applied

sciences
Article
Tempcore Process Simulator to Analyze
Microstructural Evolution of Quenched and
Tempered Rebar
Chun Su Park 1 , Hyang Jun Yi 1 , Yong-Tae Kim 2 , Sang Wook Han 3 , Taekyung Lee 3 and
Young Hoon Moon 3, *
1 R&D Center, Dongkuk Steel, 70 Geonposaneop-ro, 3214beon-gil, Nam-gu, Pohang,
Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea
2 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and
Technology (POSTECH), Pohang 37673, Korea
3 School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, 30 Jangjeon-dong, Geumjeong-gu,
Busan 46241, Korea
* Correspondence: yhmoon@pusan.ac.kr




Received: 30 June 2019; Accepted: 22 July 2019; Published: 23 July 2019


Featured Application: Proposed process simulator can be widely applied to parameter design of
industrial Tempcore process with reduced cost and time.

Abstract: Tempcore process simulator (TPS) has been developed in this study to analyze the
microstructural evolution of quenched and tempered rebar. There has been an increasing need
to relate the complex microstructures to the resulting properties of quenched and tempered rebar.
However, information on such relationships typically requires precise thermal histories imposed on
the workpiece. Therefore, TPS, capable of simulating the Tempcore process, has been developed
to produce high-fidelity data. TPS mainly consists of a vacuum induction furnace, pilot rolling
mill, box furnace, and cooling unit to simulate shop floor operations. A series of experimental tests
were successfully carried out with various parameters, such as reheating temperature, water flow,
water pressure, and cooling time. The effects of chemical compositions and cooling time on the
microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of quenched and tempered rebar have been
analyzed to validate the performance of TPS. The results show that TPS can simulate the Tempcore
process with a high degree of fidelity and reliability.

Keywords: process simulator; Tempcore; rebar; microstructure; quenching; self-tempering

1. Introduction
Thermomechanical processing is a metallurgical process that combines plastic deformation process
with thermal processes like heat-treatment, water quenching, heating, and cooling at various rates into a
single process. Due to wide range of applications, many studies dealing the effect of thermomechanical
processing on metallurgical and mechanical properties have been carried out [1–3]. The reinforced
steel bars can be produced by the thermomechanical processing, microalloying with V or Nb, and
work-hardening etc. [4]. Tempcore is one of thermomechanical processes developed by CRM [5,6] to
produce high yield strength weldable rebars from mild steel without the addition of microalloying
elements. The strength of rebar originates from the formation of a surface layer of quenched and
tempered martensite that surrounds a core made of ferrite and pearlite. Such a composite structure is the
result of processing hot rolled rods through water coolers that rapidly cool the surface. The martensitic
structure is tempered by the heat from the core of the rod, which transforms into ferrite and pearlite

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2938; doi:10.3390/app9142938 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 2 of 15
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cool the surface. The martensitic structure is tempered by the heat from the core of the rod, which
transforms
while the rodintois ferrite
in the and pearlite
cooling bedswhile
[7,8]. the rod is inrebars
Tempcore the cooling beds [7,8]. Tempcore
are characterized rebars are
by high mechanical
characterized
properties andby high mechanical
excellent weldability,properties
ductility,and and excellent weldability,
bendability. Tempcoreductility,
rebar canand bendability.
be problematic
Tempcore rebar can be problematic
due to its heterogeneous structure. Itdue
hastobeenits heterogeneous
reported that the structure.
TempcoreIt has been
rebars reportedthe
presented that the
more
Tempcore rebarsuppresented
stable behavior the more
to temperatures stable
of 500 ◦ C, behavior
while theup to temperatures
microalloyed of 500 °C,
steel, although while the
it presented
microalloyed
very steel,
satisfactory although
tensile it presented
properties, verylow
displayed satisfactory tensile properties,
impact toughness displayedoflow
due to coarsening impact
vanadium
toughness
carbides [4]. Figure 1 schematically shows the temperature profile and microstructural evolutionthe
due to coarsening of vanadium carbides [4]. Figure 1 schematically shows in
temperature
Tempcore profile
treated and [9].
rebars microstructural evolution in Tempcore treated rebars [9].

Figure1.1. Schematic
Figure Schematic of
of temperature profile and
temperature profile and microstructural
microstructuralevolution
evolutionin
inTempcore
Tempcoretreated
treatedrebars.
rebars.

The Tempcore process significantly increases both tensile strength and ductility. The economic
The Tempcore process significantly increases both tensile strength and ductility. The economic
advantages of this process are huge in comparison with processes that require alloying elements or
advantages of this process are huge in comparison with processes that require alloying elements or
further metal working to improve mechanical properties [4].
further metal working to improve mechanical properties [4].
There has been an increasing need to relate the microstructures to the resulting properties of
There has been an increasing need to relate the microstructures to the resulting properties of
quenched and tempered rebar [10–12]. However, information on such relationships typically requires
quenched and tempered rebar [10–12]. However, information on such relationships typically
precise thermal histories. On the viewpoint of product quality and operational performance, the
requires precise thermal histories. On the viewpoint of product quality and operational
accurate measurement and control of temperature during high temperature processes are very important.
performance, the accurate measurement and control of temperature during high temperature
A number of attempts have been made to measure the temperature during the thermal process, but
processes are very important. A number of attempts have been made to measure the temperature
accurate thermal histories are hard to obtain due to the complexity of high temperature process and
during the thermal process, but accurate thermal histories are hard to obtain due to the complexity
harsh conditions that exist both in the tool and workpiece [13–15]. Furthermore, the manufacturing
of high temperature process and harsh conditions that exist both in the tool and workpiece [13–15].
process for the rebar does have an effect on the residual yield and tensile strength, but the quantitative
Furthermore, the manufacturing process for the rebar does have an effect on the residual yield and
evaluation of process-induced stress-strain relationship is not easy [16–18]. Therefore, many studies
tensile strength, but the quantitative evaluation of process-induced stress-strain relationship is not
have been performed to develop thermal models that can accurately predict the temperature during
easy [16–18]. Therefore, many studies have been performed to develop thermal models that can
thermal processing [19–23].
accurately predict the temperature during thermal processing [19–23].
While a shop floor test can provide very exact and desirable thermal history, it is not easy to
While a shop floor test can provide very exact and desirable thermal history, it is not easy to
achieve due to the busy production schedule. Furthermore, because the average material amount per
achieve due to the busy production schedule. Furthermore, because the average material amount
heat exceeds 100 tons, shop floor testing requires large investment of both time and capital.
per heat exceeds 100 tons, shop floor testing requires large investment of both time and capital.
Therefore, there would be a significant advantage if cost-effective methods capable of producing
Therefore, there would be a significant advantage if cost-effective methods capable of
high-fidelity data could be developed. Regarding thermomechanical processing, one way to reduce the
producing high-fidelity data could be developed. Regarding thermomechanical processing, one way
time and cost of developing large variations in thermal histories is through the use of well-established
to reduce the time and cost of developing large variations in thermal histories is through the use of
thermomechanical simulators (e.g., the GleebleTM , New York, NY, USA) and an electro-thermal
well-established thermomechanical simulators (e.g., the Gleeble TM, New York, NY, USA) and an
mechanical tester (Instron’s ETMTTM , Norwood, OH, USA) [24,25]. However, there is a risk associated
electro-thermal mechanical tester (Instron’s ETMTTM, Norwood, OH, USA) [24,25]. However, there is
with sub-scale mechanical tests to determine bulk mechanical properties. The reliability of sub-scale
a risk associated with sub-scale mechanical tests to determine bulk mechanical properties. The
thermomechanical testing decreases significantly due to reduced similarities, and the rapid cooling
reliability of sub-scale thermomechanical testing decreases significantly due to reduced similarities,
necessary for the Tempcore process is hard to achieve by conventional water quenching. Figure 2
and the rapid cooling necessary for the Tempcore process is hard to achieve by conventional water
compared hardness profiles of rebars after shop floor Tempcore treatment and 5 s water quenching
quenching. Figure 2 compared hardness profiles of rebars after shop floor Tempcore treatment and 5
Appl. Sci.
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s water quenching from 1000 °C. As shown in the figure, the tempered martensite rim shown in the
from 1000 ◦ C.
Tempcored As shown
rebar was not in obtained
the figure,from
the tempered
conventionalmartensite rim shown in the Tempcored rebar was
water quenching.
not obtained from conventional water quenching.
The mechanical properties of Tempcore rebar have been the subject of several studies. The
Thetoughness
impact mechanical properties
[26], of Tempcore
fatigue behavior [27],rebar have been
weldability for the subject
seismic of several[28],
application studies.
and The impact
behavior at
toughness [26], fatigue behavior
elevated temperature [27], weldability
[29–31] have been studied.for seismic application
Nevertheless, data[28],
onand behavior
practical at elevated
experimental
temperature
simulation is[29–31] haveeven
very scarce beenthough
studied. Nevertheless,
this data onfactor
is a very important practical experimental
to save simulation is
time and cost.
very scarce even though this is a very important factor to save time and cost.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof of hardness
hardness profiles
profiles of rebars
of rebars after Tempcore
after Tempcore treatmenttreatment and quenching.
and 5 s water 5 s water
quenching.
Hence, this paper focuses on the development of a TPS capable of precise simulation of shop
floor Hence, this and
operations paper of focuses on the
producing development
high-fidelity of a TPS
Tempcore capable
data. of precise
TPS mainly simulation
consists of shop
of a vacuum
floor operations
induction furnace,and of rolling
pilot producing
mill, high-fidelity
box furnace, Tempcore
and coolingdata.
unitTPS mainly shop
to simulate consists ofoperations.
floor a vacuum
induction
The furnace,
operational pilot rolling
parameters thatmill, box
affect thefurnace,
Tempcoreandprocess
coolingare
unit
thetochemical
simulatecomposition
shop floor operations.
of the bar,
Thetemperature
the operationalatparameters that affect
the end of rolling, andthe
the Tempcore process
cooling rate. The aimareofthe
thischemical
work is tocomposition
develop TPS ofand
the
bar, the
show howtemperature at the
the mechanical end of rolling,
properties and the are
of the material cooling rate.
related Thedifferent
to the aim of this work is parameters.
operational to develop
TPS and show
Therefore, how
a series ofthe mechanicaltests
experimental properties of the material
were successfully areout
carried related
in TPSto with
the different operational
various parameters,
parameters.
such Therefore,
as reheating a serieswater
temperature, of experimental tests were
flow, water pressure, andsuccessfully
cooling timecarried out
to study in effects
their TPS withon
various parameters, such as reheating temperature, water flow, water pressure,
microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties of quenched and tempered rebar. and cooling time to
study their effects on microstructural evolution and the mechanical properties of quenched and
2. Development
tempered rebar. of Tempcore Process Simulator
As TPS has been designed to simulate shop floor operation, a simulator capable of producing
high-fidelity data of
2. Development Tempcore
that Process
shows strong Simulator
similarity with shop floor operational data has been developed in
this study.
As TPS has been designed to simulate shop floor operation, a simulator capable of producing
Figure 3 data
high-fidelity shows anshows
that industrial Tempcore
strong production
similarity line.
with shop The
floor length of the
operational Tempcore
data has beenproduction
developed
line is about
in this study.40 m, and more than 20 coolers are installed. Water spraying is performed under condition
of a water 3 /h so as to cool the steel bars to
Figurepressure
3 shows ofan 10–12 bar and
industrial a water
Tempcore flow rate line.
production of 1500
Themlength of the Tempcore production
martensite-forming
line is about 40 m,temperature.
and more than 20 coolers are installed. Water spraying is performed under
condition of a water pressure of 10–12 bar and a water flow rate of 1500 m3/h so as to cool the steel
bars to martensite-forming temperature.
TPS mainly consists of a vacuum induction furnace, pilot rolling mill, box furnace, and cooling
unit, as shown in Figure 4. The 125 kW/3 kHz vacuum induction furnace has a capacity of 50
 kg/charge, maximum heating temperature of 1700 °C, and vacuum level of 8×10−3 Torr. The two-high
rolling mill equipped with two 630kW motors and 720 mm roll diameter has a maximum load
capacity of 600 tons and maximum rolling speed of 150 mpm. The dimensions of the heating
chamber are 600(W) × 600(H) × 800(D). As a heating source, KANTHAL®(Hallstahammar, Sweden)
A-1Sci.
Appl. has been
2019, used. The maximum heating temperature is 1100 °C, and Ar has been used as4 ofan15
9, 2938
environmental
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x gas. 4 of 15

kg/charge, maximum heating temperature of 1700 °C, and vacuum level of 8×10−3 Torr. The two-high
rolling mill equipped with two 630kW motors and 720 mm roll diameter has a maximum load
capacity of 600 tons and maximum rolling speed of 150 mpm. The dimensions of the heating
chamber are 600(W) × 600(H) × 800(D). As a heating source, KANTHAL®(Hallstahammar, Sweden)
A-1 has been used. The maximum heating temperature is 1100 °C, and Ar has been used as an
environmental gas.

Figure3.
Figure 3. Industrial
Industrial Tempcore
Tempcore production
production line.
line.

TPS mainly consists of a vacuum induction furnace, pilot rolling mill, box furnace, and cooling
unit, as shown in Figure 4. The 125 kW/3 kHz vacuum induction furnace has a capacity of 50 kg/charge,
maximum heating temperature of 1700 ◦ C, and vacuum level of 8×10−3 Torr. The two-high rolling
mill equipped with two 630kW motors and 720 mm roll diameter has a maximum load capacity
of 600 tons and maximum rolling speed of 150 mpm. The dimensions of the heating chamber are
600(W) × 600(H) × 800(D). AsFigure
a heating source, KANTHAL® (Hallstahammar, Sweden) A-1 has been
3. Industrial Tempcore production line.
used. The maximum heating temperature is 1100 ◦ C, and Ar has been used as an environmental gas.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 4. Sequential layout of Tempcore process simulator (TPS): (a) induction furnace; (b) pilot
rolling mill; (c) box furnace; (d) cooling unit.

The layouts of the Tempcore process for the production line and process simulator are
compared in Figure 5. The specifications of the subsystems of TPS have been determined to generate
data that show strong similarity with shop floor operational data.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure Sequentiallayout
Figure 4. Sequential layoutofofTempcore
Tempcore process
process simulator
simulator (TPS):
(TPS): (a) induction
(a) induction furnace;
furnace; (b)rolling
(b) pilot pilot
rolling
mill; (c)mill;
box (c) box furnace;
furnace; (d) cooling
(d) cooling unit. unit.

The layouts
layoutsofofthethe
Tempcore
Tempcoreprocess for the
process forproduction line andline
the production process
and simulator are compared
process simulator are
in Figure 5.inThe
compared specifications
Figure of the subsystems
5. The specifications of TPS have
of the subsystems beenhave
of TPS determined to generate
been determined to data that
generate
showthat
data strong
showsimilarity with shopwith
strong similarity floorshop
operational data.
floor operational data.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 5 of 15
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(a)
(a)

(b)
Figure 5. Similarity of cooling system for the(b)
Tempcore process: (a) production line; (b) TPS.

Figure 5. Similarity of cooling system for the Tempcore

Tempcore process:
process: (a) production
production line;
line; (b)
(b) TPS.
TPS.
To fabricate test specimens, a 50 kg ingot having 120 mm × 120 mm cross-section has been
heated to 1150 test
°C in a vacuumainduction
To
To fabricate
fabricate testspecimens,
specimens, 50
a 50 kg furnace
kg ingot
ingot and
having plate
120
having 120rolled
mm ×
mm120to
×mm28 mm
120 mmthickness.
cross-section Then,
has been
cross-section square
has heated
been
to bars are
◦ cut
1150 toC1150 from
in a °C the
vacuum as-rolled
inductionplate, and specimens
furnacefurnace
and plate having a 25 mm diameter and 360 mm length
heated in a vacuum induction androlled to 28 mm
plate rolled to 28thickness. Then,Then,
mm thickness. square bars
square
were machined from square bars by lathe. Figure 6 shows the sequence of fabrication of the test
are cut from the as-rolled plate, and specimens having a 25 mm diameter and
bars are cut from the as-rolled plate, and specimens having a 25 mm diameter and 360 mm length360 mm length were
specimen.
machined
were machinedfrom square bars bybars
from square lathe.
byFigure
lathe. 6Figure
shows6the sequence
shows of fabrication
the sequence of the test of
of fabrication specimen.
the test
specimen.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 6. Sequence
6. Sequence ofof fabricationofoftest
fabrication testspecimen:
specimen: (a)
(a) ingot;
ingot; (b)
(b) plate
platerolled;
rolled;(c)
(c)cylindrical
cylindricalspecimen.
specimen.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure
Figure 6. 7 shows
7 Sequence
shows the
the mainfeatures
ofmain features
fabrication ofofspecimen:
of test thesystem.
the system.
(a) Figure
Figure 7a shows
7aplate
ingot; (b) shows the
theschematic
rolled; schematic
(c) drawing
drawing
cylindrical of of
TPS.
specimen. TPS.
Figure 7b shows that the dual cylinder consists of a high-speed air cylinder and a low
Figure 7b shows that the dual cylinder consists of a high-speed air cylinder and a low speed air cylinder.speed air
Figure 7time
The cooling showscanthe
bemain features
adjusted by aof the system.
speed controlFigure
valve. 7a shows
Figure 7cthe schematic
shows drawingtransfer
the specimen of TPS.
Figure 7b shows that the dual cylinder consists of a high-speed air cylinder and a low speed air
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 6 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2938 6 of 15
cylinder. The cooling time can be adjusted by a speed control valve. Figure 7c shows the specimen
transfer frame used to ensure circumferentially uniform temperature. Figure 7d shows the specimen
clamping
frame used todevice.
ensureAcircumferentially
screw-type specimen clamping
uniform device Figure
temperature. has been designed
7d shows that can reduce
the specimen clamping
temperature
device. drop byspecimen
A screw-type fast clamping. The main
clamping specifications
device of TPS are
has been designed shown
that in Tabletemperature
can reduce 1. drop
by fast clamping. The main specifications of TPS are shown in Table 1.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 7. (a) Schematic of TPS system; (b) dual cylinder; (c) specimen transfer frame; (d) screw type
specimen clamping device.
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Figure 7. (a) Schematic of TPS system; (b) dual cylinder; (c) specimen transfer frame; (d) screw type
specimen clamping device. Table 1. Main specifications of TPS.

Air cylinder stroke 1. Main specifications of TPS.800

(mm)
Table
Cooling time (sec) 1~2.5
Air cylinder stroke (mm) 800
3 /h)
Water flowCooling
rate (mtime (sec) 1~2.5 Max 65
Water pressure (bar) (m /h)
Water flow rate Max 65 0~15
3

Water pressure (bar) 0~15

Specimen length (mm)
Specimen length (mm) 360 360
Control Control
valve valve 80A ×80A
JIS20K (Globe (Globe
× JIS20K Type) Type)
Container material 316 Stainless steel
Container material 316 Stainless steel

For the metallographic examination, the specimen was cut from the predetermined position in
testedFor the metallographic
rebar. Microstructure examination,
was observedthe specimen
by an optical was cut fromafter
microscope the mechanical
predetermined position
polishing in
with
tested rebar. Microstructure was observed by an optical microscope after mechanical polishing
alumina powder of 0.5 micron in size and etching with 3% nital for 5 s. Vickers micro-hardness test with
alumina
has powder
also been of 0.5 micron
performed from in size
the and to
center etching
outerwith 3% of
surface nital
thefor 5 s. with
rebar Vickers micro-hardness
10 kg load. test has
also been performed from the center to outer surface of the rebar with 10 kg load.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Test Run of TPS
3.1. Test Run of TPS
Figure 8 shows actual test operation of TPS. To estimate the reliability and feasibility of TPS,
Figure 8 shows actual test operation of TPS. To estimate the reliability and feasibility of TPS,
comparison tests have been performed for 25 mm rebar. Table 2 shows test conditions of shop floor
comparison tests have been performed for 25 mm rebar. Table 2 shows test conditions of shop floor
operation and TPS.
operation and TPS.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure8.8.Actual
Figure Actualexperimentation
experimentation using TPS: (a) heating;
heating; (b)
(b) loading;
loading;(c)
(c)cooling;
cooling;(d)
(d)self-tempering.
self-tempering.
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Table 2. Test conditions for comparison of TPS with shop floor operation.
Table 2. Test conditions for comparison of TPS with shop floor operation.
Parameter Shop Floor Operation TPS
Water flow rate (m /h)
3 Parameter 500Floor Operation
Shop TPS 45
Cooler quantity
Water flow rate (m /h)
3 10 500 45 1
Cooling length (m)
Cooler quantity 14 10 1 0.72
Cooling length (m)
Rolling speed (m/s) 6.65 14 0.72 -
Cylinder speed Rolling
(m/s) speed (m/s) - 6.65 - 0.36
Cylinder speed (m/s) - 0.36
Cooling time (sec)
Cooling time (sec)
2.1 2.1 2.0
2.0

Figure 9a,b shows tempered martensite rims produced by shop floor operation and TPS. The
Figure 9a,b shows
ratios of hardened areatempered
for shopmartensite rims produced
floor operation by shop
and TPS were floor
32.8% operation
and and TPS. The Figure
31.2%, respectively. ratios
of hardened area for shop floor operation and TPS were 32.8% and 31.2%, respectively.
9c shows the variations of microhardness for shop floor operation and TPS. As can be seen in the Figure 9c
shows
figure,the variations
shop of microhardness
floor operational date wasfor shop floor
almost operation
the same as thatand TPS. This
of TPS. As can be seenthe
confirms in the figure,
validity of
shop floor operational date
TPS with high reliability. was almost the same as that of TPS. This confirms the validity of TPS with
high reliability.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure9.9. Tempered
Figure Temperedmartensite
martensiterims
rimsproduced
producedbyby(a)
(a)shop
shopfloor
flooroperation;
operation;(b)
(b)TPS;
TPS;(c)
(c)variation
variationof
of
microhardnessfor
microhardness forshop
shopfloor
flooroperation
operationand
andTPS.
TPS.

3.2. Performance Validation of TPS

To estimate the performance of TPS, cooling simulation has been performed at various cooling
times. Cooling time of TPS has been changed, as shown in Table 3.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 9 of 15

3.2. Performance Validation of TPS

To estimate the performance of TPS, cooling simulation has been performed at various cooling
times.
Appl. Sci.Cooling time
of TPS has been changed, as shown in Table 3.
2019, 9, 2938 9 of 15

Table 3. Performance test with respect to cooling time.

Table 3. Performance test with respect to cooling time.
Heating temperature (°C) 1.000
Heating Water flow rate(◦(m
temperature C)3/h) 36 1.000
Water flow rate (m /h)
Water 3
pressure (bar) 11~12 36
Cooling time
Water pressure (bar)(sec) 1.0, 1.5,11~12
2.0
Specimen
Cooling timediameter
(sec) (mm) 25
1.0, 1.5, 2.0
Specimen diameter (mm) C 0.29 25
Si 0.21 0.29
Chemical composition of specimen C
(wt%) SiMn 0.52
0.21
Chemical composition of specimen P < 0.040
Mn 0.52
(wt%) S < 0.040
P < 0.040
S < 0.040
Specimen heated to 1.000 °C was extracted from the furnace and moved to the clamping device.
The cooling start temperature was 940 °C due to temperature drop caused by extraction and
Specimen heated to 1.000 ◦ C was extracted from the furnace and moved to the clamping device.
clamping of specimen. The time required to extract and clamp the specimen was less than 10 sec.
The cooling start temperature was 940 ◦ C due to temperature drop caused by extraction and clamping of
Figure 10a shows variation of surface temperatures for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s. The
specimen. The time required to extract and clamp the specimen was less than 10 sec. Figure 10a shows
tempering temperatures for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s were 675, 653, and 634 °C,
variation of surface temperatures for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s. The tempering temperatures
respectively. The ratios of hardened area after TPS for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s were 15.4%,
for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s were 675, 653, and 634 ◦ C, respectively. The ratios of hardened
21.0%, and 30.5%, respectively. Therefore, the microhardness increases with increasing cooling time,
area after TPS for cooling times of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s were 15.4%, 21.0%, and 30.5%, respectively.
as shown in Figure 10b. Figure 11 shows microstructure after cooling time of 2.0 s obtained from
Therefore, the microhardness increases with increasing cooling time, as shown in Figure 10b. Figure 11
TPS. As shown in the figure, tempered martensite rim clearly formed on the outer surface, and the
shows microstructure after cooling time of 2.0 s obtained from TPS. As shown in the figure, tempered
hardened area ratio was 30.5%. As shown above, the effect of cooling time on the microstructural
martensite rim clearly formed on the outer surface, and the hardened area ratio was 30.5%. As shown
evolution and mechanical properties of quenched and tempered rebar have been successfully
above, the effect of cooling time on the microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of quenched
analyzed by TPS.
and tempered rebar have been successfully analyzed by TPS.

(a) (b)
Figure10.
Figure 10.(a)(a) Variation
Variation of temperature
of temperature for cooling
for cooling times
times of 1.0, 1.5,of 1.0,
and 2.0 1.5,
s; (b)and 2.0 s; microhardness
measured (b) measured
microhardness
for for the
the cooling times of cooling
1.0, 1.5, times of s.1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 s.
and 2.0
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x2938 10 of 15

Figure 11. Microstructures obtained from TPS after cooling time of 2.0 s. (A: surface layer; B: transition
layer; C: center core.).

To further
Figure 11. estimate the performance
Microstructures obtained fromof TPS,
TPSchemical compositions
after cooling time of 2.0 have beensurface
s. (A: changed, as B:
layer; shown
in Table 4. The heating time, water
transition layer; C: center core.). flow rate, water pressure, and the specimen diameter were set to be
the same as those of Table 3.
To further estimate the performance of TPS, chemical compositions have been changed, as
Table 4. Performance test with respect to alloy type.
shown in Table 4. The heating time, water flow rate, water pressure, and the specimen diameter
were set to be the same as those
Coolingoftime
Table 3.
(sec) 1.5
The specimen heated to 1,000 °C was extracted from furnace and moved to the clamping device.
Alloy type Type 1 Type 2
The cooling start temperature was 940 °C due to temperature drop caused by extraction and
C 0.28 0.27
clamping of specimen. Figure 12 shows tempered martensite rims obtained from TPS for Cases 1 and
2, respectively. As can be seen in the figure, tempered Si 0.24
martensite 0.22 formed at the outer
rim clearly
surface, and the hardened area ratios of for Cases
Chemical composition Mn 1 and 2 were 1.43 44.8% and1.22 41.9%, respectively. The
ratio of hardened area for(wt%)Case 1 was higher than V that for Case0.0312 because the hardenability of Case 1
0.020
was higher due to the higher content of alloying P
elements.
<0.040
Typical Tempcored
<0.040
microstructures
having tempered martensite, bainite, and mixed structures of ferrite and pearlite have also been
S <0.040 <0.040
observed. Figure 13 shows variation of microhardness for Cases 1 and 2. The tempered martensite
rim obtained from TPS have been well confirmed by hardness profiles.
The specimen heated to 1,000 ◦ C was extracted from furnace and moved to the clamping device.
The cooling start temperature was4.940
Table ◦ C due to test
Performance temperature drop
with respect caused
to alloy by extraction and clamping of
type.
specimen. Figure 12 shows tempered martensite rims
Cooling time (sec)
obtained from 1.5
TPS for Cases 1 and 2, respectively.
As can be seen in the figure, tempered martensite
Alloy type rim clearly formed
Type 1 Type 2 at the outer surface, and the
hardened area ratios of for Cases 1 and 2 were 44.8% andC41.9%, respectively.
0.28 0.27 The ratio of hardened area
for Case 1 was higher than that for Case 2 because the Si 0.24
hardenability 0.22
of Case 1 was higher due to the
Mn 1.43 1.22
higher content of alloying elements. Typical Tempcored
Chemical composition (wt%) microstructures having tempered martensite,
V 0.031 0.020
bainite, and mixed structures of ferrite and pearlite have also been observed. Figure 13 shows variation
P <0.040 <0.040
S <0.040 <0.040
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2938 11 of 15

of microhardness for Cases 1 and 2. The tempered martensite rim obtained from TPS have been well
confirmed by9, hardness
Appl. Sci. 2019, x profiles. 11 of 15

(a)

(b)
Figure
Figure 12.
12. Tempered
Tempered martensite rim obtained from TPS for (a) Type
Type 11 and
and (b)
(b) Type
Type2.
2.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2938 12 of 15
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x 12 of 15

Figure 13. Variation of microhardness

microhardness obtained
obtained from
from TPS
TPS for
for Cases
Cases11and
and2.
2.

As
As shown
shown above,
above, the
the effects
effects of
of cooling
cooling time
time and
and chemical
chemical composition
composition on on the
the microstructural
microstructural
evolution and mechanical properties of quenched and tempered rebar
evolution and mechanical properties of quenched and tempered rebar have been successfully have been successfully analyzed.
These results show that the need to relate the microstructures to the resulting properties
analyzed. These results show that the need to relate the microstructures to the resulting properties of of quenched
and tempered
quenched andrebar can be rebar
tempered satisfied
canbybeproposed
satisfiedTPS. Khalifa et TPS.
by proposed al. [31] developed
Khalifa et al.a [31]
thermal model toa
developed
predict
thermal model to predict the temperature distribution across the bar over its whole quenchingrout.
the temperature distribution across the bar over its whole quenching and self-tempering and
The output of this
self-tempering model
rout. Thehas beenof
output used
thistomodel
calculate
hasthe areaused
been of martensite
to calculateformed in outer
the area layer and
of martensite
ferrite–pearlite
formed in outerzone. layerMukherjee et al. [32] also
and ferrite–pearlite zone.predicted
Mukherjee hardness of the
et al. [32] tempered
also predicted martensitic
hardness rim of
of the
Tempcore rebars. They developed a model for calculating the hardness of the
tempered martensitic rim of Tempcore rebars. They developed a model for calculating the hardness tempered martensitic rim
as
of athe
function of chemical
tempered composition
martensitic rim asand non-isothermal
a function tempering
of chemical parameters.
composition andThese approaches
non-isothermal
can
tempering parameters. These approaches can be advantageous to estimate rebar strength thermal
be advantageous to estimate rebar strength without experiments, but the accuracy of the without
model is essentially
experiments, but therequired.
accuracy The information
of the thermal model on such a thermal required.
is essentially model essentially requires on
The information precise
such
temperature
a thermal model history, and it can
essentially be obtained
requires precisebytemperature
TPS. history, and it can be obtained by TPS.
For
Forthe
thevalidation
validationofofthe theTPS
TPSdeveloped
developed inin
this study,
this study,thethe
areaarea
of martensite
of martensitepredicted fromfrom
predicted TPS was
TPS
compared with the experimentally obtained area of martensite. From the
was compared with the experimentally obtained area of martensite. From the hardness distributionhardness distribution across
the rebar,
across thetherebar,
martensite volume fraction
the martensite volumeVM , fraction
which is V anM,important
which isparameter
an importantin the parameter
Tempcore process
in the
as
Tempcore process as it affects the final mechanical properties of the rebar, was determined equation:
it affects the final mechanical properties of the rebar, was determined using the following using the
following equation:
RM 2
 
VM = 1 − 4 𝑅 (1)
𝑉 = 1 − 4( D ) (1)
𝐷
Here, VM denotes the martensite volume fraction, RM is the distance of the martensite layer from
Here, and
the center, VM denotes the martensite
D is the diameter volume
of the rebar, as fraction,
shown inRM is the
Figure 14a.distance of the martensite layer
fromAstheshown
center, and D is the diameter of the rebar, as shown in Figure
in Figure 14b, strong correlation has been observed between 14a.
martensite volume fractions
As shown in Figure 14b, strong correlation has been observed between
obtained from shop floor operation and TPS. It strongly confirms that TPS can simulate martensite volume
the shop floor
fractions obtained from shop floor operation and TPS. It
Tempcore process with a high degree of fidelity and reliability. strongly confirms that TPS can simulate the
shop floor Tempcore process with a high degree of fidelity and reliability.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2938
2019, 9, x 13 of
13 of 15
15

(a) (b)
Figure14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a)Definition
Definitionof
ofmartensite
martensite volume
volume fraction;
fraction; (b)
(b) correlation
correlation of
ofmartensite
martensitevolume
volumefraction.
fraction.

4. Conclusions
A cost-effective Tempcore
Tempcore process
process simulator
simulator (TPS)
(TPS) hashas been
been developed
developed to investigate
investigate the
microstructural
microstructuralevolution
evolutionofofquenched
quenched and tempered
and tempered rebar and and
rebar successfully implemented
successfully implementedin thisinstudy.
this
TPS consists
study. of a vacuum
TPS consists induction
of a vacuum furnace,furnace,
induction pilot rolling
pilotmill, boxmill,
rolling furnace,
box and cooling
furnace, andunit. TPSunit.
cooling was
used
TPS wasto precisely
used to simulate
preciselyshop floorshop
simulate operation
floor and successfully
operation produced high-fidelity
and successfully Tempcore
produced high-fidelity
data. Tempered
Tempcore data. martensite
Tempered rims having rims
martensite sizes having
similar to those
sizes produced
similar by shop
to those floor operation
produced by shop were
floor
clearly shown in the Tempcored rebar through TPS simulation. The operational
operation were clearly shown in the Tempcored rebar through TPS simulation. The operational parameters that
affect the Tempcore process, such as chemical composition of the bar and cooling
parameters that affect the Tempcore process, such as chemical composition of the bar and cooling rate, have been well
characterized
rate, have beenthrough the series ofthrough
well characterized experiments. It has
the series of been confirmed
experiments. thatbeen
It has the TPS can be that
confirmed usedthe to
simulate the Tempcore process with a high degree of fidelity and reliability.
TPS can be used to simulate the Tempcore process with a high degree of fidelity and reliability.
Author Contributions:
Author Contributions: Formal
Formal analysis,
analysis, C. S. P.;Investigation,
C.S.P.; Investigation, S.W.H.;
S.W.H.; Methodology,
Methodology, T.L.;
T.L.; Software,
Software, H.J.Y.;
H.J.Y.;
Y.H.M; Validation, Y.-T.K.
Supervision, Y.H.M.; Y.T.K.

Funding: This
Funding: Thisresearch was funded
research by National
was funded by Research
NationalFoundation
Research ofFoundation
Korea, grant of
number 2012R1A5A1048294.
Korea, grant number
2012R1A5A1048294.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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