two-
parameter models
1.13 Horizons 98
Particle horizon q Event horizon

2 THE COSMIC MICROWAVE RADIATION BACKGROUND 101

2.1 Expectations and discovery of the microwave background 101
Black body radiation q Early suggestions q Discovery q Rayleigh–Jeans
formula q CN absorption lines q Balloons & rockets q COBE & FIRAS
q Energy density q Number density q Effect an cosmic rays
2.2 The equilibrium era 109
Entropy per baryon q Radiation–matter equality q Energy decoupling
2.3 Recombination and last scattering 113
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution q Saha formula q Delay of n = 2 to
n= 1 q Peebles analysis q Lyman a escape probability q Rate equation q
Fractional ionization q Opacity q Jones–Wyse approximation
2.4 The dipole anisotropy 129
Angelar dependence of temperature q U2 discovery q COBE & WMAP
measurements q Kinematic quadrupole
2.5 The Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect 132
Kompaneets equation q Spectrum shift q Use with X-ray luminosity
2.6 Primary fluctuations in the microwave background: A first look 135
Partial-wave coefficients Multipole coefficients Q q Cosmic variance
q Sachs–Wolfe effect q Harrison–Zel'dovich spectrum q Doppler fluctua-
tions q Intrinsic temperature fluctuations q Integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect
q COBE observations

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3 THE EARLY UNIVERSE 149

3.1 Thermal history 149
Entropy density q Fermi–Dirac & Bose–Einstein distributions q Time
vs. temperature q Effective number of species q Neutrino decoupling q
Heating by electron–positron annihilation q Neutrino masses & chemical
potentials
3.2 Cosmological nucleosynthesis 159
Neutron–proton conversion q Equilibrium nuclear abundances q
Deuterium bottleneck q Helium abundance q Deuterium abundance q
Hei abundance q Lithium abundance q S2Bh2
3.3 Baryonsynthesis and Leptonsynthesis 173
Sakharov conditions q Delayed decay q Electroweak nonconservation q
Leptogenesis q Affleck–Dine mechanism q Equilibrium baryonsynthesis
3.4 Cold dark matter 185
The bullet cluster q Leftover WIMP abundance q Sparticles q WIMP
searches q Annihilation y rays q Axions & axinos

4 INFLATION 201
4.1 Three puzzles 202
Flatness q Horizons q Monopoles
4.2 Slow-roll inflation 208
Bubble formation q New inflation q Slow-roll conditions q Power-law
potential q Exponential potential q Reheating
4.3 Chaotic inflation, eternal inflation 216
Condition for eternal inflation q Condition for chaotic inflation

5 GENERAL THEORY OF SMALL FLUCTUATIONS 219

5.1 Field equations 219
Perturbed Ricci tensor q Perturbed energy-momentum tensor q Scalar
modes q Vector modes q Tensor modes
5.2 Fourier decomposition and stochastic initial conditions 228
Plane wave solutions q Stochastic parameters q Correlation functions q
Helicity decomposition
5.3 Choosing a gauge 235
Gauge transformations q Newtonian gauge q Synchronous gauge q
Conversion q Other gauges
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5.4 Conservation outside the horizon 245

The quantities 7.Z. and q A conservation theorem q Conservation for
isolated components

6 EVOLUTION OF COSMOLOGICAL FLUCTUATIONS 257

6.1 Scalar perturbations – kinetic theory 258
Cold dark matter q Baryonic plasma q Photon number density matrix
perturbation Photon dimensionless intensity matrix Photon
Boltzmann equations q Photon source functions q Photon pressure, den-
sity, anisotropic inertia q Photon line-of-sight solutions q Neutrino number
density perturbation 8n„ q Neutrino dimensionless intensity J q Neutrino
Boltzmann equations q Neutrino pressure, density, anisotropic inertia q
Neutrino line-of-sight solutions q Gravitational field equations q Initial
conditions
6.2 Scalar perturbations – the hydrodynamic limit 274
Hydrodynamic & field equations q Adiabatic initial conditions q Non-
adiabatic modes q Long & short wavelengths
6.3 Scalar perturbations – long wavelengths 282
Evolution far outside horizon q Evolution in matter-dominated era
6.4 Scalar perturbations – short wavelengths 289
Evolution in radiation-dominated era q Evolution deep inside horizon q
Fast & slow modes q Matching
6.5 Scalar perturbations – interpolation & transfer functions 303
Exact solution for pB = 0 q Transfer functions q Baryon density & damp-
ing effects
6.6 Tensor perturbations 312
Gravitational field equations q Photon Boltzmann equations q Photon
source functions q Photon anisotropic inertia q Photon line-of-sight sol-
ution q Neutrino Boltzmann equations q Neutrino anisotropic inertia q
Neutrino line-of-sight solutions q Evolution without damping q Transfer
functions q Effect of damping

7 ANISOTROPIES IN THE MICROWAVE SKY 329

7.1 General formulas for the temperature fluctuations 329
Line-of-sight formula q Rearrangement of scalar temperature fluctuation
q Integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect q Sudden decoupling approximation q
Re-derivation following photon trajectories q Gauge invariance

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7.2 Temperature multipole coefficients: Scalar modes 343

General formula q Large approximation q Calculation of form fac-
tors q Silk & Landau damping q Comparison with numerical codes q
Balloon & ground-based observations q WMAP q Results for
cosmological parameters
7.3 Temperature multipole coefficients: Tensor modes 362
General formula q Calculation of gravitational wave amplitude q Calcu-
lation of source function q Large approximation q Sudden decoupling
approximation q Numerical results
7.4 Polarization 370
Stokes parameters q Spherical harmonics of spin ±2 q Space-inversion
properties q E and B polarization q Scalar modes: general formula q Scalar
modes: large approximation q Scalar modes: numerical results q Scalar
modes: observations q Tensor modes: general formula q Tensor modes:
large approximation q Tensor modes: numerical results q Correlation
functions

8 THE GROWTH OF STRUCTURE 403

8.1 Linear perturbations after recombination 403
Hydrodynamic and field equations q Factorization of perturbations q
Effect of vacuum energy q Power spectral function P(k) q Correlation
function q Direct measurement of P(k) q Rms fluctuation aR q Mea-
surements of P(k) q Baryon acoustic oscillations q Cosmic variance in
measuring P(k)
8.2 Nonlinear growth 421
Spherically symmetric collapse q Calculation of criz q Press–Schechter
mass function
8.3 Collapse of baryonic matter 427
Jeans mass q Continuity & Euler equations q Power-law solutions q
Critical wave number for baryon collapse

9 GRAVITATIONAL LENSES 433

9.1 Lens equation for point masses 433
Derivation of lens equation q Image separation q Einstein ring
9.2 Magnification: Strong lensing and microlensing 436
Image luminosity q Conservation of surface brightness q Effective radius
for strong lensing q Number counts q De Sitter model q Einstein–de Sitter
model q Lens survey q Microlensing observations

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9.3 Extended lenses 443

Isothermal spheres q Lens equation q Lens luminosity q Number counts
q Surveys
9.4 Time delay 447
Geometrical delay q Potential delay q Observations
9.5 Weak lensing 452
Calculation of deflection q Shear matrix q Ellipse matrix q Mean shear
matrix q Shear field IC q Multipole coefficients q Large approximation q
Measurement of P(k) q Correlation functions q Shear surveys
9.6 Cosmic strings 467
Calculation of deflection q A string suspect

10 INFLATION AS THE ORIGIN OF COSMOLOGICAL

FLUCTUATIONS 469
10.1 Scalar fluctuations during Inflation 470
Scalar field action q Field, density, pressure, and velocity perturbations
q Field equations q WKB early-time solution q Fourier decomposition
q Commutation relations q Bunch–Davies vacuum q Gaussian statis-
tics q Curvature perturbation 7?, q Mukhanov–Sasaki equation q Limit
Rq outside horizon q Number of e-foldings after horizon exit q Expo-
nential potential q Measurement of spectral index & fluctuation strength
q Values of exponential potential parameters q Justification of simple
action
10.2 Tensor fluctuations during inflation 485
Gravitational field equation q WKB early-time solution q Fourier
decomposition q Commutation relations q Scalar/tensor ratio r q Obser-
vational bounds on r
10.3 Fluctuations during inflation: The slow -roll approximation 488
Parameters e and Slow-roll approximation q Spectral index and fluc-
tuation strength q Observational constraints on potential q Number of
e-foldings after horizon exit
10.4 Multifield inflation 497
Gaussian, adiabatic, scale-invariant, & weak fluctuations q Thermal equi-
librium after inflation q Evolution equations q WKB early-time solution
q Vielbeins q Commutation relations q Slow-roll conditions q R. after
horizon exit q What we have learned about inflation

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APPENDICES
A. Some Useful Numbers 509
B. Review of General Relativity 511
C. Energy Transfer between Radiation and Electrons 531
D. The Ergodic Theorem 537
E. Gaussian Distributions 541
F. Newtonian Cosmology 543
G. Photon Polarization 547
H. The Relativistic Boltzmann Equation 551

GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS 565

ASSORTED PROBLEMS 569
AUTHOR INDEX 575
SUBJECT INDEX 587

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