Human Communities & The

Environment

Population Ecology

Population ecology is the study of how populations — of plants, animals, and

other organisms — change over time and space and interact with their
environment. Population is groups of organisms of the same species living in the
same area at the same time.

1. Population size: The number of individuals in the population

2. Population density: How many individuals are in a particular area
3. Population growth: How the size of the population is changing over time

Population Growth
 The two simplest models of population growth use deterministic equations
(equations that do not account for random events) to describe the rate of
change in the size of a population over time.
 The first of these models, exponential growth, describes populations that
increase in numbers without any limits to their growth.
 The second model, logistic growth, introduces limits to reproductive growth
that become more intense as the population size increases. Neither model
adequately describes natural populations, but they provide points of
comparison.
1. Exponential Growth

 Charles Darwin, in developing his theory of natural selection, was influenced

by the English clergyman Thomas Malthus. Malthus published his book in
1798 stating that populations with abundant natural resources grow very
rapidly.
 However, they limit further growth by depleting their resources. The early
pattern of accelerating population size is called exponential growth
 The best example of exponential growth in organisms is seen in bacteria.
Bacteria are prokaryotes that reproduce quickly, about an hour for many
species. If 1000 bacteria are placed in a large flask with an abundant supply
of nutrients (so the nutrients will not become quickly depleted), the number of
bacteria will have doubled from 1000 to 2000 after just an hour. In another
hour, each of the 2000 bacteria will divide, producing 4000 bacteria. After the
third hour, there should be 8000 bacteria in the flask. The important concept
of exponential growth is that the growth rate—the number of organisms added
in each reproductive generation—is itself increasing; that is, the population
size is increasing at a greater and greater rate.

2. Logistic Growth

 Extended exponential growth is possible only when infinite natural resources

are available; this is not the case in the real world.
 Charles Darwin recognized this fact in his description of the “struggle for
existence,” which states that individuals will compete, with members of their
own or other species, for limited resources.
 The successful ones are more likely to survive and pass on the traits that made
them successful to the next generation at a greater rate (natural selection).
 To model the reality of limited resources, population ecologists developed the
logistic growth model.

Human Population Growth

 The fundamental cause of the acceleration of growth rate for humans in the
past 200 years has been the reduced death rate due to changes in public health
and sanitation
 Clean drinking water and proper disposal sewage has drastically improved
health in developed nations
 Also, medical innovations such as the use of antibiotics and vaccines have
decreased the ability of infectious disease to limit human population growth
 In the past, diseases such as the bubonic plaque of the fourteenth century killed
between 30 and 60 percent of Europe’s population and reduced the overall
world population by as many as one hundred million people
 Naturally, infectious disease continues to have an impact on human population
growth, especially in poorer nations. For example, life expectancy in sub-
Saharan Africa, which was increasing from 1950 to 1990, began to decline
after 1985 largely as a result of HIV/AIDS mortality. The reduction in life
expectancy caused by HIV/AIDS was estimated to be 7 years for 2005
 Technological advances of the industrial age have also supported population
growth through urbanization and advances in agriculture. These advances in
technology were possible, in part, due to the exploitation of fossil fuels.
 Impacts of Population growth on Environment
 More people require more resources, which means that as the population
increases, the Earth’s resources deplete more rapidly.
 The result of this depletion is deforestation and loss of biodiversity
 Increased greenhouse gases, mostly CO 2 emissions
 For visualization, during that same 20th century that saw fourfold
population growth, CO2 emissions increased twelvefold. As greenhouse
gases increase, so do climate patterns, ultimately resulting in the long-term
pattern called climate change.
 Air pollution, water contamination
 Generation of Waste
 Strain on Forests
 Urbanization
 Industrialisation
 Land Degradation

Impacts of Population growth on Human Health &

Welfare

1. Increased Risk of Infection - Airborne diseases spread easily and fast in a

denser population. Urban crowding and changes in the environment due to over-
exploitation of resources by humans can lead to the emergence of various
infectious ailments.
2. Rise in Cases of Waterborne Diseases - A huge number of people are already
dying each day due to exposure to contaminated water. Imagine the condition 10
years later if the growth of the population keeps on increasing resulting in more
and more need of fresh water.

3. Polluted Air and Increased Risk of Respiratory Problems - Population

explosion leads to increased use of vehicles and construction of buildings
resulting in increased toxic air contents.

4. Increase in Cases of Skin Cancer - The population explosion has a significant

impact on global warming and that is resulting in depletion of the ozone layer.

Carbon Footprint
 According to WHO, a carbon footprint is “a measure of the impact your
activities have on the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced through
the burning of fossil fuels and is expressed as a weight of CO2 emissions
produced in tonnes.”

 It includes direct emissions, such as those that result from fossil-

fuel combustion in manufacturing, heating, and transportation, as well as
emissions required to produce the electricity associated with goods and
services consumed.

 In addition, the carbon footprint concept also often includes the emissions of
other greenhouse gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide,
or chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Carbon Footprint Reduction

 Carbon footprints can be reduced through improving energy efficiency and

changing lifestyles and purchasing habits.
 Switching one’s energy and transportation use can have an impact on primary
carbon footprints. For example, using public transportation, such as buses and
trains, reduces an individual’s carbon footprint when compared with driving.
 Individuals and corporations can reduce their respective carbon footprints by
installing energy-efficient lighting, adding insulation in buildings, or
using renewable energy sources to generate the electricity they require. For
example, electricity generation from wind power produces no direct carbon
emissions.
 Additional lifestyle choices that can lower an individual’s secondary carbon
footprint include reducing one’s consumption of meat and switching one’s
purchasing habits to products that require fewer carbon emissions to produce
and transport.
 RESETTLEMENT AND
REHABILITATION

 Resettlement refer to the process of settling again in a new area.

 Rehabilitation means restoration to the former state.
 Development projects that displace people involuntarily generally give rise to
severe economic, social, and environmental problems: production systems are
dismantled; productive assets and income sources are lost; people are
relocated to environments where their productive skills may be less applicable
and the competition for resources greater; community structures and social
networks are weakened; kin groups are dispersed; and cultural identity,
traditional authority, and the potential for mutual help are diminished.
 Involuntary resettlement may cause severe long-term hardship,
impoverishment, and environmental damage unless appropriate measures are
carefully planned and carried out.
 The World Bank was the first multilateral lending agency to adopt a policy for
Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R).

Reasons for displacement of people

 Natural disasters like earthquake, cyclones, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions,
prolonged droughts conditions, floods, hurricanes etc.
 Man-made disasters like industrial (e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy), nuclear
accidents (disaster in Japan), oil spills (Exxon Valdez oil spill), toxic
contamination of sites etc.
 In search of better employment opportunities
 Developmental projects like: construction of dams, irrigation canals,
reservoirs etc.
 Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads etc.
 Transportation activities like roads, highway, canal etc.
 Energy related project like power plants, oil exploration, mining activities,
pipelines like HBJ pipeline etc.
 Agricultural projects
 Projects related with the conservation of wildlife like national parks,
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

Resettlement issues
As per the World Bank estimates, nearly 10 lakh people are displaced
worldwide for a variety of reasons:

1. Little or no support: Displacement mainly hits tribal and rural people who
usually do not figure in the priority list of any political authorities or parties

2. Meager compensation: The compensation for the land lost is often not
paid, it is delayed or even if paid, is too small both in monetary terms and social
changes forced on them by these mega developmental projects

3. Loss of livelihood: Displacement is not a simple incident in the lives of the

displaced people. They have to leave their ancestral land and forests on which
they depend for their livelihood. Many of them have no skills to take up another
activity or pick up any other occupation.

4. Lack of facilities: When people are resettled in a new area, basic

infrastructure and amenities are not provided in that area.
5. Increase in stress: Resettlement disrupt the entire life of the people. They
are unable to bear the shocks of emptiness and purposelessness created in their
life

6. Increase in health problems: Lack of nutrition due to the loss of

agriculture and forest based livelihood, lead to the general decline in the health
of the people. People are used to traditional home remedies. But the herbal
remedies and plants gets submerged due to the developmental projects

7. Secondary displacement: Occupational groups residing outside the

submergence area but depending on the area for the livelihood also experience
unemployment

8. Loss of identity: Tribal life is community based. The tribal are simple
people who have a lifestyle of their own. Displacement have a negative impact
on their livelihood, culture and spiritual existence

Objectives of rehabilitation
The following objectives of rehabilitation should be kept in mind before the
people are given an alternative site for living:

a) Tribal people should be allowed to live along the lives of their own patterns
and others should avoid imposing anything on them
b) They should be provided means to develop their own traditional art and culture
in every way
c) Villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others to enable them
to live a community based life
d) Villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others to enable them
to live a community based life
e) The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of the
development. I should say that it is really a good move by ISC to share its
profits among the active contributors
f) The displaced people should be given employment opportunities
g) Resettlement should be in the neighbourhood of their own environment
h) If resettlement is not possible in the neighbour area, priority should be given
to the development of the irrigation facilities and supply of basic inputs for
agriculture, drinking water, wells, grazing ground for the cattle, schools for
the children, primary healthcare units and other amenities
i) Villagers should be taken into confidence at every stage of implementation of
the displacement and they should be educated, through public meetings,
discussion about the legalities of the Land Acquisition act and other
rehabilitation provisions
j) The elderly people of the village should be involved in the decision making

Examples of resettlement and rehabilitation

I. Displacement due to dams

India has been constructing dams and other hydel projects. In the last 50 years,
20 million people have been affected by the construction of such projects. The
Hirakud dam displaced about 20000 people living in about 250 villages. The
Bhakra Nangal dam was constructed around 1950's and displaced a number of
people. Some of them could not be rehabilitated even today.

II. Displacement due to mining

Due to possibility of the accidents or sinking of the land, people have to displaced
in and around the mining area. Mining take up several hectares of land thousands
of people have to be evacuated. Jharia coal fields posed a problem years ago to
the local residents due to the underground fire. Some 3 lakh people were to be
shifted and it became a problem to find an alternative site. A huge amount of
money to the tune of Rs.115 crores have been spent to put out the fire. Still the
problem persists.

III. Displacement in Japan due to nuclear crisis

Nuclear crisis in Japan where there was an explosion in three of the major reactors
of Fukushima city due to tsunami. People were evacuated to protect them for the
possible nuclear hazard and exposure. They were suffering from acute hunger as
all the food supply was interrupted due to contamination of food particles by
radiation.

IV. Uttaranchal's disaster management

Uttaranchal's location and geographical features render it vulnerable to minor

changes. Hence any activity disapproved by mountain ecosystem triggers a
disaster. One cannot stop disaster happening but can certainly take some steps to
reduce its effects. If disasters cannot be averted, then reduction of losses of any
type caused by disaster becomes a focal point of the policy for disaster
management. The study reveals that 83 villages in Uttaranchal need rehabilitation
but, to date, Uttaranchal has no resettlement and rehabilitation policy.
 Key Points

 In India only three States, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab, have
state-wide resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) policies.
 Other States have issued Government Orders or Resolutions, sometimes
sector-wide but more often for specific projects.
 The study is based on secondary data; however, sufficient care has been taken
to consider all important factors while suggesting Rehabilitation Policy for
Uttaranchal State.
 A disaster of rare severity requires a high level of resettlement and
rehabilitation assistance from the State.
 Sound Resettlement and Rehabilitation Policy helps the Government to tackle
the problem immediately and efficiently.
 Disaster Management
 Disaster Management can be defined as “the organization and management
of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to
lessen the impact of disasters.”
 Disaster management plans are multi-layered and are aimed to address such
issues as floods, hurricanes, fires, bombings, and even mass failures of utilities
or the rapid spread of disease
 The disaster plan is likely to address such as important matters as relinquishing
people from an impacted region, arranging temporary housing, food, and
medical care
 There is no country that is immune from disaster, though vulnerability to
disaster varies

There are 4 main types of disaster as follows: -

 Natural disasters: These disasters include floods, hurricanes, earthquakes

and volcano eruptions that can have immediate impacts on human health, as
well as secondary impacts causing further death and suffering from floods
causing landslides, earthquakes resulting in fires, tsunamis causing
widespread flooding and typhoons sinking ferries

 Environmental emergencies: These emergencies include technological or

industrial accidents, usually involving hazardous material, and occur where
these materials are produced, used or transported. Large forest fires are
generally included in this definition because they tend to be caused by humans.
 Complex emergencies: These emergencies involve a break-down of
authority, looting and attacks on strategic installations. Complex emergencies
include conflict situations and war.

 Pandemic emergencies: These emergencies involve a sudden onset of a

contagious disease that affects health but also disrupts services and businesses,
bringing economic and social costs.

Emergency Management
 Emergency Management is the generic name of an interdisciplinary field
dealing with the strategic organization management processes used to protect
asses of an organization from hazard risks that can cause disasters or
catastrophes, and to ensure the continuance of the organization within their
planned lifetime

 It is a systematic process leading to action before, during and after a disaster

to save lives and prevent injury. "Disaster" here means a major emergency that
exceeds the community's capacity to respond successfully with its own
resources. Emergency Management is organized into four phases:

 Mitigation: actions taken to eliminate a hazard or reduce its potential impact.

 Preparedness: planning for major emergencies, including training and
exercises.
 Response: actions taken in response to emergencies.
 Recovery: actions taken after a disaster to restore services and reconstruct
communities
 Disaster Management in India

 Recently, floods in Assam and other north-eastern states have caused

devastation of life and property, which is an annual problem in the region.
However, floods are not restricted to North-eastern India, rather it affects
many other areas in the country.
 Apart from natural factors like incessant and heavy rainfall during the
monsoon, there are man-made factors that contribute to floods in India
 India is highly vulnerable, as most of its geographical area is prone to annual
flooding. The high losses and damages due to floods show the poor adaptation
and mitigation status of India and inadequacy in disaster management and
preparedness.
 Factors contributing to the increase in Floods
A. Natural Causes

1. Climate Change

2. Skewed Rainfall Pattern

3. Trans-National Rivers

4. Earthquakes

B. Human Causes

1. Unplanned Development

2. Urban Flooding

3. Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

Disaster Preparedness Plan: - A comprehensive flood management

plan is needed to include Disaster preparedness. This may require strengthening
of the following:

o Flood Hotspot Mapping at local and regional scale.

o Management and regulation of riparian zones to prevent spilling and erosion.

o River flood modelling to prepare for incidences like reservoir breach and
emergency water release from dams.

o Advanced techniques such as mapping based on satellite imagery

and Geographic Information Systems will help in development of flood
early warning systems.
Integrated Approach: Steps need to be taken for watershed management
through an integrated approach. Often these approaches involve both hard
engineering solutions and ecologically sustainable soft solutions.

o Hard Solutions: It involves civil engineering construction such as dams,

culverts and dykes, widening and deepening of river channels and diversion
channels to store and divert water to increase the lag time of water reaching
downstream.

o Ecological Soft Solutions: The solutions such as restoration and

management of riparian zones, afforestation along the river channels which
led to retention of rainwater and reduces the river discharge.

o An integrated approach to managing floods requires a sound understanding

of the patterns that rivers such as the Ganga and its tributaries display during
the monsoon.

Focusing on better Management:

o Keeping in view the fact that the problem of Urban Flooding is becoming more
severe and losses are mounting every year
o The subject of urban flooding needs exclusive attention and the proper
implementation of NDMA guidelines on Urban Flooding 2016, is the need
of the hour
o As floods cause major damage to life and property every year, it is time the
central and the state governments prepare a long-term plan that goes beyond
piecemeal measures like building embankments and dredging to control
floods
o Also, there is a need for an integrated basin management plan that brings all
the river-basin sharing countries as well Indian states on board
 Earthquakes and its Management
in India
 An earthquake is shaking of the earth caused due to the release of
energy from the earth’s interior, which generates waves that travel in all
directions.
 An earthquake can range from minor tremors to large building shanking
shock.
 Minor tremors caused by small vibrations occur every few minutes but great
earthquakes happen because of faulting (Normal, reverse and strike-slip)
cause a great number of disruptions.
 Among the disasters earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and
destructible. India has seen some of the greatest earthquakes in the last
century.
 The recent Nepal earthquake once again brought forth the question of
earthquake preparedness.

Types of the Earthquake

1. Tectonic Earthquakes: Generated due to sliding of the rocks along the fault
plane. This is the most commonly occurring type of earthquake

2. Volcanic Earthquake: Occur due to volcanic activities and displacement

caused because of those. These are confined to areas of active volcanoes

3. Collapse Earthquake: These occur in the areas of intense mining. Roofs of

underground mines collapse that cause tremors
4. Explosion Earthquakes: Ground shaking caused by huge explosions like a
nuclear explosion and chemical explosion

5. Reservoir induced Earthquakes: These occur in the areas of huge reservoirs

like dams

What are the reasons for the Earthquakes in India?

 Himalayan belt– Collision between Indo-Austral plate with Eurasian plate
and Burma Plate with Java Sumatra plate. This collision causes lots of strain
in underlying rocks’ energy of which is released in the form of earthquakes.

 Andaman and Nicobar Islands– Seafloor displacement and underwater

volcanoes which disturb the equilibrium of earth’s surface

 Deccan Plateau– some earth scientists have come up with a theory of the
emergence of a fault line and energy build-up along the fault line of the river
Bhima (Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra).

 Increasing population and unscientific land use in construction make India a

high-risk land for earthquakes.
Earthquake management in India
Earthquake management in India, Disaster management for that matter, goes
through different stages. Some of the critical areas of earthquake management in
India are

1. Awareness among various stakeholders

2. Structural mitigation measures
3. Monitoring and enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and
appropriate town planning
4. Proper earthquake response planning
5. System of decentralized response
6. Trained manpower to deal with the disaster
7. Building back better

Disaster Management of Cyclones

 The storms caused by wind blowing around the low-pressure areas are
called cyclones. Similarly, storms around the high-pressure areas are called
anticyclones
 India has a long history with cyclones. The location of India in the north Indian
Ocean makes it vulnerable to the tropical cyclone
 In 2019-20, India witnessed multiple cyclones including Amphan, Nisarga,
Nivar, etc.

Types of Cyclones:
1. Tropical Cyclone - The storms that originate over a warm tropical ocean are
termed as tropical cyclones. Parts of the Atlantic region, Pacific Ocean, Indian
ocean witness tropical cyclones affecting Gulf Coast of North America, north
western Australia, and eastern India and Bangladesh along with other areas

2. Temperate Cyclone - These are storms that occur outside the tropics. They
occur in polar regions, temperate and high latitudes

Cyclone Disaster Management

Mitigation Measures
The mitigation measures as proposed by the UN-HABITAT are given below:

1. Hazard Mapping – It suggests that using hazard mapping, one can predict the
vulnerable areas affected by the storms

2. Land use planning – With the effective implementation of land use planning,
the key activities and settlements can be avoided in the most vulnerable areas.
For example, a settlement in the floodplains is at utmost risk. Hence, authorities
should plan ahead to avoid such risks

3. Engineered Structures – These structures withstand the wind forces and

prove to mitigate the losses. The public infrastructure of the country should be
designed keeping in mind the hazard mapping of the cyclone

4. Retrofitting Non-Engineered Structures – The settlements in non-

engineered structures should ensure that they are aware of their houses’ resistance
to the wind or certain disastrous weather conditions

5. Cyclone Sheltering – At national, state and regional level, the construction of

cyclone shelters should be taken up to help the vulnerable community from
cyclones
6. Flood Management – As the cyclonic storms lead to heavy rainfall that further
lead to flooding in various areas; important should be given to the flood
management

7. Vegetation Cover Improvement – To increase the water infiltration capacity,

improving vegetation cover is of high importance

8. Mangrove Plantation – The ecologically-efficient mangroves should be

planted more. India has 3 per cent of the world’s mangroves cover. The root
systems of mangroves help in mitigating tsunamis, soil erosion etc.

9. Awareness of the public – The participation of the community increases with

the number of public awareness initiatives. The governments at all levels should
initiate programs bringing awareness about the natural calamities and making
provisions for higher local participation in the mitigation process

India’s Cyclone Disaster Management Initiatives

1. National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project - India initiated this project to
undertake structural and non-structural measures to mitigate the cyclone’s effects.

2. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project - In August 2019, a

draft of Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for
integrated coastal management was released by the Ministry of Environment,
Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC)

3. Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) – The CRZ Notification 2018 and 2019
bring new reforms w.r.t sustainable development of coastal areas

4. MD’s Colour Coding of Cyclones - It is a weather warning that is issued by

the IMD to aware people ahead of natural hazards
5. In December 2020, IMD’s DG announced the introduction of a dynamic
and impact-based cyclonic warning system. IMD will work with
NDMA, INCOIS and various state governments to successfully introduce this
system.

Disaster Management of Landslides

 Over 12% of the area is prone to landslides in India
 Landslides and their consequences are still a great problem for many
countries, particularly in India due to rapidly increasing populations
 The most recent example is of Kerala
 For this reason, landslide hazard zonation mapping serves as one of the many
components in an integrated disaster management planning

Role of zonal mapping in mitigating landslides

1. Identifying vulnerable areas: By keeping a focus on these areas, authorities

can be well prepared to handle sudden crises.

o For Ex: Mountain slopes with no vegetation are the most vulnerable to
landslides. In addition, high rainfall aids landslides.

2. Relocation of human settlement: Saving human lives is at the core of disaster

mitigation exercise. In this regard, the role of preparedness becomes of utmost
importance. The human population vulnerable due to landslides can be relocated
to safer regions.

o For Ex: Houses present on mountain slopes need to be relocated in order to

protect them from landslides.
3. Creating awareness: The threat of disasters like landslides cannot be handled
by authorities alone. The citizen participation will ensure that they will not be
immediately affected by the landslide. In this regard, authorities have to make
people aware of the threat and also techniques to protect themselves. Ex: Mock
drills.

4. Capacity building: The infrastructure needs to be built well in advance in

order to tackle any sudden disasters. The people handling operations must be
trained to handle any kind of crisis. Ex: Rescue operation training

Environmental Movements
 Environmental movement is a type of social movement that involves an array
of individuals, groups and coalitions that perceive a common interest in
environmental protection and act to bring about changes in environmental
policies and practices
 The genesis of environmental movement in India can be traced back to the
early twentieth century when people protested against the commercialization
of forest resources during the British colonial period

A. Chipko Movement:

 The Chipko movement was a non-violent agitation in 1973 that was aimed at
the protection and conservation of trees.
 It is best remembered for the collective mobilisation of women for the cause
of preserving forests, which also brought about a change in attitude regarding
their own status in society
 The name of the movement ‘chipko’ comes from the word ’embrace’, as the
villagers hugged the trees and encircled them to prevent being hacked

B. Silent Valley Movement:

 Silent Valley Movement in Kerala was against the construction of a

hydroelectric dam on the river Kunthipuzha under the Kudremukh project

C. Bishnoi Movement:

 It was led by Amrita Devi in which around 363 people sacrificed their lives
for the protection of their forests
 This movement was the first of its kind to have developed the strategy of
hugging or embracing the trees for their protection spontaneously
 Environmental Ethics
 Environmental ethics inculcate a precious code in the individuals and societies
 It is ought to be developed in each person, to command him/her as a force
from within to make decisions and take actions on the different aspects of
the environment which are not harmful to the local, national and
international community
 The ethics command us not to endanger the health of an individual and
communities, but to serve as a proud and honest person in the service of
humanity

Religion and Environmental Ethics

 Until very recently, the role of our cultural and spiritual heritages in
environmental protection and sustainable development was ignored by
international bodies, national governments, policy planners, and even
environmentalists
 Spiritual dimension, if introduced in the process of environmental policy
planning, administration, education, and law, could help create a self-
consciously moral society which would put conservation and respect for
God’s creation first, and relegate individualism, materialism, and our modern
desire to dominate nature in a subordinate place
 World religions, each in their own way, offer a unique set of moral values and
rules to guide human beings in their relationship with the environment
 In the context of environmental protection, cultures, religions and legal
systems throughout the world contain elements that respect and seek to
conserve the natural bases of life, maintaining concepts that can enhance and
enrich the development of modern environmental law