STRAND/SECTION: HUMSS 11-A

GROUP NUMBER: 9

TITLE: NO TO FAKE NEWS: HOW STUDENT LEADERS VALIDATE INFORMATION ON

SOCIAL MEDIA

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The purpose of the literature review of this study is to provide a general overview of the major

topics discussed in the paper such as fake news and social media. Also, to bring better

comprehension in analyzing its effects to the student leaders in the Philippines by using

categorical or topical format. Each major topic has their corresponding sub-topics to further

enlighten the readers.

1.Fake News

1.1 Definition of Fake News

According to Michigan Library (2021) fake news is a term with a variety of definitions

depending on the experience of a person or a certain context. However, it is widely known as

false stories that are fabricated with no reliable and accurate sources. Usually, these stories or

information are biased, made to favor a certain individual or institution. It also mentioned that

fake news can be a source of profit for some. Moving on, fake news has a larger scope to be

discovered, it is not just simply false stories. Some news labeled to be false are those which

have verifiable sources but are often one-sided and written for provocation. To further broaden

our knowledge, terms like misinformation and disinformation were coined concerning fake news.
 Misinformation is a term that refers to fallacious or imprecise information that is

accidentally created and distributed. This is not done to deceive. For example, the

misinformation about the war that is happening in Ukraine and Russia. Since, people are hungry

for details they tend to jump to conclusions instantly. According to Holroyd (2022) unrelated

videos of the explosion had been circulating the twitter hours after Russia invaded Ukraine. One

of the videos showed a blast explosion that falsely claimed it happened in a Ukrainian City.

However, the footage was taken way back in August 2015 in Tianjin, China. A benign user, who

saw the video can retweet it to inform his or her social media friends or followers (Wu,

Morstatter, Carley, & Liu, n.d.).

On the other hand, disinformation is a term used for false information that is intentionally

produced and spread to influence public opinion and to conceal the truth (Michigan Library,

2021). Additionally, Bunchanan (2020) introduced terms such as organic reach and heuristics

concerning disinformation. The phenomenon of organic reach happens when the algorithm of a

social network increases the visibility of a post by a simple like from a social media user. While

the term heuristics is the mental shortcut that enables a person to decide instantly without

proper judgment. This is linked to how people process the characteristics of certain information.

With this being mentioned, consistency, consensus, and authority also enter the frame and they

are labeled as the factors that can affect disinformation. To begin with, consistency is the range

wherein a person often shares something related to his or her previous beliefs. While

consensus encompasses the way people think that their behavior would be aligned with

everybody else by sharing the same content of information, that is a trend for everyone. Lastly,

the term authority is used to describe the extent to wherein credibility and the legitimacy of the

source are concerned.

1.2 History of Fake News

 False news already emerged earlier than social media. (Center for Information

Technology & Society, n.d.). One example is the 1475 event wherein a child named Simonino

went missing in Italy. A Franciscan preacher named ‘Bernardino da Feltre’ voiced out sermons

stating that the Jewish community executed the child, extracted and collected his blood then

drank it to celebrate Passover. Rumors ignited, and the preacher added more fuel to it by

claiming that the body was found in the basement of a Jewish house. Due to those statements,

the Prince-Bishop during that time made an immediate action to capture and torture all the Jews

in the community. In the early times, fake news was commonly linked to or depicted as

sensationalism.

During the 19th century, to boost the sales of tabloids, people in the field of media

tended to involve sensationalism in their articles. People believe that sensationalism is a

method to use in provoking excitement and capturing the interest of readers, regardless of

whether the information they’re sharing is accurate or not. One famous example is when “The

Great Moon Hoax” was published by The New York Sun on August 25, 1835. A six series of

articles that depicted and claimed the disclosure of life on the moon. Involving creatures like

two-legged beavers, furry-winged humanoids like bats, and unicorns. The articles also illustrate

how the moon contains large craters, vast crystals, flowing rivers, and abundant green plants. It

triggered the excitement of the readers and got so invested in the article to the point that even a

committee scientist of Yale University had been misled. Consequently, on the 16th day of

September 1835, the Sun disclosed that the articles were full of hoaxes (History, 2022).

In 1890, the term ‘yellow journalism’ became established in the field of newspapers.

This was due to the influence of two competing publishers during that time- Joseph Pulitzer and

William Hearts. To gain more audience and popularity they used sensationalism and reported

rumors as if they were facts. This plays a pivotal role in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

Eventually, people become more skeptical and they start to demand justifiable and credible

sources. This paves the way for the New York Times to replenish and build the integrity of
journalism. Entering the 20th century, yellow journalism became less prominent, until web-based

news brought it all back in full force in recent years.

1.3 Fake News in present times

The form of fake news may change over the years, especially with the involvement of

evolution, but its purpose is still somehow linked to the past. During the 1890s newspapers and

tabloids resorted to sensationalism and yellow journalism to have many audiences and gain

much profit. In this present year, fake news creators almost share the same motivation.

However, certain distinctions can be noticeable when we compare what is fake news then and

now. The first distinction relies on the producer and distributor. Usually, in the past decades,

publishing companies are always at fault in this matter. But during the contemporary period,

individuals with such ideological interests can be the ones to propagate and spread false

information. Next, the objective of fake news may also vary, as to using information distortion

intentionally for entertainment purposes only for such a certain period. Lastly, the evolution of

the medium used for information-sharing is one of their ultimate distinctions. In the early

centuries, verbal or spoken false information was well-known alongside print-based articles, but

this contemporary generation gave birth to the usage of social media.

University of Victoria (2022), claimed that social media has become one of the primary

sources of false information in this modern generation. To further elaborate, PDST in Education

(n.d.) listed clickbait, propaganda, satire/parody, and biased or slanted news as examples of

false or misleading types of news online

1.4 Impact of Fake News in the Society

Besides, Fake news is also deemed with a wide range of impact to an individual and to

the society itself even before the pandemic started. But it becomes much more viewed when the

proclamation of lockdown in Southeast Asian countries takes effect that increases the utilization
of social media that leads to the abundant accumulation and distribution of false information

(Dang, 2021). According to the Word Health Organization Director-General, Tedros Adhanom

Ghebreyesus “Fake news spread faster than this virus”. In relation to this statement Blancaflor

(2021) claimed that COVID-19 pandemic is strongly linked with the internet and social media.

Thus, wrong information pertaining to the subject matter will cause panic, doubt, behavioral

change, and it can even worsen the transmission of the disease in the society.

Along with this, a study done by Loughborough Online Civic Culture Centre in 2019

reported that 42.8 percent of information distributors lay out inaccurate or false news as their

medium for expressing their opinion, and for the purpose of informing and influencing the

community (University of Derby, 2022). The most common false information recorded in the

Philippines this pandemic is about the symptoms, origins, diagnosis, preventive and treatment

measures regarding the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19). While, the second most prominent

fake news in the said area pertains to how the government addresses and promotes their health

regulations. One instance that shows the impact of fake news on the society is the previous

unnecessary hoarding and panic buying of the citizen in response to the fake news concerning

the COVID-19 lockdown (Siar, 2021).

Furthermore, the impact of fake news has been stretching out even in the political world.

The Philippines is a democratic country that uses an electoral system in politics. Which means

that the voice and perceptions of the public really matters. This leads to the introduction of

“image-based politics”. Wherein politicians seek to appear righteous to the eyes of the mass by

discrediting their political rival. Discrediting by the means of presenting false information that

could tarnish the reputation of their contenders (Ong & Cabañes, 2019).

2. Social Media
2.1 Definition of Social Media

According to Mendoza, Deinla, and Yap (2021), this will prove that online campaigning

platforms such as social media will play a huge role in shaping the voter’s mind in this upcoming

election. Moreover, social media is made up of a variety of user-driven platforms that allow the

propagating of appealing content, the production of debate, and communication with a larger

audience (Kapoor, Tamilmani, & Rana, 2018). It is essentially a digital area made by and for the

people, and it creates a conducive atmosphere for interactions and networking to occur at

personal, professional, business, political, and societal levels (Bishop M. 2019).

According to Miller, Costa, and Haynes (2016), social media has colonized the area

between traditional broadcast and private dyadic communication, allowing people to

communicate in groups of varying sizes and levels of privacy, which we call "scalable sociality."

In support of this, a study conducted by Trottier and Fuchs in 2015, emphasized that when

studying the nature of social media, the focal point will be one of three types of sociality which

are cognition, communication, and cooperation. To further elaborate, cognition is concerned with

shared knowledge that gives the general public access to similar material. While foregrounding

communication draws emphasis on social relations and interactions made digitally. Then,

cooperation is concerned with interdependent actions or collaboration online that lead to

community goals and objectives.

2.2 History of Social Media

People have been communicating throughout our history from just simple letters to

sending emails and messages with the help of the internet. The evolution of social media

changes at a very fast pace, from just exchanging messages to seeing each other in video calls

which is now profoundly used in means of education. Social media has been long used in

history. Sites like Facebook are one example of social media that is popular today but social

media had existed even long before with the aim of convenience in communication. Looking
back, thousands of years ago written letters were exchanged from one person to another. It is

one of the first few techniques of communicating beyond far distances. The history of the postal

service was traced as far as 550 B.C. In 1792 the first telegraph was introduced. The telegraph

messages were short yet very useful, their invention changed how things work, and they

revolutionized a new and faster way of communication. A pneumatic post was invented in 1865,

it provided a new alternative way for letters to have faster means of delivery. In the 19th century,

two important inventions were introduced: the telephone in 1890 and the radio in 1891.

In the following century, technology went extremely fast in innovation. In the 1940s

supercomputers were created and eventually paved the way for the creation of the Internet. In

the '60s, the Internet's first versions, such as CompuServe, were introduced. During this time,

older versions of email are also getting developed. By the 1970s, networking technology had

grown too fast which enabled UseNet to launch in 1979 permitted users to connect via a virtual

newsletter. In 1987, the National Science Foundation established the NSFNET, a more capable,

massive digital network that provided the direct predecessor to the latest version of the internet.

Meanwhile, all through 1997, the original social networking site was created and this

inspired the first social media networks to bloom. In addition, when Web 2.0 came, social media

made a huge difference. In the twenty-first century, social media sites such as blogs started to

grant its users to socialize with other users in video calls or sometimes called virtual meetings.

After the improvement of blogging, social media took a wide turn in its popularity. Furthermore,

due to the dynamics Web 2.0 provided, features of social media such as liking, creating, and

posting any information have been lit. Social media users can also select their audience, it can

be a small group like their friends or it can be the public around the world.

2.3 Present status and the impact of social media to the Society

The utilization of social media has become part of the day-to-day life of individuals. It is a

useful tool for communicating, as well as for sharing, creating, and circulating information.
According to Kemp (2022), the following are some of the important findings from the global

outlook of Datareportal as of January 2022 about how social media is now used by more than

half of the world's population. Around the world, 4.62 billion individuals use social media, with

424 million new users joining in the last year.

In the Philippine context, as of January 2022, 92.05 million Filipinos were reported to be

social media users. With an average of 83.85 million Facebook users and 52.50 million YouTube

users. Instagram users are 18.65 million, Twitter users are 10.5 million, and 35.96 million are

TikTok users. This just supports the claim of Just Look Upgrade (2018) that social media has a

huge role in Philippine society. Mainly in the aspects of business, education, and

communication.

2.4 Impact of Fake News to Social Media

Social media changes the way we view information. Oftentimes, a trusted media outlet or

journalist follows a certain code of conduct before they could even publish a story. However, due

to the involvement of the internet and social media, just one click is enough to produce and

spread information that can be viewed by many. To support this claim, research conducted by

Paglinawan (2020) proves that students at Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (NDDU) in the

Philippines have been exposed to a variety of media for both leisure and socialization. People

are blogging, reading online articles, watching, streaming online videos, and virtual chatting as a

result of this exposure. During the quick field assessment, it was discovered that the student's

extensive screen time exposure and engagement with online media had gradually resulted in a

variety of academic, social, and interpersonal communication issues. As a result of their

exposure to online media, students are more likely to spread false information, such as rumored

class cancellations and unofficial holidays. According to experts, excessive social media

exposure and activity can have a significant impact on one's life such as worsening social

conflict due to incorrect judgments and misinformation directed to their peers.

3. Student Leaders

3.1 Definition of Student Leaders

Student leaders which are considered to be learners are placed at a higher risk due to

fake news. It is important to also understand their background. Student leaders are individuals

who have the power to influence crucial decisions regarding the quality of education and the

learning environment. Influencing major decisions necessitates listening, valuing, and

incorporating student proposed ideas. Moreover, According to the National University of

Singapore (2022), student leaders are also a trailblazer as they are willing to take risks and

venture into the unknown. They are always looking for new ways to change, grow, and improve.

They are honest with themselves and others, and they have the moral courage to stand up for

what they believe in or what they believe is right. Because their followers can see that they

practice what they preach and they will set a good example.

Overall, the commitment to action of a student leader is critical not only for developing as

a leader but also for earning the respect of others. For instance, taking risks, and participating in

meaningful service, experiences, and activities are all examples of leadership. Student leaders

earn the right and respect to lead as a result of their active participation and performance (Loeb,

1999). Student leadership, according to various theories, models, and experts, begins with

self-awareness, a desire to model change, and a willingness to collaborate with others to

achieve a common goal. (Wagner, 2011).

3.2 Origin of Student Leaders

According to Hunt and Feydynich (2018), leadership is a huge concept that needs

various methodologies to be explored thoroughly. The early theories about leadership were

formulated during the expansion and industrial revolution. They deemed leaders to be people

with great personalities and heroic figures such as Caesar, Napoleon, Nelson, and Mao Zedong.

In much earlier times, leaders were the ones who governed the tribes and were at the front line
of doing tasks such as hunting or protecting their community through war. But today, leaders

take a new form, they are more diplomatic and often at the top such as presidents.

Moving forward, a study conducted by Channing (2020), argues that leadership

attributes can be innate, at the same time they can also be learned. She mentioned that

classroom leadership gives students a fair chance to practice and understand various theories

and principles about leadership. In a more specific context regarding this claim, various school

organizations that promote student leadership were introduced. On June 30, 2011, the

Department of Education widened leadership to not only be limited to the classroom but the

whole institution must be involved. Having this as their primary goal, they issued the programs,

projects, and activities to be executed by the Supreme Student Government (SSG). With the

involvement of good governance, volunteerism, unity, and cooperation as the organization’s

foundation.

3.3 Purpose of Student Leaders

As stated by Ioánna Lyssiotis (2021), schools come in a variety of sizes and shapes,

with different resources, but one resource that all schools have is students. Students can have a

significant influence on culture and the strengthening of educational ties. Meanwhile, student

leaders aim to foster a sense of ownership, collaboration, and community in the classroom.

Student leadership development helps to enhance skills that can be applied as adults. In

support of this claim, the main objective of SSG according to the memorandum issued by the

Department of Education is to train learners to become progressive individuals that will turn to

be professionals in the future who obtain democracy and good citizenship as their main driving

force. Also, student leaders are expected to lead by example in terms of behavior, attitude, and

ideals, as well as serve as ambassadors for their peers. Additionally, students who demonstrate

leadership strength will surround themselves with the best people for the job, learn to delegate

authority, and demand results, act as role models they expect of others.
3.4 Impact of Social Media and Fake News to Student Leaders

According to a poll done by the Programme for International Student Assessment, with

increased access to social media, children and young people are more likely to read and believe

misleading news. Statistics made by Talkwalker (2017) claimed that the combined age bracket

of 13 to 24 years old accumulated 66.5% of the Philippines' total social media users. Having

said that, Filipino teenagers are among the most vulnerable to false information. Fake news is a

risk to technological advancement and networking because it occurs at any time. Since

teenagers are active on social media sites, they can see various viral posts and pictures, which

affects their attitude towards life.

Going back, since Williams (n.d.) stated student leaders are always linked with public

relations and asserted the claim that social media and fake news can impact leadership, a study

done by Gayeta (2021) claimed that there is an observable effect of social media on public

relations practice because it provides the opportunity to reach a large portion of society's target

audience. Moving on, fake news has a broad appeal on the internet, and many people may trust

it since it is presented in a realistic style. Students and young people are more sensitive to

misinformation or disinformation and viral posts because according to the study done by

Moneva, Yaun, and Desabille (2020) they are primarily focused on the appearance of

information rather than its content. Fake news encourages students to make up reasons to

dismiss and misunderstand the thoughts of others, exaggerate the truth and spread rumors. In

schools where students are caustic and unsure of whom to trust, this might result in division and

formulation of anxiety and confusion (WritingBros, 2020).

Final Synthesis or Summary:

The review of related literature of the study NO TO FAKE NEWS: HOW STUDENT

LEADERS VALIDATE INFORMATION ON SOCIAL MEDIA is divided into three major topics

which are fake news, social media, and student leaders. The following major topics have been
combined with unique definitions, examples, and their histories. To further provide an

enlightenment to the holistic concept of our paper, this chapter also strives to show the

relationships between each major topic alongside their present status and impact on society.

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