Abcg4203 Modul

ABCG4203
Politics and the Media
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABCG4203
POLITICS AND THE
MEDIA
Assoc Prof Dr Ali Salman
Prof Emeritus Dr Samsudin A Rahim
Assoc Prof Dr Balan Rathakrishnan

Project Director: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Ali Salman

Prof Emeritus Dr Samsudin A Rahim
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Assoc Prof Dr Balan Rathakrishnan

Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Moderator: Prof Dr Rahmah Hashim
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, April 2017

Copyright © Open University Malaysia, April 2017, ABCG4203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvi
Topic 1 Introduction to Media and Politics 1

1.1 Defining the Concept of Media 2
1.2 Media Systems 2
1.3 Theories of Media Systems 3
1.3.1 Authoritarian Theory 4
1.3.2 Free Press Theory 5
1.3.3 Social Responsibility Theory 5
1.3.4 Soviet Media Theory 6
1.3.5 Development Media Theory 6
1.3.6 Democratic Participant Media Theory 7
1.3.7 Post Scripts on Press Theory 8
1.4 Concepts in the Political System 9
1.4.1 Political System from the Marxist Perspective 9
1.4.2 Political System from the Capitalist Industrialist 10
View
1.4.3 Monarchy 11
1.4.4 Power 12
1.4.5 Control and Freedom 12
1.4.6 Developmental Politics 13
Summary 14
Key Terms 15
References 15
Topic 2 The Relationship between Media and Politics 17

2.1 What is a Political System? 18
2.2 What is a Media System? 19
2.3 The Relationship between the Media System and Political 19
System: Theoretical Perspectives
2.3.1 Authoritarian Theory 20
2.3.2 Soviet Communist Theory 21
2.3.3 Libertarian Theory 22
2.3.4 Social Responsibility Theory 23
2.3.5 Developmental Theory 23
2.3.6 Democratic Participant Theory 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4 The Relationship between Media and Politics: The 25

Historical Perspective
2.4.1 Media and Politics in Developed Countries 27
2.4.2 Media and Politics in the Communist System 28
2.4.3 Media and Politics in Developing Countries 30
2.4.4 Pluralistic Approach to Media and Politics 31
Summary 33
Key Terms 35
References 35
Topic 3 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 37

Historical Perspectives
3.1 Mass Media Development and British Colonisation 38
3.1.1 The Vernacular Newspapers 39
3.2 The Role of Mass Media during British Colonisation 40
3.2.1 The Role of Newspapers 40
3.2.2 The Role of Radio Broadcasting Services 42
3.3 Mass Media during the Japanese Occupation 43
3.3.1 Japanese Alliance with Kesatuan Melayu 44
3.3.2 Aftermath of the Japanese Invasion 44
3.4 Mass Media and Politics: Pre-Independence 45
3.4.1 Independence from the British in 1957 46
Summary 47
Key Terms 48
References 49
Topic 4 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 50

Theoretical Perspectives
4.1 Mass Society, Politics and the Media 51
4.1.1 The Concept of Mass and Mass Society 52
4.1.2 The Concept of Politics and Mass Society 53
4.1.3 The Concept of Mass Media 53
4.1.4 Mass Media and Mass Society 54
4.1.5 Mass Media as Mass Communication 55
4.2 Media Theories 56
4.2.1 Media Dependency Theory 56
4.2.2 The Effects of Media Message 58
4.2.3 Political Economy Media Theory 61
4.2.4 Hegemony Theory of Media 62
Summary 64
Key Terms 66
References 66

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Media and Mediation Function 68

5.1 The Concept of Mediation in Media and Politics 69
5.1.1 Mass Media Function in Democratic Society 70
5.1.2 Mass Media and Public Opinion 71
5.1.3 Mass Media and Agenda Setting 72
5.2 Mass Media and Social Institutions 73
5.2.1 Mass Media and National Development 73
5.2.2 Mass Media and Social Integration 74
5.3 Hegemony Theory of Mass Media and Political 75
Organisations
5.3.1 Mass Media and Political Parties 76
5.3.2 Mass Media and Non-governmental Organisations 77
5.3.3 Mass Media and Governmental Organisations 78
Summary 79
Key Terms 80
References 81
Topic 6 Electronic, Print and New Media: Their Position in a Political 82

System
6.1 Defining the Concept of Mass Media 83
6.2 Electronic Media and Political System 84
6.2.1 The Concept of Electronic Media and the 84
Electronic Media Organisation
6.2.2 The Politics of Electronic Media 85
6.3 The Print Media and Political System 85
6.3.1 The Politics of Print Media 86
6.3.2 The Power of Static Media 87
6.4 Politics and the Political Press 88
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership 88
6.4.2 The Structure and Power of Political Press 89
6.4.3 The Element of Political Press 89
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-identify 89
6.5 Media, Government and Political Parties 90
6.5.1 The Nature of Relationship between the Mass Media 90
and the Government
6.5.2 The Types of Relationship between the Mass Media 91
and Political Parties
Summary 92
Key Terms 93
References 94

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Mass Media and Propaganda 96

7.1 Defining Propaganda 97
7.2 Political Propaganda 98
7.3 Types of Political Propaganda 99
7.3.1 Bandwagon 99
7.3.2 Name-calling 100
7.3.3 Endorsement 101
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities 101
7.3.5 Stacked Cards 102
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks 102
7.3.7 Fear 103
7.4 Propaganda Theories in the 1930s 103
7.4.1 Behaviourism 103
7.4.2 Freudianism 104
7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory 104
7.4.4 LasswellÊs Propaganda Theory 105
7.5 Mass Media as Tools for Political Propaganda 106
7.5.1 Power of the Mass Media 106
7.6 Mass Media and General Election 107
7.7 Smart Partnership: News and the Political 108
Communication Process
7.7.1 The Rise of Internet Usage in the Communication 109
Process
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in the 109
News and Political Communication Process
7.8 Mass Media and Political Consensus 110
7.8.1 The Role of the Media in Political Consensus 111
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus 111
7.9 Mass Media, Conflict and Political Participation 112
7.9.1 Functions of the Media in Conflicts and Peace 112
Building
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace 113
Promoter
Summary 114
Key Terms 115
References 115

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 8 Media and Politics: The Process 117

8.1 The Media and Gatekeepers 118
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation 118
8.2 Functions of the Editorial 119
8.3 Censorship 120
8.3.1 Political Censorship 121
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia 121
8.4 Politics of Advertisement and the Media 122
8.5 Political Journalism and the Media 124
8.5.1 The Nature of Political Journalism 124
8.6 The Elements of Political Journalism 126
8.6.1 Political Organisations 127
8.6.2 Audience 128
8.6.3 Media 129
8.7 Politics of the Front Page 129
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages 130
8.8 Prime Time News 131
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News 131
Summary 132
Key Terms 133
References 133
Topic 9 Media Politics and Globalisation 136

9.1 Globalisation 137
9.1.1 Globalisation and Socio-cultural Transformation 138
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation 141
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation 142
9.2 Globalisation and the Media System 143
9.3 New Media and Politics 144
Summary 146
Key Terms 147
References 147
Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and 149

Politics
10.1 Politics 150
10.2 Impact Study of Political Information in the Media 151
10.2.1 Types of Methods 151
10.2.2 Evaluation Process 152
10.2.3 The Usage and Function of Impact Analysis 152

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.3 Content Analysis 153

10.3.1 The Value of Content Analysis to the Political 154
Process
10.3.2 Types of Content Analysis 155
10.4 General Methods and Process of Content Analysis 156
Summary 157
Key Terms 158
References 158

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABCG4203 Politics and the Media is one of the courses offered at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be
covered over 10 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Communication
programme. This module aims to introduce learners to the close relationship
between media and politics, how media is used to determine trends and patterns
in the political direction of a country. Learners will also learn about the theories
of media to explain the nature of relationship between politics and the media.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
be able to optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before
you begin this course, please confirm that you have the correct course material,
be familiar with the course requirements and understand how the course is
conducted.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 15
Online Participation 10
Revision 10
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the relationship between media and politics, the roles of media
and the roles of politics;
2. Explain the relationship between media and politics using different models
of media systems;
3. Perform a critical analysis of the nature of the relationship between media

and politics and its impact on the political and media systems; and
4. Handle issues related to politics and the media responsively and

responsibly.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the concepts of media and politics, focussing on the concept of
media and media systems. Theories of media systems are highlighted. Various
concepts in the political system are also discussed to equip learners with
knowledge of the complementary roles of media and politics.
Topic 2 addresses the relationship between the media system and political
system, from the theoretical and historical perspectives. The topic also describes
the nature of media and politics in the developed and developing countries,
including the use of post-colonial and pluralistic approaches.
Topic 3 discusses the historical perspective of the relationships between media

and politics in Malaysia. The discussion centres on mass media development and
British colonisation, British colonialism and the rise of mass media. The role of
mass media during the British colonisation, Japanese occupation, and pre-
independence period are also discussed.
Topic 4 examines the relationship between media and politics from the
theoretical perspectives of mass society, politics and media; the various concepts
of society, mass society and mass media. The three theories of media, namely
media dependency, political economy media theory and hegemony theory, are
also discussed.
Topic 5 outlines the concept of mediation, media and politics. The relationship
between mass media, social institutions, and political organisations is also
covered. Among the pertinent areas covered are mass mediaÊs function in a
democratic society, mass media and public opinion, mass media and agenda
setting, mass media and political parties, and mass media and non-governmental
as well as governmental organisations.
Topic 6 explains the position of electronic, print and new media in the political
system. Media, government and political parties are the main focus of this topic.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 7 discusses the issue of propaganda, focussing on mass media as tools of

political propaganda, including the role of media in general elections. Other
subtopics that are highlighted include smart partnership; news and the political
communication process; mass media and political consensus; mass media,
conflict and political participation.
Topic 8 discusses the role of gatekeepers in relation to media ownership

and political affiliation, editorial functions, censorship and the politics of
advertisement and the media. This topic also discusses political journalism,
including the nature of political journalism, the elements of political journalism,
the politics of the front page, editorials and the editorial page; the significance of
prime time news and the politics of protocol in prime time news.
Topic 9 focuses on media, politics and globalisation encompassing socio-cultural,

technological, political and economic transformation as a consequence of
globalisation.
Topic 10 discusses the study of media and politics, focusing on methods and
processes used to conduct impact studies of political information on the
audience. The topic also discusses content analysis with particular reference to
the value of content analysis on the political process.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE
REFERENCES
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. New York,
NY: Free Press.
Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

(3rd ed.). Ibadan, Nigeria: Bakinfol.
Khan, M. A. (2016). Multinational enterprise management strategies in

developing countries. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Lasswell, H. D., Lerner, D., & Pool, I. S. (1952). The comparative study of
symbols: An introduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Macionis, J. J. (2009). Culture, society: The basics (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. London,

England: Sage.
McQuail, D. (2010). McQuailÊs mass communication theory (6th ed.). London,

England: Sage.
Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(17), 31ă41.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Introduction to
Media and
1 Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concepts of media and politics;
2. Describe media systems and their components;
3. Identify the four main normative theories and the two additions;
4. Discuss the relationship and differences between the normative
theories; and
5. Discuss the role of politics and government in the media system.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce the concepts of media and politics. Through the first
discussion, you are expected to understand the meaning of media and media
system. You will also be exposed to the various normative theories of the press
and their relationship with the political system. The aim is to equip you with
knowledge of the operations of the press within the political system.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA AND POLITICS
1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MEDIA

What is media? Media is the main means of mass communication. Media means
technology that is intended to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of
communication used to reach the vast majority of the general public. Television,
radio, newspapers, and the Internet are regarded collectively as media. Media is
thus communication channels through which news, entertainment, education,
data, or promotional messages are disseminated. Media includes every
broadcasting and narrowcasting medium, such as newspapers, magazines, TV,
radio, billboards, direct mail, telephone, fax and the Internet.
With the advent of the Internet, media can be classified into two:
(a) Traditional media, which includes television, radio, newspapers,

magazines, newsletters and other print publications; and
(b) Social media, which is the term used to describe the new generation of
digital, computerised, or networked information and communication
technologies. These can take many different forms, including Internet
forums, blogs, wikis, podcasts, and picture, music and video sharing.
Examples of social media applications are Google Groups, Wikipedia,
MySpace, Facebook, YouTube, Second Life, Flickr and Twitter.
1.2 MEDIA SYSTEMS

The term „media system‰, although frequently used in subject literature, does
not possess a normative or a clear-cut, unambiguous definition so far (Gurevitch,
Bennett, Curran & Woollacott, 2005). The media system, as an internally
complex, autonomous entity being part of a greater whole, such as a country, is
also treated as a system (Wieslaw, 2009).
The term media system was first developed with the onset of television, which
resulted in great changes in the reception of mass media communication, also
influencing the economic basis of its functioning (Gurevitch et al., 2005). The
media system is composed of institutional structures and final products, which
recipients use directly and frequently as they are addressed to them
(newspapers, journals, radio and TV programmes) as well as entities (such as
press agencies and distributors), with which people are less familiar but which,
nevertheless, are crucial to the functioning of the media system.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA AND POLITICS  3
A media systemÊs character is dependent on the primal market or the relations

between media broadcasters, recipients and the advertising market (advertisers,
and advertising agencies) as well as on the secondary market, which includes the
connections between broadcasters and media institutions and also the owners of
media entities (Wieslaw, 2009).
1.3 THEORIES OF MEDIA SYSTEMS

Normative theories of communication is a group of four press theories proposed
by Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (1963) and comprise Authoritarian, Free Press,
Social Responsibility and Soviet Media (see Figure 1.1). Some scholars refer to
these theories as Western theories of mass media.
Figure 1.1: Four press theories
Media does not exist in a vacuum and normative theories try to explain how the
socio-political structures that surround media affect its expected roles, freedom
and accountabilities. This theory explains how media systems behave when
operated by different kinds of government, such as libertarian, authoritarian,
communist and socially responsible government. Normative theories are
therefore based on different types of government systems. Media is important for

states to survive and depending on the particular government, can be used in the
way the government of the day wants to. Some of these uses include using the
media as propaganda machinery.
Later additions to the four theories of the press including development media
theory and democratic participant media theory, which were added by McQuail
(1987). The development media theory talks about participation of audience in
the media while the latter focuses on the media as a tool for development.
1.3.1 Authoritarian Theory

Authoritarian theory was developed in the 16th and 17th centuries, in England.
The authoritarian theory was operationalised as strict control of content by the
state and a general lack of freedom for the public to criticise state policies. Under
an authoritarian media system, ownership of the media can be either public or
private. Ownership of printing media is mostly private, while broadcast media
usually remain in the hands of the government.
The authoritarian theory describes the situation where states view the mass
media as an instrument at all times. The role of the media is to mainly educate
citizens, and act as a propaganda tool for the ruling party.
The main difference between the authoritarian theory and the Soviet-Communist
theory is that while the former allows both private and public media ownership,
the latter only allows public media ownership. Another difference is that while
the authoritarian media is mainly used to maintain societal status quo, a Soviet-
Communist media is often used to bring about societal change. Countries whose
media are practising the authoritarian theory include Russia, North Korea,
China, Iran and Saudi Arabia.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. What is authoritarian theory?
2. Describe the differences between the authoritarian theory and the

Soviet-Communist theory.

1.3.2 Free Press Theory

The free press theory, which is also known as libertarian theory concludes that
media or press is given absolute freedom to publish without interference and it
also acts as a watchdog. The theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe
during the 16th century, after the invention of the printing press and after the
press movement. Among the advocates of this theory are renowned personalities
like John Locke, John Milton, John Stuart Mill and Thomas Jefferson. This theory
is said to thrive in England and the US.
The public is given a lot of press freedom and government control over press is
very much limited if not absent. However, some restrictions are put in place in
cases of libel, false advertising and false news as preventive measures against the
likely abuse of the freedom. The press is an autonomous body rather than
another arm or extension of the government.
1.3.3 Social Responsibility Theory

As the name implies, the press in this political system is free to publish anything
as long as it is responsible for its publication. At present, the social responsibility
theory is practised in most European countries and those countries under the
European influence.
The main role of the press is for the preservation and growth of democracy.
Adhering to guidelines and regulations makes the press behave in a responsible
manner. Governments have the right to intervene by censoring information they
deem to be inappropriate for social order.
Audiences are tasked with the duty of being responsible in their understanding
of things shown in media. The government cannot simply intrude too much into
the press as it wills.
Media is taken to be a spokesperson of the poor and marginalised as well as

providing diverse views or perspectives. Corporation or companies using press
for commercialisation and profit purposes are only allowed limited space.

1.3.4 Soviet Media Theory

This theory originated from Marxist, Leninist and Stalinist thoughts, with a
mixture of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich HegelÊs ideology. It is called the Soviet
Media Theory or Communist Media Theory. The governmentÊs role in the press
and media is very central as it controls the total media and communication to
serve the working classes and their interest. According to this theory, the state
has absolute power to control any media for the benefit of the people. There is no
private ownership of the press and other media in this system.
The government media is an instrument of control and propaganda to create a

strong socialised society and to provide information, education, entertainment,
motivation and mobilisation. The theory advocates that all media message
systems are in the service of the state, as well as representing the voice of the
masses.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Normative theories seek to locate media structure and performance

within the milieu in which it operates. Explain.
1.3.5 Development Media Theory

In this theory, McQuail (1987; 2010) aims at garnering media support for the
government to bring about socio-economic development for the citizens. It
argues that until a nation is well established and its economic development well
underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of the government, so
as to assist the government in implementing its policies.
As the name implies, the theory relates to media in the developing nations. It
favours journalism that seeks out good news, requires that bad news stories are
treated with caution, for such stories are said to be economically damaging to a
nation in its delicate effort of growth and change. The main duty of the media is
to fulfil social and political duties; hence media freedom, while desirable, should
be second to national integration, socio-economic modernisation, promotion of
literacy and cultural creativity.
Development media theory seeks to promote the positive; it takes care and
guards the autonomy of the developing nations and gives special emphasis to
indigenous cultures. It is both a theory of state support and one of resistance to
the norms of competing nations and competing theories of media.

According to McQuail (1987) and Folarin (2005), as the press performs its
responsibilities, it should bear the following tenets in mind:
(a) Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks that are in line
with the policies formulated by the political leadership, and freedom of the
press should not be at variance with economic priorities of the government
and the development needs of the citizenry.
(b) Media should therefore give priorities to the coverage of those areas that
touch on the lives of the people. In other words, content should be
development-driven and should centre on socio-economic and political
lives of the people.
(c) In the overall interest of development, the state has the right to intervene
in media operations by the use of censorship devices, especially when
the activities of the press are not in consonance with the development
objectives of the government.
(d) Mass media should accord priority to politically, geographically and

culturally contiguous developing countries in their coverage as part of the
holistic strategy for less developed societies.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Briefly describe the development media theory.
1.3.6 Democratic Participant Media Theory

This theory is said to represent the idealist dreams of how media ought to
operate. It is one which any healthy democracy should regard as a goal.
Democratic participant theory stands for defence against commercialisation and
monopoly while at the same time being resistant to the bureaucracy of public
media institutions (Watson, 2003). This theory challenges reigning theories and
offers a positive strategy towards the achievement of new forms of media
institution.
The model emphasises the role of the receiver in the communication process
and integrates receiverÊs rights to relevant information, to be heard as well as to
hear and be shown. Media messages and content should not be affected by
bureaucratic and political control. Instead, media should exist in respect of the
interests and needs of the recipients and should not be justified in respect of
interests and needs of the media entity.

This theory encourages small scale multiple, local, non-institutional media

because they link senders with receivers and also favour horizontal interactions.
1.3.7 Post Scripts on Press Theory

To sum up, according to the authoritarian theory, the media is controlled and
censored by the government ministries in the country, but for libertarian theory
the media is fully free without any intervention from any authority or
government. For social responsibility theory, press is relatively free, on one hand,
but on the other, the government controls the press by raising questions. In the
case of Soviet media theory, the media is under the total control of the nationÊs
leaders.
Media in authoritarian regimes are the mouthpiece of the ruling government.

They operate under a tight and controlled atmosphere. The content of the media
is strictly monitored in the authoritarian regime. Libertarian regime, on the other
hand, is the opposite of authoritarian. Under a libertarian regime, the media is
free to operate as there are no restrictions. For social responsibility theory, the
media is tasked with operating responsibly whereby the media acts as its own
watchdog. The Soviet media theory, on the other hand, is not very different from
the authoritarian regime as both exert control and place restrictions on the media.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. What do you understand by the concept of media and media

system?
2. Compare the normative theories of the press and deliberate on

which one/ones is/are best for Malaysia.

1.4 CONCEPTS IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

There are various concepts that can be discussed in relation to a political system.
In the following subtopics, we will focus on several main concepts, namely, the
political system from the Marxist perspective, the political system from the
capitalist industrialist view, the monarchy system, power, control and freedom,
and developmental politics.
1.4.1 Political System from the Marxist Perspective

According to the Marxist perspective, the political system is one of several
struggles between the bourgeoisie (owners of private property and the means of
production) and the proletariat (workers), with economics as the foundation on
which the rest of society is built. Marxists believe the state is an arena in which
the „haves‰ and the „have-nots‰ struggle.
For the Marxists, a democratic state or republic, especially in a capitalist

economic system, is undesirable. According to Engels (1892), „The modern state,
no matter what its form, is essentially a capitalist machine.‰ This „machine‰ is an
unacceptable state since it so clearly focuses on exploiting its citizens.
The ideal state for the Marxist is no state at all, since any government (whether a
democracy or a dictatorship) is a means for preserving class antagonism. Marx
and Engels (1848) said, „Political power is merely the organised power of one
class for oppressing another.‰
In the Marxist view of human social development, the state evolved at a point in
history when it was necessary, and it will cease to exist when it is no longer
necessary for society. It is a mere transitory phenomenon. Engels (1884) said,
„The State is simply a product of society at a certain stage of evolution.‰ Since
freedom means no government at all to the Marxists, therefore freedom is an
illusion until the classless society is established.

Marxists believe that only communism makes the state absolutely unnecessary,
for there is nobody to be suppressed. For the Marxists, communism must be
established worldwide in order for Marxists to achieve their political ends; and
they believe that at that some time in history, the state will fade away completely.
If the state exists anywhere in the world, then classes would still exist as a threat
to a completely classless society.
1.4.2 Political System from the Capitalist Industrialist

View
For the capitalists, an economic and political system is characterised by a free
market for goods and services and private control of production and
consumption. In capitalism, the economic system is based on private ownership
of the means of production and their operation for profit (Baptist & Hyman, 2014;
Zimbalist, Sherman & Brown, 1988). Thus, the government has minimal control
in the process of production. In a capitalist system, the government does not
restrict private property or prevent individuals from working where they deem
fit. The government does not prevent firms from determining what wages they
will pay and what prices they will charge for their products.
Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many different

times, places, and cultures. Following the decline of mercantile business, mixed
capitalist systems became dominant in the Western world and have continued to
spread. Today, most existing capitalist economies are mixed economies, which
combine elements of free markets with state intervention, and in some cases,
with economic planning.
The major characteristics of capitalism include private property, capital

accumulation, wage labour, voluntary exchange, a price system and competitive
markets. In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are
determined by the owners of the factors of production in financial and capital
markets, and prices and the distribution of goods are mainly determined by
competition in the market.

1.4.3 Monarchy
This is a system of government in which a king or queen rules. The authority, or
crown, in a monarchy is generally inherited. The ruler, or monarch, is often only
the head of state, not the head of government. Many monarchies, such as Britain
and Denmark, are actually governed by parliaments. There are also monarchies
which are constitutional as distinct from absolute monarchies. Malaysia is one of
the best examples of constitutional monarchies.
In a constitutional monarchy, the king or queen is governed by the constitution.

In a constitutional monarchy, a monarch shares power with a constitutionally
elected government. The monarch may be the de facto head of state or a purely
ceremonial leader. The constitution allocates the rest of the governmentÊs power
to the executive, legislature and judiciary.
ACTIVITY 1.2
In a group of three, discuss the workings of the constitutional monarchy

in Malaysia.
An absolute monarchy, on the other hand, is a form of government in which the

monarch has absolute power over his or her people. An absolute monarch has
unrestricted political power over the sovereign state and its people. Absolute
monarchies are often hereditary but other means of transmission of power are
attested. Absolute monarchy differs from constitutional monarchy, in which a
monarchÊs authority in a constitutional monarchy is legally bounded or restricted
by a constitution.
In theory, the absolute monarch exercises total power over the land, yet in
practice the monarchy is counterbalanced by political groups. These political
groups are from among the social classes and castes of the realm, such as the
aristocracy, clergy, and middle and lower classes. Some monarchies have weak
or symbolic legislatures and other governmental bodies that the monarch can
alter or dissolve at will.

SELF-CHECK 1.4
What is the difference between constitutional monarchy and absolute

monarchy?
1.4.4 Power
Power and politics go together since it is politics that gives power to the
authorities to run the day to day activities. What is politics then? Politics is the
exercise of power, the public allocation of values, the resolution of conflict and
the competition among individuals, groups, or states pursuing their interests
(Danziger, 1991).
Power, then, can be said to be the fuel of politics. In other words, the ability to
influence the making of those binding decisions is the essence of politics. Power
can be political power, economic power or military power. Our concern here
is political power. Political power is the control of, or influence on, political
decisions. It is the ability to make or influence political decisions.
The notion that some people have more power than others is one of the
most noticeable facts of human existence. The concept of power is ancient
and ubiquitous. A great deal of scholars, from Plato and Aristotle; through
Machiavelli and Hobbes; to Pareto and Weber, devoted much attention to
power and the phenomena associated with it. The word and its synonyms
are everywhere embedded in the language of civilised peoples, often in subtly
different ways (Dahl, 1957).
1.4.5 Control and Freedom

There are numerous ways in which we can conceive of, and ask questions about,
freedom and control. These are, of course, concepts that lie at the very heart
of sociology. Although Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Simmel and Mead came up
with different perspectives, they were all concerned with the ways in which
individuals and groups are, variously, enabled and restrained by the structures
and cultures within which they find themselves, and how they create, conserve,
change and negotiate those structures and cultures (Barker, 2003).

For even longer, the concept of freedom, or determinism, has been at the root of
philosophy. Freedom has been variously associated with further concepts such as
causation and control; and chaos and confusion. Sometimes HeisenbergÊs
Uncertainty Principle is invoked to explain how we can have choice: as not
everything is determined, the argument goes, we are free to make decisions
(Barker, 2003).
Power and control go hand in hand. Control emanates from having power.
Exercising control over the masses or people needs to be executed as spelt out by
the law, failing which, control may be replaced by anarchy.
In exercising control, the freedom of the people cannot be taken away from them
or trampled upon. There should be a balance between control and freedom in
any political system. The people should be free to carry out their day to day
activities as long as the activities are done within the confines of the law. Being
free does not guarantee one the space to cross the line. Similarly being in control
does not mean abuse of power.
The various arms of the government should work hand in hand to ensure that
power to control the masses is not abused. As the saying goes, absolute power
corrupts absolutely. Likewise, in exercising freedom, individuals should be
mindful of the fact that freedom is not absolute. A citizen cannot simply do what
he or she likes to do. In whatever we do as citizens living a community, we have
to be mindful of our actions.
1.4.6 Developmental Politics

Politics and development are very much related where development is
dependent on politics as in the case of developing countries. A countryÊs political
system has effects on its economic development.
Developmental politics advocates for media support for an existing political

regime and its efforts to bring about national economic development. It argues
that until a nation is well established and its economic development well
underway, media must be supportive rather than critical of government.
Journalists, in their writings or stories must not inhibit government efforts to
promote development. They should, rather, assist the government in
implementing such policies for the betterment of the society at large.

 The media are the main means of mass communication, especially television,
radio, newspapers, and the Internet which are regarded collectively as media.
Media are thus communication channels through which news, entertainment,
education data or promotional messages are disseminated.
 The media system is composed of institutional structures and final products,

which recipients use directly and frequently as they are addressed to them
(newspapers, journals, radio and TV programmes) as well as entities (such as
press agencies, distributors).
 Theories of media system are also called the normative theories of the
press. Normative theories of the press are a group of four press theories
(authoritarian theory, free press theory, social responsibility theory, soviet
media theory) proposed by Siebert, Peterson and Schramm. Normative
theories are based on different types of government systems.
 Later additions to the four theories of the press include development media
theory and democratic participant media theory, which were added by
McQuail.
 The political system, from the Marxist perspective, is one of a struggle

between the bourgeoisie (owners of private property and the means of
production) and the proletariat (workers), with economics as the foundation
on which the rest of society is built.
 In the Marxist view of human social development, the state evolved at a point
in history when it was necessary, and it will cease to exist when it is no longer
necessary for society.
 For the capitalist, an economic and political system is characterised by a

free market for goods and services and private control of production and
consumption. In capitalism, the economic system is based on private
ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Thus the
government has minimal or little control in the process of production.
 Monarchy is a system of government in which a king or queen rules. The

authority, or crown, in a monarchy is generally inherited. The ruler, or
monarch, is often only the head of state, not the head of government. Many
monarchies are actually governed by parliaments. There are also monarchies
which are constitutional as distinct from absolute monarchies.

 Politics is the exercise of power, the public allocation of values, the resolution
of conflict and the competition among individuals, groups, or states pursuing
their interests. Power, then, can be said to be the fuel of politics. In other
words, the ability to influence the making of those binding decisions is the
essence of politics.
Absolute monarchy Marxist perspective

Authoritarian theory Mass communication
Bourgeoisie Media
Capitalism Media systems
Capitalist industrialist Monarchy
Constitutional monarchy Normative theories
Control and freedom Political power
Democratic participant theory Political system
Development media theory Power
Developmental politics Private property
Free market Proletariat
Free press theory Social responsibility theory
Libertarian theory Soviet media theory
Baptist, E. E., & Hyman, L. (2014). American capitalism: A reader. New York, NY:
Simon & Schuster.
Barker, E. (2003). And the wisdom to know the difference? Freedom, control and
the sociology of religion. Sociology of Religion, 64(3), 285ă307.
Dahl, R. A. (1957). The concept of power. Behavioral Science, 2(3), 201ă215.

Danziger, J. N. (1991). Understanding the political world: An introduction to

political science. New York, NY: Longman.
Engels, F. (1892). Socialism: Utopian and scientific (E. B. Aveling, Trans.).

Vancouver, BC: Whitehead Estate.
Engels, F. (1884). Origin of the family, private property and the state: In the light
of the researches of Lewis H. Morgan. Moscow, Russia: Foreign Languages
Press.
Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

(3rd ed.). Ibadan, Nigeria: Bakinfol.
Gurevitch, M., Bennett, T., Curran, J., & Woollacott, J. (2005). Culture, society and
the media. London, England: Taylor & Francis e-Library.
McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. London,

England: Sage.

England: Sage.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1848). Manifesto of the Communist party. New York, NY:
International Publishers.
Siebert, F. S., Peterson, T., & Schramm, W. (1963). Four theories of the press.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Watson, J. (2003). Media communication: An introduction to theory and process.

New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wieslaw, S. (2009). Media system: Scope ă structure ă definition. Media Studies,

38(3), 1ă9.
Zimbalist, A., Sherman, H. J., & Brown, S. (1988). Comparing economic systems:
A political-economic approach. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Topic  The
Relationship
2 between Media
and Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define political system and media system;
2. Explain the relationship between media and the political system;
3. Discuss how media operate in countries with different political
systems; and
4. Identify the various constraints and challenges faced by the media
within different political systems.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce two important concepts, namely the media system and
the political system and how they function in a country. In many instances, the
political system of a country is influenced by the development of its media
system. In a democratic system of government, media are operated as free
private enterprises. In a more autocratic government, such as in a communist
system of government, media are operated solely by state enterprises. However,
in recent developments in communist states, there has been a shift towards
private enterprises jointly working with state enterprises in operating media
entities and managing media organisations.

18  TOPIC 2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS
2.1 WHAT IS A POLITICAL SYSTEM?

The social system consists of many subsystems. Each subsystem has certain
specified functions to perform. Derbyshire and Derbyshire (2000), in their
Encyclopaedia of World Political Systems, broadly define a countryÊs political
system as, „the dynamic interplay of peopleÊs ideas and interests: the whole
process of demand and response which politics represents.‰ According to
Almond and Powell (1966), the concept of political system „has acquired wide
currency because it directs attention to the entire scope of political activities
within a society, regardless of where in the society such activities may be
located‰.
The political system is interwoven with other subsystems in society. There is a

close relationship between the social and political systems. The basic concern
would always remain with regularisation and institutionalisation of power,
making of authoritative decisions, and conflict resolution, to name a few aspects
of human behaviour with a clear political bias. The agency which has been
entrusted with these functions is the state and its organ which actively
undertakes these jobs is known as the government.
Political systems can manifest in different forms of government, as outlined in

Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Forms of Government
Form Description
Monarchy A political system in which the government is under the control of
one powerful leader.
Constitutional A government in which leadership rests in the hands of a
monarchy representative government, based upon a written constitution, with a
monarch (king or queen) as a respected figurehead.
Theocracy A political system in which the government is under the control of a
religious organisation or its officials.
Democracy A political system in which the government is under the control of the
citizens themselves, or elected representatives chosen from eligible
citizens.
Communism A system of government in which a single, totalitarian party holds
power. It is characterised by state control of the economy, and
restriction on personal freedoms. It was first proposed by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto.

TOPIC 2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS  19
2.2 WHAT IS A MEDIA SYSTEM?

According to Schneider (2002, as cited in Engesser & Franzetti, 2011), most of the
time, the definition of media system implies its dependence on the specific
political system of one society. Siebert, Peterson and Schramm (1963), on the
other hand, argue that „one cannot understand the news media without
understanding the nature of the state, the system of political parties, the pattern
of relations between economic and political interests, and the development of
civil society, among other elements of social structure.‰
The media system plays an important role in connecting the government with the
people whom it governs. Survival of a government depends very much on the
support of the people. As such media is used to inform the people about
government policies and ideologies. At the same time, media provide feedback
from the people with regard to suitability and relevance of government policies
to their personal development.
Hallin and Mancini (2004) argued that one cannot understand the media system
without understanding the nature of the state political system, which includes:
(a) The system of political parties;
(b) The pattern of relations between economic and political interests; and
(c) The development of civil society.
Hallin and Mancini (2004) describe the relationship between politics and media
as political parallelism. According to them, political parallelism is the degree to
which the structure of the media system parallels that of the party system.
Parallelism can be found in the ownership of the news media, media content and
audiences.
2.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MEDIA

SYSTEM AND POLITICAL SYSTEM:
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES
One of the earlier works on the relationship between the political system of a
country and its influence on the media system is Four Theories of the Press by
Siebert et al. (1963). The four theories are as follows:
(a) Authoritarian theory;
(b) Libertarian theory;

(c) Social responsibility theory; and
(d) Soviet communist theory.
Although these four theories have been influential in comparative studies of

media systems, there have also been criticisms leveled at them. The theories put
forward are deemed inadequate to describe the media system especially in
developing countries, many of which had just regained independence after the
Second World War. To overcome this inadequacy, Hachten (1981) put forward a
developmental model of media system.
2.3.1 Authoritarian Theory

This theory originated from the philosophy of Plato (407 to 327 BC). The English
monarchs used this approach when the printing press was invented by
censoring, licensing, taxing and making laws. The press was used as a weapon to
increase the power of the rulers. The authorities controlled media by providing
rights and licenses to some selected media and not to many others.
Media had to respect what the authorities wanted and worked according to the
wishes of the authorities though not under direct control of the state or ruling
classes. Media could not work independently and their works were susceptible to
the following censorships:
(a) Political censorship;
(b) Military censorship;
(c) Religious censorship; and
(d) Economic censorship.
The authorities could also withdraw their licenses. Sensitive issues could not be
published or even if allowed, were only published through press releases. This
theory is justified by saying that the rights of the state are greater than individual
rights, where the state controls the media, especially in time of emergencies like
wars and conflicts.

2.3.2 Soviet Communist Theory

Communism is not defined as an economic system. Communism is a political
system rather than an economic system. Communist countries function under a
single dominant communist party. In theory, under communism, all means of
production are owned in common, rather than by individuals. In practice, a
single authoritarian party controls both the political and economic systems.
The communist theory of mass media came into being along with the concept of
communism by George, Hegel, Karl Marx and Engels (see Figure 2.1). Mass
media, in the view of Karl Marx, was supposed to be responsible for the socialist
system of governance and communist media was supposed to help in
implementing social policies. The communist and Marxist government rule and
communist theory of mass communication was used by the then Soviet Union
(Russia) in 1917.
Figure 2.1: Karl Marx (left) and Engels (right)

Source: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-manchester-30375063
The media are actually owned by the people and operated through the state.
Their purpose is to support the Marxist system and to achieve the goals of the
state as expressed through the Communist party, especially to build a classless,
Marxist society. This system works best in a closed and tightly controlled media
environment. Now, essentially limited to the PeopleÊs Republic of China, Cuba,
and North Korea, this theory is a spin-off of authoritarianism.

Marx defended the right to freedom of the press, arguing that restrictions like
censorship were instituted by the bourgeois elite (Shambala, 2014). He claimed
that censorship is a tool of the powerful to oppress the powerless.
In a communist country, the individualÊs best interest is indistinguishable from

the societyÊs best interest. The idea of individual freedom is incompatible with
the communist ideology. The only reason to uphold individual rights to speech
and information would be to better the society.
Marxist Vladimir Lenin, who founded the Soviet state as well as the Communist
Party newspaper Pravda, called for the media to be „collective propagandists,
agitators and organisers‰ (as cited in Siebert et al., 1963). The 1925 Soviet
constitution was clear: The fundamental purpose of the press was „to strengthen
Communist social order.‰
In communist countries, the economic structure is socialist. Unconcerned about

profit, communist media people choose to provide coverage that furthers the
governmentÊs ideological goals. In fact, media decision makers usually are
government officials chosen because they are in tune with MarxÊs central idea on
the inevitability of historical processes. When the Soviet Union was in full bloom
as a communist state, for example, all the editors of the leading publications were
high officials in the Communist Party. Off-limits in the communist media,
however, is criticism of Marxist ideology, which is accorded the sacred respect
that ultimate truth deserves.
2.3.3 Libertarian Theory

This theory came from the libertarian thoughts of Europe during the 16th century
after the invention of the printing press and after the press movement. It was
advocated by many renowned personalities like Lao Tzu, John Locke, John
Milton, John Stuart Mill and Thomas Jefferson.
Milton proposed the concept of a Free Market of Ideas, where given vast
resources of information, the people will eventually use their rational mind to
consume the right information or find the truth in the information. The theory
proposes freedom of thought and individualism.
There is no control by the authority and everybody has the right to voice his/her
opinion. There is also no censorship and the government must not hold any
power to control and suppress the media. All of people are able to interpret and
decide which information they need and discover the authenticity of information.
Rationality of human beings makes them able to do so.

The press should not restrict any information, even that which criticises
government policies. Though media has enormous power, abuse of power can be
dealt with legally.
2.3.4 Social Responsibility Theory

This theory is guided by ethics that place on the media an obligation towards the
environment, society, culture and economy. The media like any other sector
should not harm, but should promote environmental and socio-cultural aspects
in relation to the economy of the place.
Social responsibility theory is also a relatively a new concept which started in the
mid-20th century. Much like the Libertarian theory, the social responsibility
theory also started from Europe and took shape alongside the Commission on
the Freedom of Press in the US in 1949. The theory is mostly used in developed
countries.
Media have responsibilities to society that accompany their freedom. One of

these responsibilities is to provide meaningful information to society. It
encourages total freedom to the press and no censorship, but it should be
regulated according to social responsibilities and external control. Content is also
filtered through public obligation and interference.
2.3.5 Developmental Theory

Leaning towards authoritarianism, developmentalism is a relatively new theory
that suggests that the government mobilise the media to serve national goals in
times of economic and social development.
Some of the goals the media are expected to help achieve include the following:
(a) Political integration;
(b) Literacy;
(c) Economic self-sufficiency; and
(d) Eradication of disease.
Information is considered a scarce resource and must be carefully managed

by the state in order to achieve national goals. As more democracies replace
would-be dictatorship throughout the world, the developmental theory, closely
associated with government censorship, has fallen on hard times as newly
emerging democracies endorse the social responsibility theory instead.
2.3.6 Democratic Participant Theory

This theory was started by grass-root level media in the 1960s. It emerged
because of the dissatisfaction with other models such as libertarian theory and
social responsibility theory.
This theory believes there is democratic and professional hegemony in the

media today and the media is totally commercial. All ill practices should be
removed for the media to be democratic and be easily accessible or participatory.
There should not be monopolisation (public/private) and centralisation of
media. The media should be pluralistic, decentralised, bottom-up or horizontal
and must have equality. The major concept is participation and full circular
communication.
This theory promotes the following:
(a) The right to information (global and local);
(b) The right to express (feedback);
(c) The right to use new technologies (means of communication);
(d) Freedom to local data; and
(e) Freedom to take part in social action.
In the process, it expects the government to provide funds, training and subsidies
after identification if they have financial or technical difficulties. It is more
relevant in liberal democratic developed countries than developing and less
developed countries because the countries in transition from underdevelopment
and non-democracy are alleged to lack the infrastructure and professional skills
needed for free media in democracy.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What are the major differences between the authoritarian system

and the Soviet communist system?
2. In what way is the libertarian media system different from the

social responsibility media system?
3. Why did Hachten introduce the developmental theory of the

media?
4. What are the main elements of the democratic participant theory?
2.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA

AND POLITICS: THE HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVE
A critical aspect of a functioning democracy is to be well informed in order to
participate effectively in that democracy. One of the most important ways that
many people are informed is through their mainstream media. Many countries
have signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but freedom of opinion,
expression and information (Article 19) has hardly been a reality.
The interdependence between media systems and political systems is generally

not in doubt. To extent to which the media system is free from political influence
can be seen in the extent to which media experience freedom in both operation
and content. One indicator that has been used to gauge media freedom from state
intervention is the World Press Freedom Index. The index ranks each countryÊs
media in terms of low state intervention to the highest state intervention in its
organisation, content and regulations.

One of the most important and dominant questions in the study of political
communication is how the media aid citizens to become informed voters. The
media are expected to provide sufficient and relevant political information so
that citizens can hold their representatives to account and make informed
choices. Yet there is considerable uncertainty about whether recent changes in
the media environment are supporting or impeding increased public affairs
knowledge. It is desirable that the media adequately inform the electorate about
public affairs. News and commentary enable citizens to make informed and
effective choices about the exercise of state power.
The 2016 World Press Freedom Index produced by Reporters without Borders
showed that the top five countries which have the freest media are Finland,
Netherlands, Norway, Denmark and New Zealand. The bottom five countries
which have the most restricted media are Eritrea, North Korea, Turkmenistan,
Syria and China.
The major democratic countries and most developed countries are not necessarily
practicing the freest media. The US is ranked at 41st while the United Kingdom
is at 38th. France and Germany, the two most developed countries in Europe
are ranked at 45th and 16th respectively. Japan, another developed country, is
ranked at 72nd.
The World Press Freedom Index showed a decline of 13.9 per cent in media
freedom from 2013 to 2016. Among reasons for the decline are the following:
(a) Throughout the world, „oligarchs‰ are buying up media outlets and are
exercising pressure that compounds the pressure already coming from
governments.
(b) Some governments do not hesitate to suspend access to the Internet or even
to destroy the premises, broadcast equipment or printing presses of media
outlets they dislike.
(c) Many laws have been adopted penalising journalists on such spurious
charges as „insulting the President,‰ „blasphemy‰ or „supporting
terrorism.‰ Growing self-censorship is the knock-on effect of this alarming
situation.
It is difficult to determine freedom of the political system. However, in many

instances, one has to look at the guarantee of fundamental rights in national
constitutions and their differentiation into freedom of the press, of information
and opinion. Relevant for the comparison of media systems and political systems
are also the governmental capabilities to limit the freedom of the media through
censorship, occupational bans, or governmental media ownership.

Generally, discussions on the relationship between politics and media are based
on three main factors:
(a) The ownership of media or media economics;
(b) The convergence of media due to digitisation of media; and
(c) Media policies and the changing environment locally and globally.
2.4.1 Media and Politics in Developed Countries

There are differences in financing, organising and purpose of media in developed
countries. Europe has a stronger footing in public broadcasting while in the US,
the media organisations are driven by commercial entities.
Underlying these differences is a divergence of institutional goals. American

television is directed toward maximising revenue and is oriented toward serving
the American consumer. By contrast, European television gives greater relative
priority to serving the needs of democracy. This gives rise to one very concrete
and important difference.
The principal American television channels transmit news and current affairs
programmes at the fringe of popular viewing times. In contrast, the principal
channels in several European countries (with the partial exception of Britain)
transmit news and current affairs during peak times.
What can explain the rather large country differences, particularly between the
US on one side and the European countries on the other? There are at least two
obvious explanations, both relating to the way TV is organised. In the US, public
television is weak and under resourced, whereas in Northern Europe public
television is relatively well financed and still important. No less important,
commercial television in the US is subject to minimal regulation. In Northern
Europe, however, commercial television is incorporated into the regime of public
service (with the partial exception of Britain).
In all countries, except the US, there has been a substantial growth in the total
volume of news and current affairs programmes on leading television channels
from 1987 to 1997. This growth was partly a consequence of the expansion of
daytime provision of news and current affairs content, but it also arose from the
ending of television monopolies and the rise of new general channels, offering
news and current affairs programmes that built large audiences.

Viewing statistics demonstrate that there are also significant differences in TV

news consumption among the various countries. Generally, audience figures are
higher in the democratic corporatist countries compared to the liberal countries,
but with the United Kingdom being much closer to the other European countries
than to the US. According to Aalberg and Curran (2012), Dagsrevyen, the most
popular evening news show in Norway, was watched by approximately 15 per
cent of the Norwegian population on average in 2007.
The most popular news programme in the US, NBC Nightly News, was watched
by less than three per cent of the American population (Aalberg & Curran, 2012).
Translated into market shares, this means that 66 per cent of Norwegians
watching television at that time of day were tuned into the public service news.
In the US, however, only 12 per cent of those who watched television at that time
were tuned into NBCÊs evening newscast. This dramatic difference in people
watching the news can be seen as a consequence of differences in political
culture, geography, and the way in which television is organised.
Some nations can influence and control their media greatly. In addition, powerful
corporations are becoming major influences on mainstream media. In some
places, major multinational corporations own media stations and outlets. As
numbers of media outlets increase, the ownership is becoming ever more
concentrated as mega mergers take hold. At the same time, vertical integration
gives the big players even more avenues to cross-sell and cross-market their
products for even more amazing profits. An effect of this though is a reduction in
diversity and depth of content that the public can get, while increasing the
political and economic power of corporations and advertisers. An informed
population is a crucial element to a functioning democracy.
2.4.2 Media and Politics in the Communist System

As Siebert et al. (1963) mention in their book, Four Theories of Mass Media, the
basic Soviet Communist understanding of the media was that media were
„collective propagandist, collective agitator, instruments to be controlled by the
state, instruments of social change and social control, and instruments of serious
purpose‰. Currently, The PeopleÊs Republic of China is the dominant country
that is practising the communist media theory. Not much information is available
about the media systems in the PeopleÊs Republic of Korea and Republic of Cuba.
The Chinese media have been held under the control of the Communist Party of
China (CPC) ever since the establishment of the party in the early 20th century.
However, the practices of political control exerted over the mass media have
been subject to many changes as a result of economic reform and opening-up to
the outside world.

ChinaÊs constitution affords its citizens freedom of speech and press, but the
opacity of Chinese media regulations allows authorities to crack down on news
stories by claiming that they expose state secrets and endanger the country. The
definition of state secrets in China remains vague, facilitating censorship of any
information that authorities feel threaten their political or economic interests.
The Chinese government has long kept tight reins on both the traditional and
new media to avoid potential subversion of its authority. Its tactics often entail
strict media controls using monitoring systems and firewalls, shuttering
publications or websites, and jailing dissident journalists, bloggers, and activists.
The Chinese government does not own every media source in China, but its
propaganda department is in charge of censorship of all media content.
Censorship is the active attempt by the Party to suppress material that a
production entity plans to compose or has already composed. All the above-
mentioned media function not mainly as vehicles of social communication or as
the voice of different groups but as „mouthpieces‰ of the party or as
„propaganda tools‰ to promote the official ideology and consolidate the power of
the state. Thus, censorship is vital in this system. On the other hand, the media
itself will conduct self-censorship.
The government reviews and enforces laws related to information flow within,
into, and out from China. The most powerful monitoring body is the Communist
PartyÊs Central Propaganda Department (CPD), which coordinates with the
General Administration of Press and Publication and State Administration of
Radio, Film, and Television to ensure content promotes party doctrine.
With the emergence of new media, the Chinese government deploys myriad
ways of censoring the Internet. The Golden Shield Project, colloquially known as
the Great Firewall, is the centre of the governmentÊs online censorship and
surveillance effort. Its methods include bandwidth throttling, keyword filtering,
and blocking access to certain websites. According to Reporters without Borders,
the firewall makes large-scale use of Deep Packet Inspection technology to block
access based on keyword detection.
The Propaganda Department can cancel rebroadcasts of television news

programmes or dismiss individuals associated with the piece deemed
unacceptable. Controversial cases in which the media has challenged the partyÊs
top-down control have resulted in the removal of editors, resignations of
journalists, imprisonment of editors and journalists, and forced closure of news
organisations in print and broadcast organisations, such as the Southern Daily of
Guangdong, 21st Century World Herald and Southern Metropolitan Post.

Since the economic reform, the state no longer fully subsidises the media. It has
urged the industry to turn toward marketisation to generate profits to sustain
their operations (Nhan, 2008). The PartyÊs „Making Media Big and Strong‰ Policy
of January 2002 aims to promote the creation of powerful and profitable domestic
media conglomerates under the partyÊs control that are ready for global
competition.
Commercialisation of media operations allowed the CCP to redesign its partyÊs

message in a glossy package for easier public digestion. Media managers
exchanged the dogmatic style of the Mao era to adopt the Western model of
flashy advertising and polished presentations.
2.4.3 Media and Politics in Developing Countries

According to the United Nations (UN), a developing country is a country with a
relatively low standard of living, undeveloped industrial base, and moderate to
low Human Development Index (HDI) (Das, 2016). This index is a comparative
measure of poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors for
countries worldwide. Developing countries are defined according to their Gross
National Income (GNI) per capita per year. Countries with a GNI of US$11,905
and less are defined as developing (World Bank Report, 2013 as cited in Khan,
2016).
National elections provide a common context of key developments in the media

freedom situation in many developing countries. These interesting times are
particularly challenging for the media in maintaining their role to document a
nationÊs unfolding history as citizens exercise their right to directly participate in
politics.
In the workshops on „Elections and the Media‰ in Jakarta, media practitioners

echo the challenges faced by the media in elections where the added pressure of
raised political stakes also increase the challenge of independence, safety risks,
and ethical issues of the profession (Southeast Asian Press Alliance, 2014).
While elections normally flood citizens with unprecedented amounts of political

information from campaigns, the question should still be raised on whether
voters are getting relevant information to make informed choices. Political
propaganda dominates electoral discourses, instead of a sober accounting of the
track records and conduct of politicians and parties.

Beyond the role and challenges during elections, there is a concrete stake for the
media in the political contests, with the chances of improvement or restriction of
press freedom and related issues changing between contesting parties or
politicians.
Those with restricted media environments remain as unchanged as their

politics. There may be little overt censorship reported because control has
been institutionalised through self-censorship by media houses or individual
journalists who do not wish to risk their professions, safety or freedom.
The media acts as a watchdog of the government and its capacity to provide a
civic forum in which meaningful and serious political debate can take place is
often viewed as the key democratic role of the mass media and journalists. In
addition, the press is a significant mechanism for circulating and exchanging
information, which is vital for the functioning of democracy.
Political journalists in developing countries are under constant pressure to

facilitate the formation of „public opinion‰, and feed that opinion back to the
public. This includes the provision of space for the expression of dissent, without
which the notion of democratic consensus would be meaningless. The media,
therefore, has an obligation to provide the audience with information upon
which to base political decisions and further, fight any attempts by the
government to do the publicÊs business behind closed doors.
2.4.4 Pluralistic Approach to Media and Politics

Debates around the importance of media pluralism in the European Union (EU)
began in the mid-1990s, when the main concern was to address the issues of
media ownership and concentration.
Pluralism refers to diversity in the most general sense. However, the concept
includes a number of aspects and has been interpreted from different
perspectives, and consequently is measured by using many different qualitative
and quantitative criteria. In analysing the concept of pluralism, two perspectives
have to be mentioned in this regard: internal and external pluralism.

Internal pluralism reflects how social and political diversity are reflected in
media content. That is, the representation of different cultural groups in the
media as well as divergent political or ideological opinions and viewpoints.
Internal pluralism plays an important role in news and public affairs coverage,
and also for public broadcasting and media landscapes dominated by one
(monopoly) or two (duopoly) players. Governments not only stimulate internal
pluralism by facilitating public service broadcasting, but also by means of
financial support such as grants, press funds and reduced tax rates.
External pluralism covers the number of owners, media companies, independent

editorial boards, channels, titles or programmes. This type of pluralism is
also known as the „plurality‰ of suppliers. From the perspective of the „free
marketplace of ideas‰, competition between these media content suppliers is
considered to be essential in order to ensure a free choice of media content and
the availability of a wide variety of opinions and ideas. Policies on media
concentration are most concerned with the market power that owners or
companies may gain and the subsequent possibility of exerting influence.
There are three main types of media concentration:
(a) The most common type of media concentration is horizontal concentration

in one link of the production value chain.
(b) A second type of media concentration is vertical concentration in two or

more links of the media value chain.
(c) A third form of media concentration is diagonal concentration (i.e. cross-

media ownership), that is a publisher or a broadcaster entering into other
media types in addition to its usual operations; for instance, a publisher
that becomes active in a radio or television station in addition to a daily
paper.
The media as the fourth estate is expected to play the role of watchdog on the
other three branches of government:
(a) The legislature;
(b) The executive; and
(c) The judiciary.

However, when the mediaÊs many-faceted voice is owned by a small number of

corporate masters, concerns about its willingness to keep its role as watchdog is
questioned.
In 1983, fifty corporations controlled most of the American media, including

magazines, books, music, news feeds, newspapers, movies, radio and television.
By 1992, that number had dropped by half. In the year of 2000, six corporations
had ownership of most media, and today, five of it has dominated the industry:
Time Warner, Disney, MurdochÊs News Corporation, Bertelsmann of Germany
and Viacom.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. How has media censorship evolved from the 19th century to the
21st century?
2. How has digitisation changed the media landscape from 19th

century media to today's global media?
3. Why is there a need for pluralistic media system in the current

media environment?
ACTIVITY 2.1
In groups of three, discuss and present the workings of the legislature;
the executive; and the judiciary in the Malaysian context. You may refer
to sources from the Internet, journal articles, news articles and others to
substantiate your arguments.
 Almost every country promises freedom of speech and expression which, to a

certain extent, extends to freedom of the press as enshrined in the countryÊs
constitution. In practice, different political systems interpret and execute this
freedom differently according to their domestic policies and leaderships.

 In the current environment with the advancement of globalisation and

digitisation of media, there are convergence and emergence of new media
complementing and to some extent challenging the existence and influence of
the mass media. Besides the existence of state owned media there are media
conglomerates.
 The emergence of new media has shifted the control of media content from
the media organisation including state-owned media organisation onto the
consumer. The consumers are now prosumers; they are involved in
producing as well as consuming media content.
 While information disseminated through the media was important to help

citizens in their voting decision-making, citizens now demand more
information to help them participate in political processes such as taking part
in protests, giving comments on policies, and expressing their unhappiness
with government decisions that affect their lives.
 Historically, censorship has shifted from getting a permit and licence to

publish, censorship of material that seems to jeopardise the security of the
state, and economic censorship in terms of taxes on printing material, to self-
censorship. It is now more difficult to perform censorship at the source.
 The way forward is to encourage a pluralistic media system. In such a

system, we not only have diverse media organisations operating different
kinds of media outlets and platforms, but also have access to diversity in
media content. It goes back to the philosophy that people have rational
minds, and if given a diversity of opinions and information, rational minds
will find the truth.
 At the centre of relations between media and political system, is the citizen.
In a more democratic country, the citizens make a much bigger contribution
in shaping the media-politics relationships. However, in authoritarian
governments, extreme suppression of citizensÊ right to freedom could lead to
backlash against the government through people power.

Authoritarian theory Media system

Commercialisation of media Pluralistic media
Democratic participant theory Political parallelism
Development theory Political system
Digitisation of media Press freedom index
External pluralism Propaganda
Free market of ideas Self-censorship
Internal pluralism Social responsibility theory
Libertarian theory Vertical integration
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approach. New York, NY: Routledge.
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systems. Armonk, NY: Sharpe Reference.
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Hachten, W. A. (1981). The world news prism: Changing media clashing

ideologies. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Hallin, D. C., & Mancini, P. (2004). Comparing media system: Three models of
media and politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Khan, M. A. (2016). Multinational enterprise management strategies in

developing countries. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

England: Sage.
Nhan, V. L. (2008). Media in China: Methods of State control. The Orator, 3, 36ă
50.
Reporters without Borders. (2016). 2016 world press freedom index. Retrieved
from https://rsf.org/en/ranking
Shambala. (2014). Tibet seeks the moral stand for freedom of the world and
democracy. Retrieved from http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1184699
Siebert, F. S., Peterson, T., & Schramm, W. (1963). Four theories of the press.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
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Retrieved from https://www.seapa.org/media-at-political-crossroads-
regional-press-freedom-overview-2014/
Valcke, P., Sukosd, M., & Picard, R. G. (2015). Media pluralism and diversity:
Concepts, risks and global trends. London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wolfsfeld, G. (2011). Making sense of media and politics: Five principles in

political communication. New York, NY: Routledge.

Topic  The
Relationship
3 between Media
and Politics in
Malaysia:
Historical
Perspectives
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the different phases of British colonisation in Malaysia and
the rise of media;
2. Describe the role played by English language newspapers during
British colonisation;
3. Discuss the role played by vernacular newspapers during British
colonisation; and
4. Compare the different roles played by vernacular newspapers in
raising political consciousness among different ethnic groups during
the pre-independence period.

38  TOPIC 3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIA:
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
 INTRODUCTION
To understand the development of media and politics in Malaysia from a historical
perspective we have to take a look at the historical development of Malaysia as a
state. The British intervention in Malaysia can be traced back to the early 19th
century following the establishment of the British settlement in Penang in 1786, in
Singapore in 1819 and in Malacca in 1824. This topic will cover mass media
development and British colonisation, the role of mass media during the British
colonisation, mass media during the Japanese occupation and mass media and
politics in the pre-independence period.
3.1 MASS MEDIA DEVELOPMENT AND

BRITISH COLONISATION
The Prince of Wales Island Gazette, published in Penang in 1806, is regarded as
the first newspaper to be published under British colonisation in Malaysia. Its
publisher, A.B. Bone, started the newspaper as Government Gazette and later
renamed it as Prince of Wales Island Government Gazette and finally settled for
Prince of Wales Island Gazette. It was suggested that the earlier emphasis on
government gazette was to show that the newspaper had government sanction
and protection. In reality, the newspaper was strictly a private enterprise although
at times it relied on government financial assistance to help sustain its operation.
The publisher of Prince of Wales Island Gazette wanted the public to know that it
had good working relations with the straits settlement government and therefore,
was a reliable source of government information. The government engaged the
newspaper as the source for information dissemination on administrative matters
or official government advertisements. Such a reciprocal relationship was evident
as the government allowed the publisher of Prince of Wales Gazette to use a phrase
under its masthead „published under the sanction and patronage of government‰
(Dhari Othman, 1992; Mohd Safar Hasim, 1996).
When the Prince of Wales Island Gazette ceased publication in August 1827,
another newspaper, Penang Register and Miscellany, was established by Norman
Macalister McIntyre in 1827. The newspaper was not permitted to use the phrase
„published under sanction and patronage of government‰ under its masthead. It
was also not given the 60 dollar monthly allowance for publishing government
information as given to the publisher of Prince of Wales Island Gazette. Instead
the government paid the newspaper a per line cost of printing although the
publisher was willing to reserve the front page of the newspaper for government
notices and other related matters. Eventually the government allowed the
newspaper to use under its masthead the phrase „Government Notifications
inserted in the Penang Register and Miscellany and signed by the proper

TOPIC 3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEDIA AND POLITICS IN MALAYSIA:  39
Authorities are to be considered as Official‰. However this newspaper was short

lived when it ceased publication on September 1828 due to revocation of its licence
by the government because the newspaper breached government censorship
protocols (Mohd Safar Hasim, 1996).
In Malacca, another British settlement, a school teacher by the name of John Henry
Moore submitted an application to publish a newspaper, The Malacca Observer,
to the acting Resident Counsellor in August 1826. The Malacca Observer was given
the licence to publish on the day its application was received by the acting Resident
Counsellor. The publication was subject to censorship by the local authorities,
among others to submit its proof block for government approval before printing.
About three years into its operation, the newspaper was subjected to licensing
review when it published an article which the authorities felt did not reflect the
action to be taken by the government. The article was about possible action to be
taken regarding the Headman of Naning, who refused to pay agricultural tax.
After much deliberation The Malacca Observer ceased publication in October 1829.
In Singapore, a commercial newspaper was established in January 1824. Known as

the Singapore Chronicle, its editor was Francis James Bernard. It was speculated
that although the newspaper was a private enterprise, the actual de facto editor
was John Crawford, the Singapore Resident, because he himself applied for licence
to publish on behalf of Bernard. When Bernard was replaced by William Campbell
as editor, he not only continued publishing the Singapore Chronicle, but at the
same time applied to publish yet another newspaper Commercial Register and
Advertiser. The application was submitted in 1826.
During the later part of the 19th century when the British started intervention in
the Malay states, several newspapers were published. Perak Pioneer and Native
States Advertiser were published in Taiping, the then capital of Perak state, in 1894
by Syed Abdol Hassan Ibnay Burhan. They were considered as the earlier
newspapers to be published in the Federated Malay States. In the state of Selangor,
J. H. M. Robson published The Malay Mail in 1896 (Roff, 1961).
3.1.1 The Vernacular Newspapers

Besides the development of English language newspapers to cater for the British
administrators and the commercial ventures, the late 19th century also saw the
development of non-English language newspapers to cater for the needs of the
emerging multi-racial population in the Malay States and Straits Settlement. The
first Malay language newspaper Jawi Peranakkan was published in Singapore in
1876 by Munshi Mohammad bin Dada Mohidin. Another Malay newspaper,
Sekola Melayu, was published in 1888 by Munshi Muhammad Ali bin Ghulam and
by the Baba Chinese in 1894. It was reported that about 14 Malay newspapers were

published at the end of the 19th century. In the Malay States, the first Malay
newspaper was Seri Perak•which was published by Haji Abdul Kadir Setia Raja in
1893 (Lent, 1978).
The Indian language newspaper Singai Warthamaani was first published in

Singapore in 1875 by S. K. Mathsuhum. This was followed by other Indian
language newspapers such as Tejahbimani, published in Perak in 1896 and
Pinanggu Wartamani, in Penang in 1897. Other newspapers published around the
same period were Ulanga Nesan, Singai Nesan, Hindu Nesan and Thangi Nesan,
which lasted until the end of the 19th century.
The earlier Chinese language newspapers in Malaysia were published by a British

individual in Malacca and Singapore but they were not meant for local Chinese
readers. Instead they were circulated in mainland China for missionary purposes.
The Chinese Monthly Magazine was published in 1819 in Malacca by the London
Missionary Society. In 1881, Lat Pao, the first Chinese newspaper, was published
in Singapore by a Chinese businessman by the name of See Ewe Lay. This
newspaper lasted for 51 years until 1932. The other major Chinese newspaper was
Thien Nan Shai Pao, published in 1885. The content of these early Chinese
newspapers were dominated by news from mainland China and Hong Kong as an
indication of overseas Chinese attachment to their home land (Hock, 1967).
3.2 THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA DURING

BRITISH COLONISATION
The role of mass media during the British colonisation, especially newspapers and
radio was very crucial. These mass media were used by the colonial masters to
further their agenda and strengthen their grips on their colonies. In Malaya, as
Malaysia was formerly known, there were several newspapers and radio stations
that existed, some of which still continue today, albeit under different names.
3.2.1 The Role of Newspapers

During the British colonisation in the 20th century, more newspapers were
published in major languages to cater for the different needs and aspirations of the
colonial administrators, business community, and rise of nationalism among the
native population as well as the social needs of migrant populations to keep in
touch with their homelands.

Among the earlier English language newspapers was Straits Echo, published in
1904 in Penang by Criterion Press. At about the same time in the Federated Malay
States, two newspapers were published, namely Times of Malaya, and PlantersÊ
and MinersÊ Gazette. These newspapers were edited by Silas Penny and J. A. S.
Jennings. In 1915 another newspaper, Malayan Tribute, was published in
Singapore by Lim Boon Huat and A. W. Westerhout. The major role played by
English newspapers before World War Two could be said to be primarily as
economic journals, meeting the needs of the commercial sector of the population.
During the years 1935 and 1936, there were twenty-five new newspapers
published in the Malay language. Increasing commercialisation and
professionalism in journalism, coupled with the affordable price, caused
newspapers to flourish. By 1931, with over one-third of the males literate, these
newspapers and magazines were widely popular, especially among school
teachers and government workers. In addition to Warta Malaya (1931ă1941),
prominent Malaysian newspapers in circulation before World War II include
Majlis (1931ă1941), Lembaga (1935ă1941) and Utusan Malayu (1939ă1941).
During the second quarter of the 19th century, two prominent newspapers were
published, namely Warta Malaya (1930ă1942), and Utusan Melayu. The publisher
of Warta Malaya was Syed Hussein Ali Alsagoff, a wealthy Arab merchant. It was
edited by Dato Onn Jaffar, who later became one of the well-known nationalists
who fought for Malayan independence. The other newspapers, Utusan Melayu
and its Sunday edition Utusan Zama, were published in 1932 by Utusan Press
Limited. One of its editors was Yusof Ishak, who later became the first president
of the Republic of Singapore.
The role of Chinese newspapers in the early 19th century was to drum support
from overseas Chinese on political issues in mainland China between the
reformists and nationalist groups. Among the newspapers that were published
with financial support from the reformists were Thien Nan Shin Pao (1898ă1905)
and Penang Sin Pao (1895ă1941). On the nationalist side, they tried to gain support
by establishing Thoe Lan Jit Pao (1904ă11906) and Chong Shing Yit Pao (1907ă
1910).
After the 1911 revolution in China, local Chinese language newspapers focused
much of their content on commerce. Two main newspapers, Nanyang Siang Pao
(1923) and Sin Chew Jit Pao (1929), were first published in Singapore and survived
until the present time. Currently they are published in Kuala Lumpur. Besides
Singapore and Penang, which became the centres for growth of Chinese language
newspapers, there were several newspapers that were published in Kuala
Lumpur, such as Yi Qun Bao (1919ă1936), Zhong Hua Shung (1925ă1937) and Ma
Hua Ri Bao (1937ă1941).

Among the prominent Tamil language newspapers in the first quarter of 19th
century was Tamil Nesan published in 1923. It has survived until now. It was
reported that there were 13 other Tamil newspapers during that period but many
were short lived. The newspapers carried local and national news and substantial
news on events happening in India. Other newspapers during this period included
Kaliyugam by V. Govindersamy and Sinthaman by V. Balammal. Both newspapers
reported on the condition of Indians working in plantations and also about
women. However, towards the second quarter of 19th century there began a
reformation among the Tamil communities. Tamil newspapers were then
encouraging Tamils to stay in Malaya and regard this country as their place of
residence. Consequently many became Malayan citizens. Other newspapers which
echoed the same message asking Indians to work towards becoming Malayan
citizens were Samudaya Oolin, Bharata Mithran and Tamilan.
3.2.2 The Role of Radio Broadcasting Services

Besides the development of newspapers during British colonisation, there was also
the early development of radio broadcasting service. The first radio station was
established in Kuala Lumpur. It was the up-country gathering point for rubber
estate workers and tin mines and also the capital of the Federated Malay States. It
was an unofficial and an amateur radio club, which organised plans to create a
local service. It was first started among wireless radio enthusiasts operating
individually and then through wireless associations set up in various parts of
Malaya such as in Johor, Penang and Kuala Lumpur.
Although experimental broadcasts of the Singapore amateur group had begun

earlier, the Kuala Lumpur operation was more successful. The Kuala Lumpur
Amateur Wireless Society started experimental work in November 1929 and
officially commenced its regular broadcast service at 6.30 pm with „tea dance
music from the Selangor Club‰. A talk on the activities of the radio club was also
transmitted that night.
Radio development in colonial Malaya did not start until the late 1930s. This was
followed by the efforts of Sir Shenton Thomas, who opened the Studio of
Broadcasting Corporation of Malaya and its transmitter at Caldecott Hill,
Singapore, on 11 March 1937. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) of
Malaya was then taken over by the Straits Settlement and became a part of the
British Information Ministry better known as the Malayan Broadcasting
Corporation.

SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What was the main purpose of newspaper publications in the early
days of British colonisation?
2. How was censorship done under the British settlement compared
to when it was under the administration of British East India
Company?
3. What were the roles played by vernacular newspapers during
British colonisation?
3.3 MASS MEDIA DURING THE JAPANESE

OCCUPATION
The Japanese occupied Malaya when the Allied forces surrendered in Singapore
on 16 February 1942. The Japanese remained in occupation until their surrender to
the Allied forces in Penang on 4 September 1945 aboard HMS Nelson. During this
period of Japanese occupation, the publication of all pre-war newspapers was
suspended. Newspapers during the Japanese occupation were regarded as tools
for the Japanese Army Propaganda Department. The Japanese administration
published several newspapers, among which were Malai Shimbun, published in
Singapore (1943ă1945), Penang Shimbun, in Penang (1942ă1945) and Shanan
Shimbun, in Singapore (1942ă1945).
The invading Japanese forces used slogans such as Asia for Asians to win support
from the local Malays. The Japanese worked hard to convince the local population
that they were the actual saviours of Malaya while Britain was portrayed as an
imperialist force that wished to exploit MalayaÊs resources. Three Malay
newspapers were published by the Japanese: the Malay language edition of
Penang Shimbun, published in Penang, Berita Perak, Berita Malai and Semangat
Asia. Abdul Rahim Kajai and Ishak Hj Muhammad were involved in editing Berita
Malai and Semangat Asia, both published by Malai Shaimbun Sya in Singapore.
Both Abdul Rahim Kajai and Ishak Hj Mohammad later on became well known
nationalists who fought British colonisation in Malaya.

3.3.1 Japanese Alliance with Kesatuan Melayu

Another link forged by the Japanese was with Ibrahim Yaacob of Kesatuan Melayu
Muda a pro-independence Malay organisation. On the eve of World War II,
Yaacob and the members of Kesatuan Melayu Muda actively encouraged anti-
British sentiment. With Japanese aid, the organisation purchased the influential
Singapore based Malay publication Warta Malaya. Close to the time of the
Japanese invasion Yaacob, Ishak Muhammad and a number of Kesatuan Melayu
Muda leaders were arrested and imprisoned by the British.
During the Battle of Malaya, Kesatuan Melayu Muda members assisted the
Japanese as they believed that the Japanese would give Malaya independence.
When the Japanese captured Singapore, the arrested members were released by
the Japanese. Mustapha Hussain, the organisationÊs Vice-President, and the others
requested that the Japanese grant Malaya independence but the request was
turned down. The Japanese instead disbanded Kesatuan Melayu Muda and
established the Pembela Tanah Ayer (also known as the Malai Giyu Gun or by its
Malay acronym PETA). Yaacob was given the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in charge
of the 2,000 man militia.
In place of Chinese newspapers published by Chinese businessmen, the Japanese

administration published Syonan Shimbun and Melaka New Newspaper. The
Indian newspapers were left to the Indian Independent League, whose leader
Chandra Bose collaborated with Japanese administration in Malaya. The
newspapers published in Tamil were Sutaandira India, Sutandiratayam and
Yurabharatham. They were geared towards creating awareness among Indians
towards IndiaÊs independence. Other newspapers published at that time were
Azad Hind published in Hindustani and Sutandra Bharaham in Malayalam
dialect.
3.3.2 Aftermath of the Japanese Invasion

Following the Japanese invasion and the end of British rule in Singapore in 1942,
the Japanese took over and used the existing radio channels in Penang, Malacca,
Kuala Lumpur, Seremban and Singapore to transmit Japanese propaganda.
However, in the year 1945, the British seized power and reclaimed the stations. On
1 April 1946, the Department of Broadcasting was established in Singapore. When
a state of emergency was declared in 1948 as a result of an outbreak of social riots,

it became necessary to further enhance and develop radio services. In the early
1950s, broadcasting activities in Malaya were operated from its temporary studio
in Jalan Young in Kuala Lumpur and later moved to the Federal House, Kuala
Lumpur in 1956. It was here that broadcasting in Malaysia grew with the
establishment of several stations throughout the country including Sabah and
Sarawak.
The Japanese invasion and occupation of Malaya lowered the prestige of the
British. The people had seen how the Japanese had defeated the British. Although
the British had fought bravely, they had failed to protect Malaya and prevented
the Japanese from bringing hardship, suffering and fear to the people. The people
thus lost confidence in British protection. During the occupation, the Japanese had
encouraged the Malays to be conscious of the fact that they were the rightful
owners of Malaya. They held some administrative posts during the Japanese
occupation and this had made them eager to protect their rights and to govern the
country themselves. They began to develop strong feelings of nationalism which
were not present before the war.
3.4 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICS: PRE-

INDEPENDENCE
The British Military Administration (BMA) was an interim government from
September 1945 to March 1946. The Federated Malay States, the Unfederated
Malay States as well as the Straits Settlement, including Singapore were placed
under temporary British military rule. The BMA ended when all the Malay States
and the Settlements of Penang and Malacca joined the short-lived Malayan Union.
Singapore became a Crown Colony. On April 1, 1946 the Malayan Union officially
came into existence with Sir Edward Gent as its governor. The Straits Settlements,
comprising Penang, Melaka and Singapore, were officially dissolved.
Malay nationalism, which was brewing during the 1930s, reached its apex after the
Second World War especially with the suggestion by the British to set up the
Malayan Union in April 1946. The proposed Malayan Union was to reduce the
power of the Malay rulers to that of administrating Malay customs and Islamic
religion. Citizenship would be opened to migrant workers and other non-Malays
who qualified on birth, residential and other terms. The Malayan Union was
regarded as having awakened political activity, and heightened ethnic
consciousness and nationalism among the different ethnic groups in the Malay
states and the Straits Settlement.

For the Malays, their opposition to the Malayan Union led to the birth of the United
Malays National Organisation or UMNO, which was inaugurated on May 11, 1946
in Johor Bahru, and the emergence of Datuk Onn Jaafar as its first president. Non-
Malays were also prompted to fight for their rights, and organised political parties
such as the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) and the Malayan Democratic Union,
which came under an umbrella organisation called the All-Malaya Council of Joint
Action (AMCJA) headed by prominent Chinese leader Tan Cheng Lock.
To the Malays, the Malayan Union would reduce their control over political and
economic affairs in the country. The British would then control the political and
economic policies, and encourage an influx of Chinese and Indian migrant workers
to Malaya. These sentiments were channelled through various newspapers, such
as Utusan Melayu and its weekend edition Utusan Zaman, which operated in
Singapore, Majlis in Kuala Lumpur and Warta Negara from Penang. Utusan
Melayu played a prominent role in creating awareness of consequences of the
Malayan Union among the Malays and the Malay rulers. Through its editorial, the
newspaper managed to convince Malay organisations to form a united front by
convening the National Malay Congress, which subsequently led to the formation
of the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO). UMNO later managed to
convince the British to drop the idea of the Malayan Union and instead introduce
the Federation of Malaya in 1948.
3.4.1 Independence from the British in 1957

The Federation of Malaya gained its independence from the British in August 1957.
Such was the power of the press at that time, especially Utusan Melayu, in
galvanising Malay support to reject the British idea of Malayan Union and unite
the Malays under the UMNO banner to achieve independence for Malaya.
Other language newspapers which ceased publication during the Japanese

occupation resumed publication after the war. Among those were Sin Chew Jit Poh
and Nanyang Siang Pau, first published in Singapore and Penang, but
subsequently moved to Kuala Lumpur after Malaya gained its independence. The
Indian newspapers which were republished were Tamil Nesan and Tamil Murasu.
Among the major English newspapers that survived the Japanese occupation
were the Straits Times, The Malay Mail and the Straits Echo. While the Malay
newspapers mirrored Malay nationalism, vernacular newspapers became outlets
for the non-Malays to protect their interests and be critical of the pro-Malay
policies shown by the British administration. The English newspapers positioned
themselves as the defender of the interest of the immigrants in light of the growing
forces of Malay nationalism as championed by the Malay newspapers.

SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. What was the role played by newspapers during the Japanese

occupation?
2. In what way did the Japanese occupation change the content of

newspapers after the Second World War?
3. What role did radio broadcasting play in the early development of

socio-politics in Malaysia?
ACTIVITY 3.1
In a group of three, discuss and present the pre- and post- independence
scenario of media and politics in Malaysia.
 Media during the British colonisation in the 19th and 20th centuries was
mainly about newspapers. Radio did not start in Malaysia until 1930.
 The first newspaper was the Prince of Wales Island Gazette, published in
Penang in 1806. Most of the contents were about commerce and government
information.
 Censorship of the newspaper during its early days was direct, carried out
through licensing issued by the office of the governor and later through
registration of the printing press.
 During the early 19th century, most of the newspapers published were in the
English language, catering for the British administration and commercial
activities. Most newspapers were published in Penang, Singapore and Melaka.
 Chinese language newspapers, published in the early 19th century, were

meant to gain support of overseas Chinese with regard to politics in mainland
China between the nationalists and communists.

 Indian language newspapers were published mainly to cater to the needs of

Indian migrant workers for news about their homeland and later to support
the fight for Indian independence.
 Malay newspapers played a prominent role in highlighting the economic

plight of the Malay population and subsequently in spreading Malay
nationalism to gain independence from the British.
 During the Japanese occupation, all newspapers ceased publication. Instead

the Japanese Army Propaganda Division took over all publication of
newspapers in different languages.
 After the Second World War and with the return of the British, newspapers
had become critical of the British administration. The Chinese and Indian
newspapers raised issues related to their wellbeing and possible integration as
citizens of Malaya.
 Some of the editors of Malay newspapers later went on to become prominent

nationalists who fought for MalayaÊs independence.
British Broadcasting Corporation Malay nationalism

(BBC)
Malayan Union
Colonial rule
Press censorship
East India Company
Straits Settlement
Japanese occupation
The Prince of Wales Island Gazette
Jawi Peranakan

Dhari Othman. (1992). Malaysian press: A brief history of newspaper in British

Malaya. Jurnal Komunikasi, 8, 117ă130.
Hock, C. M. (1967). The early Chinese newspaper of Singapore 1881ă1912. Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia: University Malaya Press.
Lent, J. (1978). MalaysiaÊs national language mass media: History and present
status. South East Asia Studies, 15(4), 598ă612.
Mohd Safar Hasim. (1996). Perkembangan sistem akhbar di Malaysia sejak 1806.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Malaya.
Roff, W. (1961). Guide to Malay periodicals: 1876ă1941. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:

Department of History, University Malaya.

Topic  The
Relationship
4 between Media
and Politics in
Malaysia:
Theoretical
Perspectives
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the concepts of society, mass society, mass media and
politics;
2. Describe the relationship between media and politics;
3. Describe the characteristics of mass society;
4. Elaborate on how outside influence controls editorial decisions; and
5. Explain the three assumptions of the media hegemony theory.

 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between media and politics is very important in the working
of a country. Often times, the masses perceive politics as controlling the media,
especially in less democratic countries. However, in democratic countries, the
media has the upper hand. Some still see the relationship as complementary in
nature, where media and the political system work hand in hand. To further
understand the political environment or the space in which the media operates,
and the relationship between media and politics, especially the power relationship,
we need to be familiar with several important theoretical underpinnings.
4.1 MASS SOCIETY, POLITICS AND THE

MEDIA
Looking at society as a concept, scholars have provided different views. Society
can be viewed as a social organism possessing a harmony of structure and function
and involving a total complex of human relationships, insofar as they grow out of
the action in terms of means-end relationships, either intrinsic or symbolic (Coser,
1977; Parsons, 1975).
A society consists of a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual

aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and liberties.
This ever changing complex system which is called society is a web of social
relationship (Ginsberg, 2011; MacIver & Page, 1937).
In sociology, the term society is the most central. The term is derived from the Latin
word „socius‰, which means companionship or friendship. Aristotle said that
„Man is a social animal.‰ Man cannot live alone, that is, he always lives in and
needs the company of other people.
In sociology, the term „society‰ has been used to mean a group of people that form
a semi-closed social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals
belonging to the group. Essentially, society is a population of humans
characterised by forms of relationships between individuals that share a unique
culture and/or institutions.

Generally, a society is an economic, social and industrial infrastructure, of which

a diverse mass of people or peoples are a part. The word „society‰ may also refer
to an organised voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural,
scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. It is within the society that the
arms of politics and the media play their various roles, which are by and large
complementary. Without society, there would not exist politics, let alone the
media.
The role of politics and media is that of creating a balance and harmony. Politics
is responsible for the running of the day-to-day affairs of the country. Media, on
the other hand, serve to provide the needed information in the system in helping
relay and convey information for the smooth running of the operation of the
government and the society at large.
4.1.1 The Concept of Mass and Mass Society

The word „mass‰ as used in social sciences is taken to mean a group of people with
common characteristics. In other words, mass means a body or group of people
with more similarities than differences.
Mass society is any society of the modern era that possesses a mass culture and
large-scale, impersonal, social institutions. A mass society is a society dominated
by a small number of interconnected elites who control the conditions of life of the
many, often by means of persuasion and manipulation (McQuail, 2005). In the late
19th century work of Émile Durkheim, the term was connected with society to
denote a mass of identical, atomistic individuals.
In a mass society, power is vested in bureaucracies, thereby leaving people in local

communities with little control over their lives. For example, state officials dictate
that local schools must meet educational standards, local products must be
government-certified, and every citizen must maintain extensive tax records.
Although such rules may protect and improve social equality, they also force us to
deal more and more with nameless officials in distant and often indifferent
bureaucracies, and they weaken the independence of families and local
communities (Macionis, 2009).
Sociologist, Mills (1956) outlines the following characteristics of a mass society:
(a) Far fewer people express opinions than receive them; for the community
of public becomes an abstract collection of individuals who receive
impressions from the mass media.

(b) The communications that prevail are so organised that it is difficult or

impossible for the individual to answer back immediately or with any effect.
(c) The realisation of opinion in action is controlled by authorities who organise

and control the channels of such action.
(d) The mass has no autonomy from institutions; on the contrary, agents of
authorised institutions penetrate this mass, reducing any autonomy it may
have in the formation of opinion by discussion.
4.1.2 The Concept of Politics and Mass Society

The term politics is taken from the Greek word politika. This term originated from
the book of Aristotle on governing and governments as modelled on his view,
„affairs of the city.‰ The meaning of the root term relates to the citizens, civic, civil
and belonging to the state. It is this relation that brings politics closer to the masses.
Generally the common definition of politics is the ability to persuade and influence
the electorate to provide political power and authority in the governmental affairs
of the state. Politics is also the science of governance in the control of the external
and internal affairs of the state. The management of the political, economic, social
and administrative affairs in the public sector has been the concept of governance
of the state. On the basis of the definition of politics, the sovereign power of the
government is to control the various state affairs.
The art of governance provides internal affairs to the administrative and sovereign
rights to carry on political agenda that would best suit the interest of the political
party and development thrusts for the generation of common welfare to the
society. This validates the electoral promises of public officials on the ability to
influence and persuade the electorate or the masses to pursue the political
platforms. This serves as the basis to gauge the political performance of those who
are elected as government officials of the state, by the masses.
4.1.3 The Concept of Mass Media

Mass media is the mechanism used to communicate to the general public. Mass
media means technology that is aimed at reaching a mass and wide audience
(viewers, listeners). It is the primary means of communication used to reach the
vast majority of the general public. The most common platforms for mass media
are newspapers, magazines, radio, television and the Internet. The general public
usually depend on the mass media to provide information regarding various
issues in the society ranging from politics, social, entertainment, and trending
news in popular culture.

The mass media has evolved significantly over time. The newspaper was the
original platform for mass media. For a long period of time, the public relied on
writers and journalists for the local newspapers to provide them with the latest
news in current events. This was followed years later in the 1890s by the invention
of the radio. The radio became very popular then, whereby families would gather
around the radio and listen to their favourite radio station to hear the latest news
regarding politics, social issues, and entertainment. Later on came the invention of
television. The television, which projected pictures in addition to sound, became
more attractive and quickly replaced the radio as the most effective platform to
reach the audience or viewers.
Since the advancement of the Internet, the general public is now able to access
those same news outlets in an instant, with just a click of a mouse, instead of having
to wait for scheduled programmes. Today, the Internet has become the most
relevant form of mass media and has become one of the main transmission tools
for news outlets.
4.1.4 Mass Media and Mass Society

The concept „mass society‰ views modern society in terms of an abstract, often
vague definition of „society‰ as a whole, within which modern society is viewed
as a „mass society‰. The mass society consists of components which are divided
between the elites (economic, cultural, political, intellectual), and the remainder of
the „mass society‰. Some argue that this approach is a response to the perceived
decline in social standards, moral values and cultural integrity that come about
with a „mass society‰.
Media on the other hand has been viewed with pessimism as a major agent of
standardisation, alienation and cause of widespread cultural uniformity. Scholars
like Leavis and Eliot perceive the media as a major threat to an established and
elite cultural heritage, civilisation, and purveyors of forms of „massification‰ and
inferior culture and standardisation (Brookeman, 1984).
In the US, for example, „mass communications‰ research is deployed in order to

show how the media are responsible for creating a new society of conformity,
alienation, standardisation, and declining intellectual and cultural standards, a
civilisation of game-shows and soap operas. The mass media are blamed for
societal problems. The mass media practitioners argue that they operate within a
societal framework and they only report what they see and hear.

4.1.5 Mass Media as Mass Communication

Mass communication is a process in which a person, group of people, or an
organisation sends a message through a channel of communication to a large
group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organisations. You can think
of the large group of anonymous and heterogeneous people as either the general
public or a segment of the general public. Channels of mass communication
are the agents of mass media such as print, radio, television, and social media
including Internet-abled media. The sender of the message is usually a
professional communicator who often represents an organisation. Mass
communication is an expensive process. Unlike interpersonal communication,
feedback for mass communication is usually slow and indirect. However, social
media has changed peopleÊs outlook on the mass media.
The following are some types of mass communication:
(a) Advertising, which consists of communication attempting to induce

purchasing behaviour.
(b) Journalism, such as news.
(c) Public relations, which is communication intended to influence public

opinion on a product or organisation.
(d) Politics, for example, campaigning.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. Explain the main characteristics of mass society.

2. What do you understand by the concept of mass media?
ACTIVITY 4.1
Citing current examples, explain the relationship between media and

politics.

4.2 MEDIA THEORIES

We will now explore the media theories that describe the relationships and
inter dependency of media, audience and politics. Political economy, where the
elites control economic institutions, which in turn affect other social institutions
including the mass media, is discussed. Let us focus on the different media theories
in the following subtopics.
4.2.1 Media Dependency Theory

Society and the media coexist and influence each other. In this relationship, society
is said to depend on the media. People use the media for many reasons including
information, entertainment, and para-social relationships. The media dependency
theory says the more a person becomes dependent on the media to fulfil these
needs, the more important the media will become to that individual. In other
words, individuals depend on the media for their daily dosage of news and other
information. The media will also have much more influence and power over that
individual.
Media dependency theory was originally proposed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur

(1976). They used the theory „to investigate peopleÊs dependency on mass media
to satisfy clusters of needs arising from social roles to individual dispositions‰. The
more people use media, the more they become dependent on it and the more
influence the media will have in their lives. The theory as shown in Figure 4.1, is
combined with several perspectives like psychoanalytics and social system theory,
systematic and casual approach and base elements from uses and gratification
theory but less focus on effects.

Figure 4.1: A model of media dependency relationships

Source: Adapted from Ball-Rokeach (1985)
There are three types of media dependency:
(a) Information gathering and creating;
(b) Information processing; and
(c) Information dissemination.

According to scholars and researchers, crisis communication is one of the areas

where there is dependence on the media. Media has a tendency to shape and form
the „reality‰ of the public during and after the crisis situation. The publicÊs
dependence on the media in crisis situations is more intense than in non-crisis
situations.
Media dependency theory is one of the first theories which regard the audience as
an active part of the communication process. The media dependency theory is
expanded from the theory of uses and gratification.
Dependence on the media also varies in degree, according to the following aspects:
(a) Individual: The media has the ability to satisfy audience needs. An
individual will become more dependent on media, if the medium satisfies
his/her needs. Otherwise the media dependence will become less.
(b) Social stability: The audience reconsiders his/her beliefs, practices and
behaviours when there are strong social changes, conflicts, riots or election,
whereby he/she will be forced to re-evaluate and make new decisions.
During this period, media dependency is dramatically increased because
there is a strong need for information, support and advice.
(c) Active audience: In the communication process, the active audience chooses
the media depending on his/her individual needs and other factors such as
economic conditions, society and culture. If there are alternative sources
of information, support and advice that fulfil the audience needs, media
dependency will decrease.
4.2.2 The Effects of Media Message

Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976; 1989) suggest that the cognitive, behavioural and
affective consequences of media use are premised upon characteristics of both
individuals and their social environment.
(a) Cognitive
There are five types of cognitive effects that affect audience.
(i) The first is the creation and resolution of ambiguity. Ambiguity occurs
when audiences receive inadequate or incomplete information about
their social world. When there is high ambiguity, stress is created, and
audiences are more likely to turn to mass media to resolve ambiguity.
Ambiguity might be especially widespread during times of social
change or conflict.

(ii) The second effect is agenda-setting. Like any other effect, media
agenda-setting effects should be heightened during times when the
audienceÊs needs and therefore dependency on media are high. So, for
instance, if our informational needs and dependency on the media was
high during the invasion of Iraq in 2003, we would have been more
susceptible to agenda-setting effects, and we would have therefore
perceived that the Iraq War was the most important problem.
(iii) Third is attitude formation. Media exposes us to completely new

people, such as political figures and celebrities, not to mention physical
objects like birth control pills or car safety mechanisms that we come to
form attitudes about. Dependency does not suggest media is uniform
in its ability to influence attitudes, but the theory does suggest that
media plays a role in selecting objects and people for which people
form attitudes about. If a person is experiencing greater media
dependency, we would therefore expect that the person will form more
complex attitudes about these attitude-objects than people with low
media dependency.
(iv) Media also has the potential cognitive effect of expanding peopleÊs
belief systems. Media can create a kind of „enlargement‰ of citizenÊs
beliefs by disseminating information about other people, places, and
things. Expansion of peopleÊs belief systems refers to a broadening or
enlarging of beliefs in a certain category. For example, a constant flow
of information about global warming will expand peopleÊs beliefs
about pollution affecting the earthÊs atmosphere, about cap and trade
and other policies, and about personal contributions to global
warming. These beliefs meet with and are incorporated into an existing
value system regarding religion, free enterprise, work, ecology,
patriotism, recreation, and the family.
(v) Last is value clarification and conflict. Media helps citizens clarify
values (equality, freedom, honesty, forgiveness) often by precipitating
information about value conflicts. For instance, during the 1960s the
mass media regularly reported on the activities of the Civil Rights
movement, presenting conflicts between individual freedoms (e.g., a
businessmanÊs property rights to deny blacksÊ entrance) and equality
(e.g., human rights). When such conflicts play out in the mass media,
the value conflicts are identified, resulting in audiences forming their
own value positions. Such a position can be painful to articulate
because it can force a choice between mutually incompatible goals and
the means for obtaining them. However, in the process of trying to
decide which is more important in a particular case, general value
priorities can become clarified.
(b) Affective
Ball-Rokeach and DeFleur (1976) mentioned several possible affective
effects of media that are more likely to occur during times of heightened
dependency.
(i) First is desensitisation, which states that prolonged exposure to

violent content can have a „numbing‰ effect on audiences, promoting
insensitivity or the lack of desire toward helping others when violent
encounters happen in real life.
(ii) Second, exposure to news messages or TV dramas that portray crime-

ridden cities can increase peopleÊs fear or anxiety about living in or
even travelling to a city.
(iii) Media can also have effects on morale and feelings of alienation. The
degree of positive or negative mass media depictions of social groups
can cause fluctuations in peopleÊs sense of morale in belonging to that
group or in their sense of alienation from that group.
(c) Behavioural
There are two broad categories of behavioural effects that Ball-Rokeach and
DeFleur identify.
(i) The first broad category is called „activation‰ effects, which refer to
instances in which media audiences do something they would not
otherwise have done as a consequence of receiving media messages.
Behavioural effects are largely thought to work through cognitive and
affective effects. For instance, a woman reading a news story about
sexism in the workplace might form an attitude toward sexism that
creates a negative emotional state, the culmination of which is joining
a womenÊs rights march in her local community.
(ii) The second broad category of behavioural effects is called

„deactivation,‰ and refers to instances in which audiences would have
otherwise done something, but do not do as a consequence of media
messages. For example, primary presidential campaigns have become
longer and increasingly use more media to target audiences. As such,
primary campaigns might elicit negative attitudes toward the electoral
process and negative affective states such as boredom or disgust that
in turn might make a person not turn out to vote.

4.2.3 Political Economy Media Theory

Political economy theorists study elite control of economic institutions such as
banks, stock markets and then try to show how this control affects many other
social institutions including the mass media. Herbert Schiller (1986) suggests that
corporate influence pervades nearly every aspect of society from simple things like
our diet and the clothes we wear to who we elect for president.
Political economy is the study of social relations, particularly power relations that
commonly constitute the production, distribution and consumption of resources,
including communication resources (Donsbach, 2008). This approach has a certain
practical value because it calls attention to how the communication business
operates, for example, how communications products move through a chain
of producers such as from film studio, to wholesalers, retailers, and, finally
consumers, whose purchases, rentals, and attention are fed back into new
processes of production.
A more general definition of political economy is the study of control and survival
in social life. Control here refers specifically to the internal organisation of social
group members and the process of adapting to change. Survival on the other hand,
means how people produce what is needed for social reproduction and continuity.
Control processes are generally political, in that they constitute the social
organisation of relationships within a community, and survival processes are
mainly economic, because they concern processes of production and reproduction.
Political economy has consistently placed in the forefront the goal of
understanding social change and historical transformation.
The study of power relations forms the basis of the study of media and
communications:
(a) Power and knowledge are closely interlinked.
(b) Power is the means by which certain individuals and groups are able to
dominate others.
(c) Power is potentially or actually part of all social relationships.
(d) Usually a person who has control also has power.
(e) Media power is exerted by controlling the informational environment,

system of influences, commands and feedback.
(f) Traditionally, power is vested in editors.

However, in the present world, power could be vested in any of the following:
(a) Competition in the market place;
(b) Interest groups;
(c) Advertisers;
(d) Audience;
(e) Readers;
(f) Government; or
(g) Owners.
Outside influence control editorial decisions and it could be in any of the forms or
ways outlined in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Forms of Outside Influence
Form Description
Operational Control of editors or reporters.
Allocative Through the allocation of funds or personnel for certain programmes or
certain sections of the newspaper, and denial of funds for other sections
or programmes.
External Pressure from advertisers or consumer groups.
Media diversity is when media outlets are owned by a number of persons making
diversity of opinions a realistic expectation. Democratic governments attempt to
ensure diversity and are cautious of concentration in media ownership.
The questions that need to be asked are: Can the Internet and other new technology
break the hold of the media giants? Is the influence of the media giants benign or
harmful to democracy and freedom? Is there too much power in the hands of too
few?
4.2.4 Hegemony Theory of Media

Hegemony is most frequently used to describe the most powerful state in the
international system. Hegemony, according to Gramsci (1891ă1937), centres on the
role of ideology and state power in the capitalist society. In this hegemonic system,
the dominant social group or nation has the capacity to exercise intellectual and
moral direction over society or others and builds a new system of alliances to

support its aims. For Gramsci, this happens when this group exercises control over
mass media, schools, religion and others. The dominant class then forcefully
imposes its will on subordinate classes. However, GramsciÊs use of hegemony is
related to his understanding of power, which is broader and richer than realists: a
mixture of coercion and consent.
In understanding how the prevailing order was maintained, Marxists concentrated

almost exclusively on the coercive practices and capabilities of the state. The state
was seen as a means of oppressing one class by another. Based on this
understanding, it was coercion that prevented the exploited society from rising up
and changing the system that made them suffer.
Gramsci recognised that while this was true in less developed countries like
Russia, it was not the case in Western Europe. Here the system was maintained
not merely by coercion, but also through consent. Consent is created and recreated
by the hegemony of the ruling elite in society.
It is hegemony that makes the political, cultural, and moral values of the dominant
group become widely dispersed throughout society and accepted by subordinate
groups and classes as their own. For Gramsci, dominant ideologies are
institutionalised in society as they become the „common sense‰.
Civil society is the network of institutions and practices in society that enjoy some
autonomy from the state, and through which groups and individuals organise,
represent and express themselves to each other and to the state. These include
media, education system, churches, voluntary organisations and others.
Media hegemony theory is a theory that attributes wide influence to mass media
and is rooted in Marxist economics and the concept of hegemony. Hegemony is a
concept that says the ideas of the ruling class in society become the ruling ideas.
Media are seen as controlled by the dominant class in society and, thus, as a tool
for wielding control of that class over the rest of society. It argues that news and
other media content are designed and shaped to the requirements of corporate
(capitalist) ideology. Some scholars challenge the belief that media hegemony
brings about ideological dominance.
Altheide (1984) argues that this theory has three assumptions:
(a) Socialisation of journalists involves rules, work routines and orientations

steeped in the dominant ideology.
(b) Journalists tend to cover topics and present news reports that are
conservative and supportive of the status quo.

(c) Journalists tend to present pro-American coverage and negative coverage of

foreign countries, especially the Third World nations.
Thus, media hegemony theory places power in the hands of the media owners and
the status quo. The status quo decides what news report is deemed fit and suitable.
Topics are selected based on the dictates of the power behind the media
organisations. The masses have no say in the process of producing media
messages.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Identify three types of media dependency and describe the degree

of dependence.
2. Based on political economy media theory, explain how outside
influence controls editorial decisions.
3. Explain each of the three assumptions of media hegemony theory.
ACTIVITY 4.2
What do you understand by hegemony? Give your own examples.

Discuss with your coursemates.
 The relationship between media and politics is a very important aspect in the
working of a country. Often times, the masses perceive politics as controlling
the media, especially in less democratic countries.
 Society could be viewed as a social organism possessing a harmony of

structure and function involving a total complex of human relationships.
 A society consists of a system of usages and procedures of authority and

mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour
and liberties.

 Generally, a society is an economic, social and industrial infrastructure in

which a diverse mass of people or peoples are a part. The word „society‰ may
also refer to an organised voluntary association of people for religious,
benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic or other purposes.
 The word „mass‰ as used in social sciences is taken to mean a group of people
with common characteristics. In other words, mass means a body or group of
people with more similarities than differences.
 Mass society is any society of the modern era that possesses a mass culture and
large-scale, impersonal, social institutions. In a mass society, power is vested
in large bureaucracies, thereby leaving people in local communities with little
control over their lives.
 The term „politics‰ relates to the citizens, civic, civil and belonging to the state
and it is the ability to persuade and influence the electorate to provide political
power and authority in the governmental affairs of the state.
 Mass media are the mechanisms that are used to communicate to the general
public. Mass media means technology that is aimed at reaching a mass and
wide audience (viewers, listeners).
 Mass communication is a process in which a person, group of people, or an

organisation sends a message through a channel of communication to a large
group of anonymous and heterogeneous people and organisations.
 The media dependency theory says the more a person becomes dependent on
the media to fulfil their needs, the more important the media will become to
that individual. The media will also have much more influence and power over
that individual.
 Political economy is the study of social relations, particularly power relations

that commonly constitute the production, distribution, and consumption of
resources, including communication resources.
 Media hegemony theory is a theory that attributes wide influence to mass

media and is rooted in Marxist economics. The concept of hegemony and
media are seen as controlled by the dominant class in society and, thus, are
used as the tools for wielding control of that class over the rest of society.

Channels of mass communication Media

Civic Media dependency theory
Hegemony Media hegemony theory
Mass audience Political economy
Mass communication Political power
Mass media Politics
Mass society Society
Altheide, D. L. (1984). Media hegemony: A failure of perspective. Public Opinion

Quarterly, 48(2), 476ă490.
Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1985). The origins of individual media-system dependency: A

sociological framework. Communication Research, 12(4), 485ă510.
Ball-Rokeach, S. J., & DeFleur, M. L. (1976). A dependency model of mass-media

effects. Communication Research, 3(1), 3ă21.
Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2008). Mass communication theory: Foundation,

ferment, and the future. New York, NY: Wadsworth.
Brookeman, C. (1984). American culture and society since the 1930s. New York,
NY: Schocken Books.
Coser, L. A. (1977). Auguste Comte: Social statics and dynamics. In Masters

of sociological thought: Ideas in historical and social context (2nd ed.).
New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
DeFleur, M. L., & Ball-Rokeach, S. (1989). Theories of mass communication

(5th ed.). New York, NY: Longman.
Donsbach, W. (2008). The international encyclopedia of communication. Malden,

MA: Blackwell.

Ginsberg, M. (2011). The psychology of society (eBook). New York, NY: Barnes &
Noble.
Lowery, W. (2004). Media dependency during a large-scale social disruption: The

case of September 11. Mass Communication & Society, 7(3), 339ă357.
Macionis, J. J. (2009). Culture, society: The basics (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
MacIver, R. M., & Page, C. H. (1937). Society. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston. Retrieved from http://www.unz.org/Pub/MacIverRM-
1937?View=PDF

England: Sage.
Miller, K. (2005). Communication theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts

(2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Mills, C. W. (1956). The power elite. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Parsons, T. (1975). Social systems and the evolution of action theory. New York,
NY: The Free Press.
Schiller, H. I. (1986). Information and the crisis economy. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.

Topic  Media and
Mediation
5 Function
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the mediation function of the media;
2. Analyse the way the media influences public opinion;
3. Describe how the media function in a democratic society;
4. Explain the hegemony theory; and
5. Elaborate on political parties and fourth state power.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic intends to equip you with knowledge of the media, its function of
mediation, and its inseparable relation to the world of politics in todayÊs daily life.
You should be able to understand the influence of politics on the media, and vice
versa, and also the role the media plays in directing public opinion.
Media is the collective means of communication that conveys information from

one end to another, and vice versa. In other words, it is the indirect channel of
communication between individuals or between groups. It entails various tools
such as radio, television, newspapers, magazines and books. As a result of the
rapid technological advancements in the 21st century, electronic media such as the
Internet and its various components have become the most popular means of
communication. This can be in diverse fields such as politics, economics, business,
cultural and social communications.

TOPIC 5 MEDIA AND MEDIATION FUNCTION  69
5.1 THE CONCEPT OF MEDIATION IN MEDIA

AND POLITICS
The strongest relationship between media and politics is located in the word
„mediatisation‰. Politics has become highly mediatised today. This means that
politics cannot be separated from the media, which has become like a shadow
following the former wherever it is. Every important political event that occurs in
a particular country or in any other part of the world might fall under the spotlight
of the media.
The media has professional agents dedicated to hunting for events or news in
order to highlight them to the public as well as to other destinations, based on the
degree of independence that the media enjoys in a given environment. This is
because the common man, political leaders and other members of the public also
get information from a similar source or sources of information. Likewise, the
highest elites like the president or the prime minister also turn to the media to
know what is going on around them.
Mediation is the principal function of the media, conveying messages, news,

information, or data from one party to another. In politics, mediation is a very
important role played by certain intermediaries to create awareness and solve
problems for the welfare of everyone. For instance, there has been a long political
and territorial dispute between the Philippines and China over certain rocky
islands in the South China Sea called the Scarborough Shoal (see Figure 5.1). The
Philippines took the case to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) for mediation
and ruling on the disputes. Then in July 2016, the ICJ passed a ruling in favour of
the Philippines. This is now a hot political issue making political headlines in the
media around the world.
Figure 5.1: Map showing the Scarborough Shoal, disputed between Philippines and China
Source: http://www.aljazeera.com

70  TOPIC 5 MEDIA AND MEDIATION FUNCTION
Public demonstrations are going on in both China and the Philippines calling on
each government of the two countries never to give up its claim over the issue.
Tension is rising high in the region with China flexing its military muscles and
vowing not to accept the ruling. Most probably, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) will mediate in order to cool off the rising tension between the
two countries and to find a peaceful solution to the issue. Everyone who is
concerned about world politics and news is following this issue as well as other
issues from the media.
5.1.1 Mass Media Function in Democratic Society

Politics and the art of governing have become strongly tied to the mass media.
Governments, political and other national leaders depend highly on the media as
a means of communication with the rest of society, in particular democratic
societies where the media has some freedom in influencing public opinion
and highlighting the daily functions of the government. Even in countries
characterised as dictatorial, authoritarian, or autocratic, the media plays a very
important role in directing the minds of the citizens.
In a democratic society, the media is expected to have a degree of independence

so as to be a credible watchdog especially of those in political power. The media
is expected to highlight the social, political, and economic performances of the
government to the public in order to call the national leaders to account in case of
errors, wrongdoings, or violation of the democratic agreement between them and
the people. In a democracy, the freedom of the media is a constitutional right, and
a free and open media is very important for an effective meaningful democracy.
However, the passion of many journalists in uncovering events and disseminating
news about political leaders oftentimes creates hostilities between the two. The
political leaders expect the press media to support their views and policies. On the
other hand, many journalists see themselves as watchdogs and guardians of
democracy.
Nevertheless, today, there is a noticeable concern in many democratic countries

that the media is not functioning as expected. There are two main reasons for this.
One is because the media has become commercialised in many instances and
rather serves to portray the interests of those in power. At times, the media focuses
more on trivial issues like entertainment, scandals, violence, and personality
targeting in order to attract a wider audience. All too often, the media makes
us afraid of the wrong things. Minor dangers are hysterically blown out of
proportion, while much more serious dangers in our society go largely unnoticed
(Glassner, 1999). So far, the Internet serves more than the commercialised media
because it cannot be easily controlled. People are able to express their minds more
openly than they can on TV, radio, and/or newspapers.

Unfortunately, there is no consensus on the normative expectations and moral

values that the media is universally obliged to adhere to. This means people in
different parts of the world may give subjective arguments to support and justify
the way a certain media behaves, or the way the political authority tries to have
influence in directing the course of the media. One group in a given society might
support certain information diffused by the media, while another might go against
it, and yet another might remain neutral. Most cases of selection in the news media
can be explained by structural factors, such as the organisation of news agencies,
financing, dependence on sources, and ratings competition (Ericson, Baranek, &
Chan, 1987).
5.1.2 Mass Media and Public Opinion

Public opinion refers to the views, the attitudes, the preferences, and the feelings
of individuals on a particular issue in public life. These are highly influenced by
the mass media and the personal ability to absorb at first hand, or to critically
analyse the information provided by the media. Among the most powerful news
agencies in the West are the BBC, CNN, Euro-news, and Monte Carlo, while, Al
Jazeera, Al Arabiya, LBC, and Asharq Al-Awsat are the news agencies in the
Middle East. The religious and political leaders of these media agencies are always
around to talk freely and pass news, stands, and positions to their communities
and to the public using them to serve their political and economic ends
(Hadeshian, 2006).
Public opinion has become very important in political decision-making in

democratic societies. The common masses get their information from the media,
analyse it, and consequently take sides in supporting or opposing a particular
policy, or government. Therefore, the media has the power to direct public opinion
into its desired direction. It directs a large public population to take action towards
certain issues in their respective countries. That is why, some scholars have begun
to characterise public opinion as a relatively stable and consistent counterweight
that policy makers must, or at least should, take into consideration (Page & Bouton,
2006).
The public needs information and knowledge about what is taking place around
the world. The mass media provides this knowledge to the public through its
various channels. Today, even the illiterate individual who does not know how to
read and write is informed according to his own analytical capacity about what
is happening in his country or in another. The media here works as a strong
intermediary to inform the public about what is happening around and even many
miles away from the scene of the events.

5.1.3 Mass Media and Agenda Setting

Agenda setting simply refers to the role played by the media in highlighting an
important event to make it the prime focus of public opinion. It might go on
repeatedly highlighting an event in order to make it very important in the view of
the public. For example, the event or news can be placed on the front page, or can
be given a large headline to signify its prime importance to the viewer. The news
might be repeated over and over again to the extent that if anyone is asked about
the most important current national issue, a majority of people might give similar
answers. People need to orient themselves in a complex world full of complex
issues. In the absence of other cues, people tend to judge the importance of issues
from their salience in the media and to focus their attention on those presumably
most important issues (Fog, 2013).
The media has more power in areas about which most people are not well-
informed. It has less influencing powers when people are informed because in this
case, the people can make up their minds and counter argue with the points
presented in the media. It will be much easier for them to verify the authenticity
of the information given by the media. Furthermore, the agenda-setting effect is
stronger for concrete issues that are easy to visualise than for abstract issues
(Yagade & Dozier, 1990).
The media itself can also be influenced by the power of the political elite or
government in setting the public agenda of a given issue. Special interest groups
also compete for a share in this influence. In this respect, there is a concept known
as priming, which is closely related to agenda setting. Thus, the news media can
influence the criteria by which political candidates are judged by calling attention
to some issues and ignoring others before the speech of the candidate (Fog, 2013).
For instance, in the case of the Philippines, where the main concern of the public
is the dispute with China over the ICJÊs ruling on the Scarborough Shoal in the
South China Sea, the media might shift direction to economic problems in order to
set a new agenda to divert public opinion away from its previous focus point.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Explain in some detail how and why politics is said to be
mediatised in the modern world. Give examples.
2. How is it possible for the media to influence public opinion?

SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain mediation.
2. How do media function in a democratic society?
3. What is public opinion?
4. Explain the concept of agenda setting and priming.
5.2 MASS MEDIA AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social institutions refer to the principal social, political, economic, and other
components of the society that enable it to function as one body. Examples of social
institutions are the government, in its various forms across the world; economic
institutions, like the many ministries that cater for economic development; and the
school and the family that instil education, and social and cultural values in the
people. In the following subtopics, we will explore the relationships between mass
media and national development and social integration, respectively.
5.2.1 Mass Media and National Development

National development refers to improvement in many dimensions of society, such
as the economic, social and political life of the people. The media plays a very
important role in this aspect. However, this role depends on the type of social and
political environment where the media operates. Its influence is greater where it is
able to reach a large number of people to draw them into the functional sphere of
the nation. Otherwise, it would not be very effective, for example, in societies
where social and political awareness is shallow among the population.
Where the society is characterised as a parochial society, people are not interested
in the political functioning of the government and the role of the media in directing
public opinion is weak. Hence, national development works freely without much
scrutiny. This is because as mentioned earlier, the media functions as a watchdog
on the performance of the political regime. That function depends on the
support it garners from influencing public opinion that might call the ruling elite
into account in terms of wrongdoings or deliberate poor performance and
mismanagement.

It should always be held in mind that the media is not expected to be biased against
the government. It is rather expected to influence the opinion of the government
leaders as well. It should also be remembered that the government has a strong
influence on the media, depending on the type of political system that prevails in
the country. This implies that there is a nation-wide dialogue between these three
components; the media, the public, and the national leaders on the way national
development moves.
Politically, for instance, there is no doubt that „corruption has a negative impact
on society, particularly in furthering poverty and income inequality‰ (Gupta,
Davoodi, & Alonso-Terme, 2002). An independent media exposes corruption and
corrupt national leaders to the public, a matter that reduces the level of corruption,
which in turn enhances national development.
Economically, national leaders, investors and economic agents also need accurate
information from the media in order to allocate resources for national
development in a proper and timely manner. The government and political leaders
need similar information in order to monitor national economic policies.
Socially, the people need to be well-informed and guided to participate in national

development by adopting adequate and responsible attitudes towards such
development. Several studies conducted in the past show that the lesser
restrictions are placed on the free media, the greater its positive impact on national
development is. For example, in a study of 51 countries from 1995 to 2004, it was
found that improving the viability and competitiveness of the media in the
economic sector, would be associated with a decline in corruption of between 0.6
and 1.7 for economic influences and 0.7 to 1.4 for political influences (Freille,
Haque, & Kneller, 2007).
5.2.2 Mass Media and Social Integration

The media is very crucial in directing the public towards particular attitudes
related to social integration. National unity and the feeling of belonging to one
solid national community is one of the important aspects of state formation and
survival. Most nations on earth are heterogeneous. That means they are made
up of different racial or ethnic, religious, and cultural structures. It is often very
difficult to have the nation united along these social cleavages. When these diverse
national components are cemented and rallied around the central government, the
country will be strong and the government can operate more easily. This relates to
the role of the media as one of the most important factors that strengthen social
integration. This is done by instilling positive information that breeds social
cohesion and unity among the people.

Unbiased dissemination of news and views is important in keeping the various

elements of the society intact. Otherwise, the media can play a devastating role if
it demonises or stereotypes any particular group within the society. In todayÊs
world, we can easily see how the media is playing a leading negative role in
creating tension, hostilities, and hatred towards a particular group in a given
society. For instance, the moment this biased role of the media is mentioned, the
mental picture of how Islam and Muslims are portrayed in western media appears
on the minds of many. The positive role of the media requires its presentation of
the views and interests of different social identities with the aim of harnessing
better mutual understanding for more national integration and cohesion. It can
iron out divergent views and bring awareness of the benefits of national cohesion
in order to garner more understanding and social harmony among different social
groups.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. Is it true that the media has more power in areas where the public
is not well-informed? Explain in some detail whether your answer
is yes or no, and provide examples to support your view.
2. Do you agree that the media should be a watchdog over the

government, or should it just be neutral in conveying news without
any critical analysis, and allow the public to decide on their own?
Discuss and share your findings in the online forum.
5.3 HEGEMONY THEORY OF MASS MEDIA

AND POLITICAL ORGANISATIONS
The term hegemony theory refers to an overriding influence that the ruling class
of society has over the minds of journalists. This means that actually the media
itself comes under the ideological dictatorship of the ruling class, rather than
having an independent opinion of its own, as believed. In other words, if the ruling
class is of capitalist, communist, religious, or other ideological orientation, then the
media will also be modelled in the shape of the dominant national ideology.

5.3.1 Mass Media and Political Parties

Political parties are simply organised groups of individuals who are working
collectively in order to politically rule the country for a certain agreed upon
duration, by coming to power through national elections. Of course this definition
is rather democratic because in many non-democratic countries different views are
given.
The media has a very strong influence on political parties. All politicians and
political parties especially during election campaigns, depend highly on the media
to gather support for their political agenda. Since there are two or more competing
political parties campaigning for power, the public needs to know the messages
and promises of each one of them in order to choose a side and vote for their own
choice.
The media here plays the role of delivering the views of each party to the public.
The media also delivers the publicÊs views and response to the leaders of political
parties for them to act upon in order to achieve their political objectives. The top
figures of different political parties appear constantly in the media propagating
their views and agenda. It should be remembered also that press media is not one.
Many press media compete against each other as well. Therefore, one media
organisation might favour a certain party and act as its agent more than it does for
another.
The time of election is actually the peak season of commerce when the media
makes huge profits. It is no longer possible to conduct politics today without the
media. Traditionally, the government is divided into the legislature, the judiciary,
and the executive. Today, many scholars add the media and they often refer to it
as the „fourth state power‰. This shows how strong and crucial the media is in the
political process across the world. Every political issue is highlighted and is
discussed through media channels. But because of the possibility of it being
commercialised and controlled by other forces, some do not yet give the media
such greatness as a „fourth state power‰. This is because it can be manipulated and
used by strong agents like political parties as a tool for their political agenda and
interests. In many democratic or authoritarian countries, the media offices and
agents are violently targeted by its opponents in dangerous manners that can even
lead to vandalism and murder.
During election campaigns, the leaders of political parties travel around to meet
up face-to-face with the public to propagate their views and policies. However,
they still depend on the media to cover and publicise such meetings and
gatherings to the larger society. There might even be voters outside the country
that follow the election campaign through the different media channels. After the

political party comes to power and forms the government, the media continues to
play the same roles of informing the public about the functions of the political
leadership. Here the voters might be monitoring and expecting the government to
fulfil the promises it made before coming to power.
5.3.2 Mass Media and Non-governmental

Organisations
There is a strong relationship between the media and the non-governmental
organisations (NGOs). Most NGOs play important roles in disseminating
information and awareness among people by trying to protect issues related to, for
example, human rights, minority rights, and environmental concerns. It is here
that their objectives converge with the media. It is because of the similar efforts
of NGOs to those of the media that a new discipline known as „environmental
journalism‰ has emerged. NGOs monitor different social, economic, and political
events and publish reports on them. However, merely publishing reports on their
own websites does not ensure that NGOs will reach their audiences.
A reportÊs coverage by the mass media, however, is an efficient channel for NGOsÊ
communication with their audience, so maximising that coverage is a way to
increase their effectiveness (Couttenier & Hatte, 2015). Thus both NGOs and the
media work hand-in-hand to educate the public on various important issues. The
NGOs are mostly structured by individuals from the society. Therefore, they work
to represent different social entities and safeguard the public welfare. The crucial
roles of NGOs, therefore, give a strong boost to the operation of the media that is
unable to solve all problems alone.
Many independent issues that need pressing solutions are highlighted in written
reports and publications by these non-governmental organisations. For instance,
the issues of sustainable development and environmental degradation in the
world have become such a focal concern for NGOs that they constantly direct their
spotlights on them to push for solutions from the community. In this regard, the
mass media helps by further highlighting such issues to the public. That in turn
supports NGOs in their endeavour.
The public understands that the democratic system needs NGOsÊ active
participation to make policies which are important for sustainable development.
In turn, government leaders and other responsible organisations learn from such
awareness and are expected to get actively engaged in addressing issues of concern
for the common welfare. Hence, the media and the NGOs are working towards, or
are expected to complement each otherÊs efforts towards, educating the masses as
well as those holding power on the national and international levels.

5.3.3 Mass Media and Governmental Organisations

Governmental organisations include all the various types of organisations that are
established to carry out the functions of governments. This includes all the
ministries, the army, and the police. The government uses these organs in order to
run the country and achieve the objectives of governing. As such, the media are
related again to all these organisations as they monitor their functions either
critically or in a supporting manner, based on the degree of independence the
media enjoy in a particular country. The media, either through the TV, the radio,
or newspapers, report the daily functions of such organisations and highlight them
to the public, which brings about transparency in the society.
In the modern world, most governments have become accustomed to the role
played by the media. In turn, governmental organisations turn to the media to
educate the public on their functions or on particular issues so as to get their
support and help, especially in democratic nations.
On many occasions, the government might allow the media to interfere in all its
activities. Therefore, if the media expose certain issues that are sensitive to the
government or any of its organisations, this might cause both parties to be at
loggerheads. That is why, some government officials or agents might attempt to
punish, censor, or even sue a certain media channel or individual for such
activities. As such, the government might work to restrict or regulate the function
of the media, while the media might call for its freedom and for the protection of
its agents.
On many other occasions, journalists and other media agents are subject to arrest,
persecution, and assassination. In addition, other media channels are called into
account by the government and their licenses might be revoked. In many non-
democratic countries, such as communist states, the media actually function as the
mouthpiece of the government.
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. During national elections and campaigns for power, is the media a

watchdog or a hunting dog for a certain political party? Explain
your answer with some real examples.
2. Would you like to be a journalist in the future? Explain why or why

not.

SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain the hegemony theory.
2. What are political parties and fourth state power?
 The word media comes from the noun mediation. Today, politics has become
mediatised. That means the media tries to get involved in every political event.
The ICJÊs ruling in the case of the Philippines versus China in the South China
Sea is a good example of mediatisation and the mediation function of the
media.
 In democratic countries, the media act as a watchdog which the public relies
on to check the performance of those elected to hold political office. Public
opinion refers to the views, attitudes preferences, and feelings of individuals
on a particular issue in public life.
 The media have more power in areas where most people are not well-
informed. They have less influencing power when people are informed
because in this case, the people can make up their minds and counter argue the
points presented in the media.
 Unbiased dissemination of news and views is important in keeping the various

elements of the society intact. Otherwise, the media can play a devastating role
if they demonise or stereotype any particular group within the society.
 Political parties are simply organised groups of individuals working

collectively in order to politically rule the country for a certain agreed upon
duration by coming to power through national elections.
 Both NGOs and the media work hand-in-hand to educate the public on various
important issues. The NGOs are mostly structured by individuals from society.
Therefore, they work to represent different social entities and safeguard their
public welfare.
 Governmental organisations are all the various types of organisations

established to carry out the functions of governments. This includes all the
ministries, the army, and the police.

Agenda setting National development

Censorship National unity
Corruption Non-democratic societies
Democratic societies Non-governmental organisations
Fourth state power Parochial society
Governmental organisations Persecution
Hegemony theory Social institutions
Income inequality Social integration
Mediation State formation and survival
Mediatisation Sustainable development
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public opinion, and foreign policy: Toward a theoretical synthesis. The
Annual Review of Political Science, 11(1), 39ă65.
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organizations. Journal of Development Economics, 123(1), 57ă72.
Ericson, R. V., Baranek, P. M., & Chan, J. (1987). Visualizing deviance: A study of
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Fog, A. (2013). The supposed and the real role of mass media in modern
democracy. Retrieved from http://www.agner.org/cultsel/mediacrisis.pdf
Freille, S., Haque, M. E., & Kneller, R. (2007). A contribution to the empirics of
press freedom and corruption. European Journal of Political Economy, 23(4),
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Refugee Rights Conference, Toronto. Retrieved from
http://ccrweb.ca/sites/ccrweb.ca/files/static-
files/presentations/shadeshianmediaen.pdf
Page, B. I., & Bouton, M. M. (2006). The foreign policy disconnect: What Americans
want from our leaders but donÊt get. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
Yagade, A., & Dozier, D. M. (1990). The media agenda-setting effect of concrete
versus abstract issues. Journalism Quarterly, 67(1), 3ă10.

Topic  Electronic, Print
and New
6 Media: Their
Position in a
Political System
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the concept of mass media with reference to electronic, print
and new media;
2. Explain the mass media organisation and its functions in the political
system;
3. Describe the ownership of political press by the political parties in
Malaysia; and
4. Explain the relationship between the mass media, the government
and the political parties with reference to their position in a political
system.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview of the mass media, with reference to the
electronic, print and new media, and their relationship with politics. The mass
media have a powerful influence on politics. They shape the perceptions that
average people and political leaders hold about the political world. Through the
first discussion, you are expected to understand the meaning of electronic, print

TOPIC 6 ELECTRONIC, PRINT AND NEW MEDIA: THEIR POSITION IN A  83
POLITICAL SYSTEM
and new media in general. This topic will also discuss mass media organisations
and their function in the political system, and the ownership of political press by
political parties in Malaysia. The aim is to equip you with knowledge of the
relationship between mass media, the government and political parties, which is
essential for a political system to function in a democratic country.
6.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MASS MEDIA

Mass media are the channels carrying messages to a vast, widespread, general
audience. Newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio and films are examples
of mass media. Media are thus communication channels through which news,
entertainment, education, data, or promotional messages are disseminated.
Mass media consist of the following:
(a) Electronic Media

Electronic media are time organised. They are younger than the print media
but lagging behind them in effectiveness. Radio, television, films and theatre
are the main types of electronic medium. Video text, broadcast teletext,
satellites and internet are the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication.
(b) Print Media

Print media includes those media which are controlled by space rather than
time. It can be read at any available time and can be kept for record. Books,
newspapers, magazines and newsletters are examples of print media of
communication.
(c) Static Media

This group of media derives its name from the fact that it does not involve
motion or sound, for instance, posters, wall charts, exhibits, displays, maps
and banners.
(d) New Media

New media most commonly refers to content available on-demand through
the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive
user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media
include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, or wikis, video games,
and social media. Thus, video text, broadcast teletext, satellites and social
media are examples of the newly emerging media of instant mass
communication made possible by new communication technologies.

84  TOPIC 6 ELECTRONIC, PRINT AND NEW MEDIA: THEIR POSITION IN A
POLITICAL SYSTEM
6.2 ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND POLITICAL

SYSTEM
Television programmes have significant impact on values, time displacement,
agenda setting and regulations. Exposure to global and domestic television
programmes exert a deep impact on social values, lifestyles of people, and the
relationship of masses with political leaders and with government and its
functionaries in society. Television is considered to be one of the significant
influential channels used in politics and election campaigns.
Radio also remains a politically influential mass medium in the developed world.
Radio news and current affairs programmes, particularly those of public
broadcasters, continue to play a major role in setting the public agenda. The role
of radio in politics has been to mould public opinion, create political mobility, and
to influence political decisions and voting behaviour.
6.2.1 The Concept of Electronic Media and the

Electronic Media Organisation
Electronic media comprises the tools of new communication technology such as
television (including satellite TV and web TV), radio (including satellite radio and
web radio) and films (including YouTube). Media in a democratic set up are
acknowledged as important factors as they play a major role in establishing and
strengthening accountability and sustainability of the governments in power. The
media play a significant role in this process and the forum provided by them
during the elections becomes an important platform to present political ideologies
by different political parties.
Electronic media becomes a linkage institution between governments, political

parties, candidates and voters and functions as a channel to convey the messages
of the politicians according to the perceived desires and intent of the voters.
Electronic media in the form of television and internet-abled media are central to
politics today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.
The government, political elites, public and the electronic media influence one
another in a number of ways and on a scale of values. Governments influence the
media by their sourcing of information and by applying different pressures to
achieve and further their political goals.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Electronic media influences the conduct of government officials by raising and

legitimising issues and also influences the public and voters by providing them
political information, which results in changing their values, beliefs, attitudes and
even behaviours. The public influence the media through their viewership,
listenership and/or readership or collectively through the marketplace.
6.2.2 The Politics of Electronic Media

Democracy also builds faith in electoral contestation to gain public office and gives
legitimacy to political parties as primary instruments for acquisition and transfer
of power from one set of individuals to another. Elections are considered to be the
primary and important part of democracy. Elections in democracies demand that
the public have an opportunity to choose the representatives and parties according
to their free will. Elections are about freedom and choice. They are also about
control and constraint.
The exercise of elections provides an opportunity to voters to decide who will

represent them in parliament and this is expressed in a collective manner. Election
and media are considered indispensable to each other. In major political
campaigns, television advertising usually consumes much of the campaign budget
whereas, in the area of news stories, several aspects of media content may
influence political communication.
6.3 THE PRINT MEDIA AND POLITICAL

SYSTEM
The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters and
other printed materials. These publications are collectively known as the print
media. The print media is responsible for more reporting than other news sources.
Many news reports on television, for example, are merely follow-up stories about
news that first appears in newspapers.
The top American newspapers, such as the New York Times, the Washington Post,
and the Los Angeles Times, often set the agenda for many other media sources. In
Malaysia, the situation is not much difference. The top Malaysian newspapers,
such as the New Straits Times, The Star, Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian, are
seen as the front runners with the regard to setting the agenda for discussion and
policy.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
The influence of print media is therefore significant. Regular readers of print media
tend to be more politically active. Many newspapers, for example, are simply the
voices of the political parties. The ruling coalition, Barisan Nasional (BN) has
influence on particular print media, especially newspapers. This is true also with
the opposition, though the circulation may be less as compared with that of the
ruling coalition, which is seen to exert influence on the main stream newspapers
in Malaysia (see Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Logo of Barisan Nasional (BN)

Source: http://www.barisannasional.org.my/en
6.3.1 The Politics of Print Media

In theory, objective journalism is still a mainstay of daily news coverage. Although
publishers in the US favour one viewpoint or another on their editorial pages, they
usually accord the Democratic and Republican parties equal treatment on their
news pages. Newspapers make their political preference known by endorsing
candidates during election campaigns, but many take pride in supporting the best
person for the job and not basing their endorsements on partisan considerations.
In one sense, however, reporting is not as objective as it used to be, because of the
proliferation of „news analysis‰ stories. Objective, or descriptive, journalism is
typified by the straightforward reporting of facts. However, print reporters today
are faced with a new reality: they cannot compete with the timeliness of television.
Newspapers are published only once a day, while television can report breaking
news instantly.
In order to survive, newspapers have run more human interest stories, more
entertainment stories, and longer news stories that aim to do more than simply
report who, what, when, and where: they also attempt to explain why events

POLITICAL SYSTEM
happened as they did and to put them in a larger context. This is interpretative
reporting, and it gives reporters greater license. In such stories, they are not
required to stick to reporting only what they observe; they can also write what
they think about it. This means that newspaper coverage has become increasingly
conjectural.
6.3.2 The Power of Static Media

In the twentieth century, the static media, such as political banners, demonstrated
that they played a significant role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue
pressure groups, and even intra-party communication. Political posters, also
known as conservative communication, also play a major role in politics. Figure
6.2 shows a poster of the general election in Malaysia.
Figure 6.2: A poster of the 13th general election in Malaysia

Source: http://www.malaysia-today.net/who-will-win-ge13/
When television advertisements came on the scene in the 1960s, posters moved
from being a way to present a platform to becoming a way to brand a campaign.
The most basic function of the campaign poster is to present an idealised image of
the candidate.
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you understand by the power of electronic media, print media

and new media with reference to the Malaysian political system? Discuss
with your coursemates.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Compare and contrast the concept and role of electronic media, print
media and new media in politics.
6.4 POLITICS AND THE POLITICAL PRESS

Political control of the press is a much talked about subject. This is so because by
controlling the press, news will be published according to the dictates of political
organisations. Hence, the press is made to be another arm for political
organisations and governments.
6.4.1 Political Parties and Press Ownership

The largest media firms are owned by the government or by private families.
Media Prima Berhad is a subsidiary media corporation that controls several
television networks, newspapers, and radio stations and is linked to MalaysiaÊs
ruling party UMNO (United Malays National Organisation). Besides Media Prima,
another media corporation is Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) which controls
17 per cent of the television audience. The government owns RTM and operates a
number of radio and television stations in Malaysia. RTM runs 8 national, 16 state,
and 7 district radio stations and two television stations at present (Netto, 2007 as
cited in Munsuet, 2008).
The political parties and their investment companies control the major newspapers
in Malaysia. The Utusan Melayu Group, which is owned by UMNO, publishes
three Malay language dailies and has strong ties to the Prime MinisterÊs ruling
party. The major English newspaper, The Star and New Straits Times (NST), are
also owned by political parties. According to Munsuet (2008), The Star, which has
a daily circulation of 302,658 and 310,950 on Sundays, is owned by the MCA
(Malaysian Chinese Association), a political party in the ruling coalition.
Meanwhile the NST is owned by UMNO (Munsuet, 2008). Besides The Star
newspaper, MCA also controls four other significant media press companies ă Sin
Chew Jit Poh, Nanyang Siang Pau, China Press, and Guang Ming Daily. Tamil
newspapers such as Malaysia Namban, Makkal Osai and Tamil Nesan are all
owned by the MIC (Malaysian Indian Congress).

POLITICAL SYSTEM
6.4.2 The Structure and Power of Political Press

The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to
political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century. In 1968, the Malaysia National News Agency, BERNAMA, began
operating (BERNAMA, 2017). In 1984, the Printing and Publications Act enabled
the Minister of Home Affairs to revoke any publicationsÊ licenses deemed
dangerous to the state. There is no judicial review, and the ministersÊ decisions are
final. Malaysia is seen as one of the authoritarian and repressive countries
regarding the press (Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani, 2005).
6.4.3 The Element of Political Press

In Malaysia, two opposing positions define the newspapers. The Barisan Nasional
(BN), the ruling coalition, contrasts directly with its opposition. Barisan is assumed
to promote harmony among ethnic groups while the opposition allegedly creates
ethnic conflict. The press in Malaysia fluctuates between ideas about democracy
as being ideal, and elitism as a fact in this classist society.
In 1998, the Malaysian government allowed MalaysiaÊs first commercial non-

government controlled online newspaper, MalaysiaKini to begin operations. In the
early 2000s, the debate about trying to censor the Internet in Malaysia continued.
In March 2002, both the public and Parliament were split on the issue; half wanted
to see tighter controls and censorship, while the remaining half wanted the
Printing Press laws to be discontinued and the Internet to be free from government
censorship.
6.4.4 Communication Technology and Self-identify

As technological advancement accelerates, reactions toward new technologies
also elicited resistance and adoption. During the General Election (GE) 2008, the
new media electoral landscape comprised blogs, party websites and alternative
news portals. However, in 2008, BN literally had limited online presence and the
emergence of the Internet was said to have challenged the status quo. In February
2013, two-and-half months before MalaysiaÊs 13th general elections (GE13), Prime
Minister Datuk Seri Najib Razak was quoted widely in the media saying that
the country will experience its first „social media election‰ (Zahiid, 2013). The
significance of his remarks lies in the exponential growth of social media users in
Malaysia over the preceding five years.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
According to the Malaysian Digital AssociationÊs (MDA) February 2012 report,

websites of the mainstream media, such as thestar.com.my, utusan.com.my
and bharian.com.my, collected 2,221,763, 1,171,578 and 769,772 unique browsers
respectively (Gomez, 2013). Alternative news websites such as malaysiakini.com
and the malaysianinsider.com collected 1,858,649 and 1,117,124 unique browsers
respectively in the same period, demonstrating strongly their comparative
strength (Gomez, 2013).
Hence, in the run-up to GE13, both media and online data pointed towards social
media as the platform where the online communications of the general elections
would likely be transmitted. The countryÊs opposition coalition was credited
in using new media to overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by
establishment political interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
Communication is increasingly two-way, with the public expecting greater

engagement and interactivity with their political representatives. The Internet and
social media have led to unprecedented complexity in the political communication
process in Malaysia.
6.5 MEDIA, GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL

PARTIES
The mass media is often seen as the bridge between the people and the
government. In the following subtopics, the nature of relationship between the
mass media and the government is discussed. The importance of politics to the
media and vice versa cannot be over emphasised. Thus, the type of relationship
between the mass media and political parties is also discussed.
6.5.1 The Nature of Relationship between the Mass

Media and the Government
Media and the government are two of the largest institutions within a country.
They were both designed for a common goal: to serve the people. Since 1991,
the press in many developing countries have become more independent and
pluralistic.
Media pluralism has become one of the most vital components of a democratic
society, which in turn is a prerequisite for sustainable social and economic
development. However, theoretically, media pluralism does not exist in Malaysia
because the mainstream media is not independent. Press is required to support the
policies of the government and serve the state.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
All the media and press acts, the Printing Presses Acts, the Internal Security Act,
and the Control and Import Acts give the Ministry of Information and the censors
authority to ban imported and domestic material in Malaysia. There are few
federal laws that restrict officials from providing journalists with information,
unless the information has an effect on national security or the military.
Government officials are directed not to talk with journalists or correspondents, if

they deem the information sensitive. Thus, according to Freedom HouseÊs Annual
Freedom of the Press report, in 2015, Malaysia scored as „Partly Free‰, with
middling results in freedom, civil liberties and political rights.
6.5.2 The Types of Relationship between the Mass

Media and Political Parties
The media is essential to democracy, and a democratic election is impossible
without media. A free and fair election is not only about the freedom to vote and
the knowledge of how to cast a vote, but also about a participatory process where
voters engage in public debate and have adequate information about parties,
policies, candidates and the election process itself in order to make informed
choices.
Inherent to this task is the entitlement of parties and candidates to use the
media as a platform for interaction with the public. Furthermore, the Electoral
Management Body (EMB) has a need to communicate information to the electorate
ă and to a variety of other groups, including the political parties and candidates.
The numerous ways in which media ensure democratic electoral processes

generally fall into one of the following types:
(a) Media as Transparency Mechanism/Watchdog

Media as a mechanism for transparency ensures voters are provided
information necessary to fully evaluate the conduct of officials as well as the
process at large. Media presence at voting and counting centres is critical to
prevent electoral fraud, given that full measures protecting freedom of
speech are guaranteed, and that the media are ideally free to act
independently and with impartiality.
(b) Media as Campaign Platform

Candidates and parties use the mass media for campaigning through
sponsored direct access spots, paid political advertising, televised debates,
use of social media and other mechanisms.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
(c) Media as Open Forum for Debate and Discussion/Public Voice

Media provide a mechanism for regular citizens to be heard and therefore to
influence political agendas and campaign platforms, and sometimes to
garner support and influence fellow voters.
(d) Media as Public Educator

Media as a campaign platform ensures the public is educated in political
agendas of all participating political parties and candidates equally. Media
as open forum for debate and discussion ensures that voters can educate
other voters, politicians and officials.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. There is a statement that „mass media is to act as a bridge between
the people and the government‰. Discuss the statement based on
the political system in your country.
2. Explain the relationship between the mass media and political

parties and discuss which one/ones is/are best for MalaysiaÊs
political parties.
 Mass media consists of three types: electronic media, print media and static
media. As media communication technology advances, the new media (social
media, digital media) has become the newly emerging media platform for
instant mass communication.
 The electronic media plays a significant role to convey the process and to
provide the forum during the election days; it has become an important
platform to present political ideologies of different political parties.
 Electronic media in the form of television and the Internet are central to politics
today due to their immediate and instant dissemination of political events,
issues and developments around the clock.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
 Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically active.
 Political banners have a role in extra parliamentary democracy, single-issue

pressure groups, and intra-party communication.
 The Malaysian government has continuously censored the press in response to

political instability which characterised the country for much of the twentieth
century.
 The countryÊs opposition coalition was credited for using new media to
overcome a hostile mainstream media owned by establishment political
interests to secure a much improved showing at the polls.
 The relationship between mass media and political parties can be divided into
the following: media as transparency mechanism or watchdog, media as a
campaign platform, media as an open forum for debate and discussion or
public voice and media as public educator.
Barisan Nasional (BN) Mass media

Campaign platform Media pluralism
Control and Import Acts New media
Electoral Management Body (EMB) Political parties
Electronic media Political system
General election (GE) Printed media
Government Printing and Publications Act
Internal Security Act Public educator
Malaysian Digital Association (MDA) Static media
Mass communication Transparency mechanism

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Anuar, M. K. (2005). Politics and the media in Malaysia. Kasarinlan: Philippine

Journal of Third World Studies, 20(1), 25ă47.
Asiuzzaman, Md. (2009). Media pluralism and development in Malaysia: A third

eye view. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/23983152/Media_Pluralism_and_Developmen
t_in_Malaysia_A_Third_Eye_View
BERNAMA. (2017). About BERNAMA. Retrieved from

http://www.bernama.com/aboutbernama/bi/about-bernama.htm
Djankov, S., McLiesh, C., Nenova, T., & Shleifer, A. (2001). Who owns the media?
Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Drusch, A. (2012). The power of the political poster. Retrieved from

http://www.politico.com/story/2012/05/the-power-of-the-poster-075888
Fielding, S. (2011). Posters and politics. Retrieved from

http://www.nottspolitics.org/2011/07/21/posters-and-politics
Gomez, J. (2013). MalaysiaÊs 13th general election: Social media and its political
impact. Retrieved from
http://mediamalaysia.net/wp-
content/uploads/2013/09/GE13_Social_Media_James_Gomez-090913.pdf.
Leong, P. (2015). Political communication in Malaysia: A study on the use of new

media in politics. eJournal of eDemocracy & Open Government, 7(1), 46ă71.
Mohd Azizuddin Mohd Sani. (2005). Media freedom in Malaysia. Journal of

Contemporary Asia, 35(3), 341ă367.
Munsuet. (2008). Ownership of traditional media by the government.

Retrieved from
http://mediainmalaysia.blogspot.com/2008/11/ownership-of-traditional-
media-by.html
Weiss, M. L. (2012). Politics in cyberspace: New media in Malaysia. Berlin,

Germany: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
Yaser, N., Mahsud, M. N., & Chaudhry, I. A. (2011). Effects of exposure to

electronic media political content on votersÊ voting behavior. Berkeley
Journal of Social Sciences, 1(4), 1ă22.
Zahiid, S. (2013). Najib: Election 2013 first social media election. The Malaysian
Insider. Retrieved from
http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/najibelection-
2013-first-social-media-election

Topic  Mass Media and
Propaganda
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between propaganda and advertisement;
2. Describe the four propaganda theories;
3. Explain the role of mass media as a tool in political propaganda;
4. Discuss the influence of mass media in general elections;
5. Describe how the news and political communication process works;
and
6. Discuss the importance of mass media to change peopleÊs political
opinions.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will explore the role of propaganda through mass media in politics. As
you go through the course, you will be able to understand what propaganda and
political propaganda are in a political system. We will discuss the influence of mass
media in political propaganda (especially during general elections); how political
communication works, and the related theories. The overall objective is to critically
assess the role of mass media in a political setting, where their importance is taken
into cognisance to sway public opinion in favour of the government in power.

TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA  97
7.1 DEFINING PROPAGANDA

Propaganda can be defined as the spread of ideas, information or rumour for
the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person (Jowett &
OÊDonnell, 2012). The primary purpose of propaganda is to make us believe,
accept or approve of something without looking closely at the evidence available.
It is very clear that most of the propaganda devices make use of emotions to
prevent critical thinking in people.
The origin of propaganda dates back to the sixteenth century during the Counter-
Reformation. It was used by the Society to propagate their Faith. It has also been
referred to as a no-holds barred use of communication to propagate specific beliefs
and expectations. Its ultimate goal is to change the way and manner people act.
For example, in the First World War, the Nazi Germany propaganda division was
of the view that the secret of a successful propaganda was to simplify a complex
issue and repeat that simplification several times. Figure 7.1 shows a quote on
propaganda.
Figure 7.1: Quote on propaganda

Source: https://goo.gl/images/EXCTqC
Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of

something that is physical and specific. It services the economy or other particulars
areas, purposes and tasks. If you take a marketing class, you will be told that
advertising provides services to its intended audiences; it provides them the
needed information about the availability of products and so on. If you can accept
that, then you have just been propagandised. Although there could be some
element of truth to that claim, the fact is that there is a lot more going on with
advertising.

98  TOPIC 7 MASS MEDIA AND PROPAGANDA
Advertisement manipulates people into buying things they never intended to buy
for some illegitimate reasons. However, they will not spend many hours telling
you about the evils in an advertising marketing class. Rather, you will be informed
about the positive sides of advertising in marketing. What you should bear in mind
is that: advertisement praises goods. Propaganda spreads idea and services only
politics.
Advertisement and propaganda have in common an organised set of methods to

disseminate information to the intended audience, which in some cases results in
peopleÊs acceptance or fulfilment of the needs they both present (McClintock,
2005). In recent years, the term has come to connote a political meaning and both
use agitators.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the differences between propaganda and advertisement?
7.2 POLITICAL PROPAGANDA

Political propaganda refers to the act of widely publicising deliberate and
misleading information so as to promote an idea or a particular course of action.
The driving point is that the said information is deliberately spread so as to make
it look real to the general public for some certain specific agenda created by those
in power. In most cases, political propaganda contains deliberate false information
(or even lies) that has some hidden agenda unknown to the general public to
achieve the purpose it is created for. Effective propaganda is covert and is used to
discredit the opposition.
Whenever politicians speak, what they are trying to do is to sell to you their
favourite cause, candidates or programmes. That is how politics works in most
cases. It is how information operation is spread; it is all about selling your
programme, product or idea to your audience. Political propaganda sometimes
contains some kind of deliberate false information. It could be agreed that „one
personÊs propaganda is another personÊs truth‰.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
What do you understand by political propaganda? Explain in detail.

7.3 TYPES OF POLITICAL PROPAGANDA

There are many techniques used in the dissemination of propaganda (Miller, 1937).
Figure 7.2 shows the seven main types of political propaganda, which will be
explored further in the following subtopics.
Figure 7.2: Types of political propaganda
7.3.1 Bandwagon
Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of propaganda through which a
writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument
of the writer, by suggesting that since majority agrees, the readers should too. An
example is „Everyone is voting for Ali, so definitely he is the best presidential
candidate.‰ The phrase bandwagon means „jump on the bandwagon,‰ or to follow
what others are conforming or doing.

It is about convincing people that everyone else has agreed to a particular cause,
view or candidate. While listening to a politician or reading a book written by one,
it is often observed that the speaker or writer tries to encourage the audience to
think and act in a particular way because others are doing that although the
audience may have ideas and beliefs of their own.
The idea behind „getting on the bandwagon‰ approach is for the propagandist to
put forth the idea that everyone is doing something to support this person/cause
so as to convince people to also do the same. Its characteristics include the
following:
(a) Widespread support;
(b) Be part of the winning team; and
(c) Not be left out, for instance, „We like Barack Obama‰.
The bandwagon approach has its attraction on widespread support from the
masses. It creates the impression that everyone is doing it, everyone has joined the
bandwagon so why not you. People by nature tend to be attracted by the majority
as they do not want to be left out. Moreover, it is satisfying to be part of the
winning team. Everyone wants to be a winner or at least to be associated with the
winning team. This is seen in politics and in sports, especially where football fans
want to be associated with the winning football team.
7.3.2 Name-calling
The use of derogatory language or words can negatively portray the opponent.
The use of such names naturally will evoke fear and or hatred in the viewer/
reader/audience. The characteristics of name-calling are:
(a) To label the target; and
(b) To use sarcasm and ridicule, for example, racist, fascist, yuppie scum.
Name-calling involves making a mockery of or laughing at what targeted others

say. They are criticised for their lack of values and their ideals are denounced. The
words and actions of the target are turned around, taking them out of context and
amplifying them to drown out any denial (making denial seem like admission of
guilt) (Miller, 1937).
In this propaganda technique we find a name that trivialises them and use it at
every opportunity, with a smirk on your face and the laughter of your supporters.
This goes a long way to make your opponents appear stupid, immoral or otherwise
undesirable.
Name-calling associates the other person with something that is despised or is

inferior in some way. The more the other person or group is socially isolated, the
more others will avoid the person or group. The results are a spiral of isolation that
neutralises opponents and sends a chilling warning to those who might follow in
that personÊs path.
Note how, especially in wartime, the other side is given a whole slew of derogatory
names. In the Second World War, the Germans were called Huns, Krauts, the
Boche, and etc., while the Japanese were called Nips, Japs, Slant-eyes and so on.
7.3.3 Endorsement
Endorsement is used to support a candidate, or someone who is respected or liked,
or a particular group. Another name for this is testimonial. During ObamaÊs
presidential campaign, Oprah Winfrey and so many other popular celebrities in
the US endorsed him. This boosted his acceptance by the public.
For a celebrity endorsement or testimonials for example, the overall intention is to

associate the product or service with a well-known person in the society. If the
famous person believes that the said product is good, the idea then is that the
consumers will believe the product to be okay. For example, Michael Jordan is the
most commonly used sports figure for testimonials while Tiger Woods lends his
name to Nike.
7.3.4 Glittering Generalities

With this technique, the propagandists employ vague, sweeping statements (often
slogans or simple catchphrases) using language associated with values and beliefs
deeply held by the audience without providing supporting information or reason.
They appeal to such notions as honour, glory, love of country, desire for peace,
freedom, and family values. The words and phrases are vague and suggest
different things to different people but the implication is always favourable. It
cannot be proven true or false because it really says little or nothing at all.
The institute of propaganda analysis suggests a number of questions we should

ask ourselves if we are confronted with this technique. For example, what do the
slogans or phrases really mean? Is there a legitimate connection between the idea
being discussed and the true meaning of the slogan or phrase being used? What
are the merits of the idea itself if it is separated from the slogans or phrases?

This propaganda technique makes use of virtue words; the opposite of name
calling, i.e., a person, or idea is linked to a positive symbol, for example,
democracy, patriotism and family. This is an act of referring to words or ideas that
evoke a positive emotional response from an audience. In other words, it refers
to a statement that sounds good but in reality is essentially meaningless. Its
characteristics are vague, and in the form of slogans or catchphrases. For example,
During Barrack ObamaÊs presidential campaign he had this mantra ă „Change we
can believe in‰; Bill Clinton and Al GoreÊs was „Putting people first‰.
This technique uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good but provide little
or no information due to the vagueness of the message or the positive connotations
of the words. For example, a politician says, „a vote for me is a vote for peace.‰
7.3.5 Stacked Cards

This is an effort to present only one side of an issue and not its entirety. In using
this technique, facts which most effectively help to strengthen and authenticate the
point of view of the propagandist are selected and presented. It includes collecting
all the needed materials on a particular subject, as well as the selection of the
materials that most effectively support the propagandistÊs point of view on the
candidate in question. His/her past misdeeds are covered up so that they do not
jeopardise the candidateÊs chances.
The success or failure of this type of propaganda depends on the propagandistsÊ

strategy of selecting facts or „cards‰ and presenting or „stacking‰ them to the
public. For example, when you see the advertisements of drug manufacturers, they
normally skim over the possible harmful side effects of their products. Facts
selected and presented to the public are those which could most effectively
strengthen the point of view of those propagandists who are championing the
cause.
7.3.6 Just Plain Folks

This type makes the average person think that the candidates are just like them
too. It is normally designed to win the confidence of the electorates by
communicating in the most common manner and style of the target audience. In
political propagandas, the propagandists could use the language and mannerisms
of ordinary folks (for example, wearing simple clothes in face-to-face audio visual
communication) in their bid to identify with the average person they are targeting.
In this way, it is possible for the propagandists to win the confidence of those who
resent or dislike foreign sounding intellectual speeches, words or mannerisms.

The most recent American Presidents were all millionaires, but you could see that
in most cases they have gone to great lengths to present themselves as ordinary
citizens. For example, Bill Clinton eats at McDonalds, Roland Reagan chops wood,
Jimmy Carter was a humble peanut farmer and lots more.
7.3.7 Fear
The fear propaganda technique plays on deep-seated fears; warns the audience
that disaster will result if they do not follow a particular course of action. This
technique involves presenting a dreaded circumstance and usually following it up
with the kind of behaviour needed to avoid that horrible event. For example, an
insurance company pamphlet includes pictures of houses destroyed by floods,
followed up by details about home-ownersÊ insurance.
When used in politics, the fear propaganda technique is meant to scare people into
voting for one particular candidate and not the other. The propagandists could
instil fear that your way of life is in danger. They could use pictures, sounds, or
words to arouse fear. For example, World War Three could break out. Will it begin
in the Middle East?
7.4 PROPAGANDA THEORIES IN THE 1930S

There are various theories related to propaganda. The four theories that influenced
propaganda in the 1930s are as follows:
(a) Behaviourism;
(b) Freudianism;
(c) Magic bullet theory; and
(d) LasswellÊs propaganda theory.
These theories will be discussed further in the following subtopics.
7.4.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism was formally founded by John B. Watson in 1913. An animalist, John
B. Watson, argued that all human action is merely a conditioned response to stimuli
from the external environment. He believed that the media provides the external
stimuli that trigger immediate responses by humans. Behaviourism is one of the
three primary learning theories. The primary goal of behaviourism is to form a

relationship between a stimulus and a response. Behaviourism has similar views as

those of the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology in the nineteenth
century. In the twentieth century behaviourism is a result of cognitive revolution,
while in the twenty-first century „behaviour analysis,‰ is a thriving field.
Behaviourism theorists include Ivan Pavlov, who was the founder of classical
conditioning and proposed that an unconditioned stimulus causes an
unconditioned response. John B. Watson, another behaviourist, coined the term
„behaviourism‰. He studied how a certain stimulus led organisms to make
responses. Watson believed psychology was only an objective observation of
behaviour. B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviourism, which proposed that all
action is determined and not free. Skinner talks about operant response, a
behaviour that controls the rate at which specific consequences occur.
Behaviourism equates learning with behaviours that can be observed and

measured. Reinforcement is key to successful transfer through behaviouristic
learning. Behaviourism places a strong emphasis on the stimulus, the response and
the relationship between them.
7.4.2 Freudianism
According to Sigmund Freud, the Ego is the rational mind in control. The Id is the
dark side of the self ă the egocentric (selfish and self-centred) pleasure seeking part
of ourselves ă that the Ego must struggle to keep in control. The Ego relies on an
internalised set of cultural rules, or Superego ă for guidance.
The propaganda theorists used Freudian theory to develop propaganda. It could

be effective if it could appeal directly to the Id and stimulate it to overwhelm or
overpower through effective propaganda. From this perspective, people were seen
as individuals incapable of rationalism and therefore incapable of self-control. In
this theory, people were seen as highly vulnerable to media manipulation and
media stimuli, based on the idea the Id could trigger action that the Ego and the
Superego are powerless to overcome.
7.4.3 Magic Bullet Theory

During the 1920s, the media were assumed to operate like magic bullets that could
penetrate peoplesÊ minds and create associations between the strong emotions and
specific concepts (Severin & Tankard, 2001). As these magic bullets were carefully
controlled, the propagandists felt that they could condition peopleÊs associations,
for example, to instil loyalty to and reverence for their country or to instil negative
emotions, such as fear and loathing, towards their enemies.

According to this theory, the rational mind is just a mere facade that is not capable
of resisting messages (McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005). This happened in in
October 1938 when H. G. WellsÊ War of the World, created panic among the radio
listeners who believed that the radio broadcast was true.
7.4.4 Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory

In this theory, Lasswell combined behaviourism and Freudianism into a particular
pessimism of the media and their role. Lasswell asserted that propaganda was not
so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific messages, but rather the
result of a vulnerable state of mind of the average individual in that country
(McQuail, Golding, & Bens, 2005).
He then argued that economic depression and the escalating political conflicts had
induced widespread psychosis and obsession; that because of this people become
susceptible to even crude forms of propaganda. Lasswell rejected the simplistic
magic bullet theory. He also believed that you need to prepare people in a gradual
process in order to convince them before they can accept radically different ideas
and actions.
There is need for communicators of propaganda messages to develop a long- term

campaign image in which new ideas and images are carefully introduced and then
cultivated; symbols need to be created to make people associate them passionately
to specific emotions. If these cultivation strategies are to be successful, they can be
referred to as Master symbols. These Master symbols are then associated with
strong emotions and possess the power that could stimulate large scale beneficial
mass action if they are used wisely (Baran & Davis, 2009).
Lasswell envisioned a long and varied conditioning process. He believed that

exposure to just one or two extremist messages will not have much impact. For a
successful social movement to gain power, it could last for months and even
years using varieties of media. He proposed that power to control delivery of
propaganda through the mass media should be placed in the hands of a few elites
and scientific technocrats that would pledge to use their knowledge for good
rather than evil.
ACTIVITY 7.1
How did political propaganda influence your vote in MalaysiaÊs last
general election?

SELF-CHECK 7.3
Explain briefly each of the four propaganda theories.
7.5 MASS MEDIA AS TOOLS FOR POLITICAL

PROPAGANDA
Mass media can disseminate news via radio, television, newspapers, the Internet
and other platforms to reach large numbers of people both nationally and
internationally, in the developed or developing countries. It is the mass media that
can shape public opinion more than anything else in any society. This is because it
is the main medium that carries cultural nuances and reinforces all the aspects that
make up the mainstream society at any given time. News items are so important,
since they can serve as a medium of public discussion and exchange of opinion.
For example, when „the Jewish question‰ was reported by the mass media and
continually presented as if it were an obvious central issue, it later became a
German issue and the German public was bombarded daily with coverage of „the
Jewish question‰ in print media and over the airwaves.
7.5.1 Power of the Mass Media

A historical example of propaganda use occurred in Nazi Germany. The
government used the power of mass media to persuade the majority of Germans
to think and accept that the most crucial question of the day was „What are
Germans going to do to all Jews that are in our country?‰ As they manipulated the
contents of the mass media and constantly used the communication channels of
mass media with the same central „problems‰ over an extended period of time,
the Nazi government created an unwarranted and false issue that was clearly their
own agenda to exterminate the Jews. The government-controlled Propaganda
Ministry was created by Hitler to control the national media network in order for
him to cement his authority on Germans and to achieve his personal objective ă to
control and rule the world.
During HitlerÊs reign, the Propaganda Ministry created films and posters, radio
broadcasts, childrenÊs literature and other propaganda materials to drive home
HitlerÊs message to his people. This was a great tool for him in the 1930s and served
the Nazis well throughout the Second World War until the propaganda lost its
effectiveness. Figure 7.3 shows a quote from Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister
of Propaganda of Nazi Germany.

Figure 7.3: A quote from Joseph Goebbels

Source: https://goo.gl/images/CrWAoD
7.6 MASS MEDIA AND GENERAL ELECTION

The general election in the United Kingdom gave each of the main political parties
free reign to spend millions of pounds on their cross media campaigns to win the
support and mandate of their people. Some of the campaign money was spent on
direct publicity, for example, creating advertisements on billboards and on the
pages of newspapers.
The campaign teams also use a range of social media. During interviews and
debates the leaders will reveal some of their sound bites which they hoped would
be picked up and broadcast in the nightly news prime time.
According to Lord Tim Bell, an advertising executive who advised Margaret

Thatcher during her three successful election campaigns, „People are more likely
to receive a message if it is delivered with humour than if you shout at them‰. The
mass media has great influence to turn the tide for a political party when the weak

points of its opponents are well handled. Tell the electorates the consequences of
the weak policies of the government and proffer solutions to the issue in question,
as if they are the ones that have most practical solutions to it.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. What do you understand as the power of the mass media? Explain

with examples.
2. Look up the respective party logos/symbols of the leading political

parties in Malaysia and analyse each one of them. What are your
perceptions of the underlying values and ideologies? Discuss.
3. If you were a campaign manager for a political party in Malaysia,

how might you use media to build support?
7.7 SMART PARTNERSHIP: NEWS AND THE

POLITICAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The political communication process can be described as an interactive process
with regard to the transmission of information among politicians, news media and
the public. This smart partnership process is downward in its operation, from
governing institutions to citizens, horizontally in linkage among the political
actors and also upwards from public opinion to the authorities.
Its main focus is the production process of how messages are generated by the
political parties and different interest groups; how the messages are transmitted
through indirect and direct media communication channels.
Currently, there is also an increase in the number of political consultants, pollsters,

advertising executives and groups of people with personal interest in politics. This
enhances the process of strategic political communication by political parties and
the various interest groups. For example, NBC news in the US entered into smart
partnership with a leading political data firm for its in-depth reporting of the 2016
election to enhance election coverage and to study the voting process in depth in
the US.
In democratic societies, political communication has therefore been central to the

electoral process. In the last decade, however, this structural foundation has been
altered drastically, particularly in the post-war trend in the mass media moving
from its traditional world of newspapers, radio and television towards internet
usage. In fact, in the last few decades there is concern for the future of newspapers.
Many believe that in the recent decade the traditional standards of television news
and public affairs have come under threat from technological advancement and
economic development.
7.7.1 The Rise of Internet Usage in the

Communication Process
Political communication has witnessed an important rapid change through the rise
of Internet. The use of networked computers and computer-mediated e-mails has
existed for the scientific elites as early as in the 1960s.
However, major breakthroughs in the 1990s transformed the Internet into a virtual
world, serving the functions of reference library, post office and shopping mall.
The major developments included the birth of the World Wide Web (WWW) in
1990 and the launching of other popular web browsers to access information, such
as Mosaic (1993), Netscape Navigator (1994) and Microsoft Internet Explorer
(1995) (Chapman, 2009). Other innovations include mp3 music files, digital
telephony and many others.
As the use of Internet spread globally, the globalised phenomenon became

apparent, and many more users around the world came online and became
netizens. Between 1995 and 2000, the total number of internet users rapidly grew
from about 26 million to 377 million worldwide, a truly explosive increase within
a space of a few years.
In Malaysia, the multimedia super corridor was established to bring investments

in the areas of telecommunication, multimedia and electronics, and to produce
silicon wafers and software. As part of MalaysiaÊs Vision 2020, Malaysians can
boast of cellular telephone penetration rates of one in every ten people, where the
current ratio could even be one in every three people. Many more schools are
wired and 21 internet hosts for 1000 people make it possible to undertake a more
vigorous political communication process.
7.7.2 Implications of the Rise in Internet Usage in the

News and Political Communication Process
With the rise in internet usage, political communication seems to have entered a
new dimension. The political consequence of this is that there are changes in the
dissemination of news from traditional news media, which were mostly
dominated by newspapers, television and radio.

The cyber-optimists have the most positive perspective in the development and
emphasise „Panglossian‰ possibilities (optimistic) of the Internet use by ordinary
citizens in direct participation of democratic activities. In this regard, digital
technologies hold the promise as a mechanism to facilitate alternative channels of
civil engagement, such as the political chat-rooms, electronic voting in general
elections, as well as the referenda issues, and mobilisation of the virtual
communities, revitalising levels of general public participation in political affairs.
It is very clear that political communication through the use of the old media
channels is in the process of fundamental change, and this process holds both the
threats and promises for the future socioeconomic and political development of
the people. It could thus be stated that the digital networks have the potential to
broaden and to improve access to information and communication for remote
rural areas and poorer neighbourhoods. This could strengthen the process of
democratisation and help reduce the endemic problem of poverty, which is very
common in most developing countries.
7.8 MASS MEDIA AND POLITICAL CONSENSUS

In a democratic government, the ability to arrive at a consensus in the process of
decision making on legislation is largely influenced by mass media. The increasing
influence of media on the society at large, the behaviour of politicians and the
functioning of political and administrative institutions is called „mediatisation‰
(Stromback, 2008; Hajer, 2009). The question is whether the mass media in todayÊs
society are living up to the social reality in its true sense; or do the elites which
control them filter what they see fit to be made public. If we take this into
consideration, what is considered as politics in todayÊs world, i.e. the activity of
professional politicians „representing‰ the people, one may argue that it is politics
itself which is fake, and mass media simply reproduces what it represents.
Mass media, which is mostly owned by the political elites, provides a different
political reality to society. There is a tendency to tell the general public what
reflects the feelings of the section of elites who control them. A good example
is the way in which the Anglo-American media distorted the real motive behind
the criminal bombardment of the Iraqi people at the end of 1998. The media in
this case was efficiently used to serve the interests of the Anglo-Americans,
notwithstanding that many countries opposed the idea of attacking a sovereign
nation. They justified the invasion and made the general public believe it was a
conflict between the peace loving regimes in the North versus the rogue regimes
in the South, or, in more sophisticated versions supported by social democrat
intellectuals, as a conflict between the „democracies‰ in the North versus the
„despotic regimes‰ in the South over the control of oil (Picard, 1998).

It is not accidental that in the US and the UK, where the media are sometimes
guilty of misinformation and disinformation, opinion polls showed consistently
that the vast majority were in favour of the decision making of their elites during
that period of the Iraqi war.
7.8.1 The Role of the Media in Political Consensus

The media always plays an important role and acts as an indicator of the
public agenda and the public mood. Both the administrators and politiciansÊ
responsiveness to media coverage is often considered to be important for
enhancing democratic legitimacy. Ironically, the media is supposed to provide a
means to increase transparency on legislative decision-making processes and
policy outcomes (McChesney, 1999).
In addition, the media is actively used by political and administrative institutions

as outlets to inform the general public, and sometimes to indirectly influence
decision-making processes. In the latter case, communication via the media can be
considered a political strategy. However, it is known that the citizens on their own
will only support a political regime which they believe in and which corresponds
to their political values at most times.
7.8.2 Social Media and Political Consensus

The social media has caused the political elites to lose their monopoly of news in
the contemporary political environment. The advent of todayÊs social media has
influenced what issues politicians perceive as salient information exclusively for
the elites (Zaller, 1999; Margolis & Resnick, 2000). It is argued that social media
represents citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and direct way.
In contrast, traditional media constitute a stable and well-known information

landscape for policy makers, which most often is distorted to serve the elites who
own media organisations. The social media landscape is rather new and versatile.
There is still relatively little knowledge on how governments and politicians are
using and responding to social media.
It could be rightly concluded therefore that the role of the media today is not to
make the system more democratic. In fact, one basic function of the media is, as
Chomsky (2002) stresses, to help in keeping the general population out of the
public arena because if they get involved they will just make trouble. Their job is
to be „spectators,‰ not „participants‰.

Moreover, the media can also play a crucial role in offsetting the democratic rights
and freedoms won after long struggles. This has been the case all along, when there
was a clash between the elites and trade unions, or other popular movements.
Walter Lippmann, the revered American journalist was explicit about it.
7.9 MASS MEDIA, CONFLICT AND POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION
It is very clear that information is very powerful and can impact either positively
or negatively on public discourses. It can therefore shape what we hear or see
during conflicts. This is true because, the perspective of those who control or run
the affairs in the media shapes the news that is disseminated to the general public.
It could change the peopleÊs view on issues about which they initially have little
interest. It could even incite people to violence. For example, Hitler used the media
to create an entire world view of hatred for the Jews, homosexuals and even some
minorities during his time.
It is very clear that most media professionals determine what their target audience
want to see and hear. In journalism, the common principle is generally known as
„when it bleeds it leads‰. In other words, violent conflicts make front page news
and not news that hangs on dialogue and understanding. The media seem to be
covering conflicts rather than dialogue, although they should be doing the latter.
By always covering conflicts, the media distorts the reality, which leads to the
erroneous belief among the general public that peace is pervasive and therefore
seen as abnormal.
7.9.1 Functions of the Media in Conflicts and Peace

Building
The media plays an important role in our everyday life, although it could be
argued that this role could be constructive and sometimes destructive. For
example, the media could disseminate peaceful information and also counter hate-
speech, therefore creating a balance of opinion in a local environment, which is
called information equilibrium. On the other hand, it can incite the society to
violence just like in 2006 where a cartoonist in Denmark created a message about
Islam which caused international conflict.

The media, in some cases, finds it difficult to create a balance between countering
and preventing hate-speech which can be the private opinion of individuals. The
media should be seen as being truthful, fair and balanced in presenting accounts
of events or situations.
7.9.2 Media as Watchdog, Gatekeeper and Peace

Promoter
In most cases, the privately owned media serves as a watchdog for the general
public. The perception is that the public media, controlled by the ruling elites,
could hide some true situations in order not to give the opposition a chance to
ridicule their policies, which could lead to losing support from the electorates.
In Sierra Leone, a video documentary exposed the incidence of sexual violence on

women during the civil war there. The film entitled Operation Fine Girl: Rape
Used as a Weapon of War in Sierra was produced by human rights activists with
support from the international non-governmental organisation „Witness‰. It
raised an international outcry and condemnation that led to an investigation for
this heinous crime against women in that country.
Media events can also be used to promote peace and negotiation, to solve
diplomatic deadlocks and to create a conducive environment whenever there are
conflicts among communities, regions and countries. For example, Studio Ijambo,
which had a team of 20 people consisting of Hutu and Tutsi journalists, was
engaged in producing about 100 radio programmes with the purpose of promoting
peace and to reconcile warring factions in the country.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the media plays a very crucial role in our
society. They do not only influence the public to support positive issues, but must
also recognise potential conflict and address it before the problem gets out of hand.
Although international media covering conflicts might have a different viewpoint,

the local media is a recognised part of society and expected to have the ability to
reduce fears. The media should be capable of defusing tension before conflict
escalates to a more critical point. Therefore the media should play the role of a
watchdog or the „fourth estate‰ or „fifth estate‰. When the media avoids hate
speech it helps the people to be at peace with one another in society, and to prevent
racial abuse, violence, and unnecessary bloodshed.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. How has the rise of Internet usage influenced political participation

of the electorate in Malaysia? What are the implications to
Malaysian politics? Discuss with examples.
2. Describe the role of the local media in resolving conflict in society.
3. Explain the role of the social media in achieving political consensus

in a democratic government.
4. Explain the role of media to defuse tension in the 1969 race riot in
Malaysia. Please avoid sentiment in answering this question.
 Propaganda is the spread of ideas, information or rumours for the purpose of

helping or injuring an institution, a cause or a person. The primary purpose
of propaganda is to make the target audience believe, accept or approve of
something without looking closely at the evidence available.
 Propaganda is different from advertising. Advertising is the promotion of a

service or product that is physical and specific. Advertisement praises goods.
Propaganda spreads ideas. Propaganda services only political purposes.
 Types of political propaganda are bandwagon, name calling, endorsement,

glittering generalities, stacked cards, just plain folks, and fear.
 LasswellÊs propaganda theory combines both behaviourism and Freudianism

into a particularly pessimistic view of the media. Lasswell is of the view that
propaganda is not so much the result of substance, or the appeal of specific
messages, but rather the result of the vulnerable state of mind of the average
person in that country.
 Social media influence whatever issues politicians perceive as salient. Social

media is said to represent citizen preferences in real time, in an unfiltered and
direct way. In contrast, traditional media constitutes a stable and well-known
information landscape for policy makers, and is sometimes perceived as being
of service to the elites who own it.

Communication Political communication

Conflicts Political consensus
Election Political propaganda
Government Propaganda
Internet Propaganda theories
Mass media Social media
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ferment, and future (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Chapman, C. (2009). The history of the Internet in a nutshell. Retrieved from

http://sixrevisions.com/resources/the-history-of-the-internet-in-a-
nutshell/
Chomsky, N. (2002). Media control: The spectacular achievements of propaganda.

Vancouver, Canada: Open Media Books.
Hajer, M. A. (2009). Authoritative governance: Policy-making in the age of

mediatization. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Jowett, G. S., & OÊDonnell, V. (2012). Propaganda and persuasion (5th ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Margolis, M., & Resnick, D. (2000). Politics as usual: The cyberspace „revolution‰.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
McChesney, R. W. (1999). Rich media, poor democracy: Communication politics

in dubious times. Illinois, IL: University of Illinois Press.
McClintock, A. (2005). Propaganda techniques in todayÊs advertising. In

P. S. Gardner (Ed.), New directions: Reading, writing, and critical thinking
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

McQuail, D., Golding, P., & Bens, E. D. (Eds.). (2005). Communication theory &
research: An EJC anthology. London, England: Sage.
Miller, C. (1937). Propaganda analysis. New York, NY: Institute for Propaganda
Analysis.
Picard, R. G. (1998). Media concentration, economics, and regulation. In D. Graber,

D. McQuail, & P. Norris (Eds.), The politics of news: The news of politics.
Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Severin, W. J., & Tankard, J. W. (2001). Communication theories: Origins, methods

and uses in mass media (5th ed). New York, NY: Longman.
Zaller, J. (1999). A theory of media politics: How the interests of politicians,

journalists, and citizens shape the news. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago
Press.
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228ă246.

Topic  Media and
Politics: The
8 Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the relationship between media ownership, gatekeeping
and political affiliation;
2. Explain the editorial functions of the media and media censorship;
3. Elaborate on the politics of advertisement and the media;
4. Outline the nature and elements of political journalism;
5. Explain the significance of the editorial and editorial pages; and
6. Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.
 INTRODUCTION
Media and politics is a system where political information and roles are supported
through the mass media. Media tends to be the medium that disseminates
information on political affairs to enable the public to be involved in political and
national life. People rely on the media to keep up with politics and understand the
behaviour of political leaders.

118  TOPIC 8 MEDIA AND POLITICS: THE PROCESS
8.1 THE MEDIA AND GATEKEEPERS

A media gatekeeper is a person in the media who decides what is worthy of being
seen by the people. Another way to think about it is that a gatekeeper is the person
who tells the writers what to write about. So, the gatekeeperÊs responsibility is to
ensure that news broadcast is in consonance with the policies of the media owner
and state, and does not violate any rules, laws, ethics and norms of society.
A gatekeeper is responsible for determining the presentation of news in the media

which in turn determines the agenda presented to the audience. The media
gatekeeper in Malaysia is always sensitive to the governmentÊs needs, whereby
news is filtered and adjusted to portray government policies. Yang and Md. Sidin
(2014) claim that ownership has an impact on media gatekeeping decisions. They
found that political considerations were the primary external factor influencing
the gatekeeping of the newspapers.
8.1.1 Media Owners and Political Affiliation

Capital interest has determined the direction of media growth since the 20th
century. Media owners are often businessmen who become owners of capital and
then found or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
The ownership of media organisations is very closely linked to domination of
political, economic and cultural flows. Media owners use their media entities to
achieve their own political purposes. Across developing countries, most major
media such as radio stations, television and newspapers are owned by the
government or the ruling party.
MalaysiaÊs mainstream newspapers are largely owned by the government or

businessmen and public figures in close relationship with the coalition parties of
the government. Although the news media is the main avenue of communication
between a government and its people, the Malaysian government appears to be
adopting a „government knows best‰ stance when it comes to the mainstream
media. One possible reason is that since Malaysia is a developing nation, the
government has to control the mainstream media to ensure that the media does
not side track and compromise national development and national security
(Anuar, 2007).

TOPIC 8 MEDIA AND POLITICS: THE PROCESS  119
Smeltzer (2008) states that most of the media in Malaysia may, in fact, directly or
indirectly be owned by members of the ruling party or enjoy the political support
of the economic elites (refer to Table 8.1). The Malaysian media are largely owned
and indirectly controlled by 14 political parties that form the ruling Barisan and
also the other main opposition parties (Kenyon & Marjoribanks, 2007).
Media policies in Malaysia are also under the control of the state government
and the traditional media are said to be government friendly, and allow the
government to have certain degree of control on the media coverage.
Table 8.1: Ownership of Media in Malaysia
Ownership Company Media

UMNO Media Prima Berhad TV3, TV9, TV8, NTV7, HOT.FM, Fly.FM,
New Straits Times Press, Berita Harian,
Harian Metro
Utusan Melayu (M) Berhad Utusan Malaysia, Utusan Melayu,
KOSMO, Utusan Karya
MCA Star Publications Berhad The Star, Red 104.FM, Suria.FM
PAS Harakah Harakah Daily
DAP The Rocket Rocket
8.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE EDITORIAL

The editorial is a newspaperÊs official outlook on specific issues, including political
issues, and often appears in an official statement called an editorial. Editorials have
to be public watchdogs, to educate and to inform the public. According to Duyile
(2005), an editorial is the opinion of the newspaper simply written for the
understanding of readers, leading them to make decisions on the issues being
discussed. They will choose what will be reported and highlighted to the public.
Some of the common goals of editorials are to inform, educate, and entertain issues
broadcasted with reasons and facts for or against something. Journalists today
typically strive to maintain objectivity ă presenting a story without bias ă but
readers can still choose from among many different media outlets. There are often
distinct differences in the ways different newspapers, television news channels,
and radio networks present news about the same issues.

The editorial is a critical element in positioning the newspaper as a mediator

between the people and the many contending forces in contemporary society. The
editorial is an opinion and attitude of the media as a publishing institution towards
a particular issue or controversy that arises in the community. Opinions written
by the editors are assumed to represent the editorial opinions and attitudes of the
media.
Editorials in Malaysia may appear in forms like editorial cartoons or editorial

columns in the newspapers mainly for the purpose of agenda setting and framing.
Editorial cartoons, which are also known as political cartoons, are used to express
views on political issues and regarded as a reflection of freedom of speech.
Editorial cartoons have been published in Malaysian newspapers, such as Utusan

Melayu, Warta Melayu, Majlis and Lembaga since the 1930s. Some of the more
prolific cartoonists at that time include Abu Bakar bin Mohd, Nor Amir Hamzah
bin Mir Baru, Abd. Manan Ali Samad and Mohammad Nor Khalid or more
popularly known as Lat (Mahamood, 2004).
Presenting oneÊs ideas freely, even through editorial cartoons, may be risky.
Nonetheless, Mohammad Nor Khalid is the only Malaysian cartoonist who has
produced editorial cartoons depicting well-known political figures, including
Tun Dr Mahathir, and yet his caricatures are well accepted and appreciated
(Mahamood, 2004; Ujang, 2009).
8.3 CENSORSHIP
Censorship is a global phenomenon. Censorship involves reviewing something
and then choosing to remove or hide parts of it that are considered unacceptable.
Censorship is often used by a group which wants to control information for
personal gain, or to prevent other people from accessing information that should
be available. Censorship is a process or idea of keeping things like obscene words
or graphic images from an audience.
There is also such a thing as self-censorship, which is when one refrains from
saying certain things or possibly rewords them depending on who is listening.
Self-censorship is an act which is done to prevent annoyance and avoid
punishment from powerful players, such as the government, major advertisers or
corporations owning the news organisations, where there is no outside power to
tell them to censor their work.

Media censorship takes many forms in the way news is delivered. While news
stories are often edited for length, there are many choices that are made that are
designed to keep some information from becoming public. Sometimes these
decisions are made to safeguard a personÊs privacy, while at other times, the aim
is to protect media outlets from corporate or political fallout.
There are also different types of censorship. One of the most common criteria
behind censorship is the age limit for viewing different media. Sometimes
censorship can be carried out in the form of a blanket ban on a certain taboo topic.
A taboo topic would be defined according to the governing authority in the
country.
8.3.1 Political Censorship

Political censorship exists when a government attempts to conceal, fake, distort
or falsify information that its citizens receive, by suppressing or crowding out
political news in the news outlets. The government often possesses the power of
the army and the secret police, to enforce the compliance of journalists with the
will of the authorities to spread the story that the ruling authorities want people to
believe.
Violent speeches and derogatory comments about a particular race and religion
should be censored as they can only incite anger among the masses against the
said person or the organisation he/she is associated with. Such media tactics are
often used by political parties for selfish means while ignoring the greater good of
the society. This can only bring unrest among the masses and disrupt the peace
in the society. Censorship will prevent the public display of disrespect to any
particular individual or community and promote political correctness.
8.3.2 Censorship in Malaysia

Malaysia has some of the toughest censorship laws in the world. However, the
growth of the Internet has allowed some media activists to express their thoughts
without any limitations. Political content is not the only content that is censored.
There are is social, religious and moral censorship in Malaysia. Some newspapers
are restricted in their print versions and challenge government domination online
as the Internet provides much more freedom.

In Malaysia, censorship and self-censorship are imposed by the government. Self-

censorship is the exercising of control over what one says and does especially to
avoid criticism or severe reprimand. As shown in Figure 8.1, there are two types
of self-censorship in Malaysia: salient censorship and proscribed censorship (Loo,
2013).
Figure 8.1: Types of self-censorship in Malaysia

Source: Loo (2013)
Malaysian journalists are duty bound to essentially report on „safe‰ issues to

avoid inciting racial strife or propagating salacious promiscuity. According to
Communications and Multimedia Minister, Datuk Seri Dr Salleh Said Keruak, self-
censorship is important to ensure that the information received is valid and not
detrimental or disruptive to harmony in society and country (Malay Mail Online,
2015).
For many Malaysian journalists, the real threat does not come so much from
professional sanctions but a learned cautiousness against sackings, unannounced
arrests for any „mishandling‰ of information, or in some cases, expensive
defamation actions. Therefore, Malaysian newspapers generally offer a daily
diet of general business news and light social features. Fundamental issues of
environmental degradation, poverty, public corruption, public health, public
accountability or migrant labour are largely ignored (Loo, 2005).
8.4 POLITICS OF ADVERTISEMENT AND THE

MEDIA
Bolland (1989) defines advertising as the „paid placement of organisational
messages in the media‰. Political advertising therefore, refers to the purchase and
use of advertising space, paid for at commercial rates, in order to transmit political
messages to a mass audience. The media used for this purpose may include
cinema, billboards, the press, radio, television and the Internet.

Advances in media have streamlined the processes of campaigning, giving

politicians and candidates the comfort and options of reaching out to larger
numbers of people and constituents with very little effort.
Apart from disseminating information, political advertisements are also designed

to persuade. The fundamental platform of political communication from
campaigns to voters, even in this changing world, is advertisement. In 1988,
George Bush and Michael Dukakis spent between them some $85 million on
television advertising. During the 1992 presidential campaign, George BushÊs
team spent upwards of $60 million on television advertising alone. Dwight D.
Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson also successfully utilised the
media for their political advertising campaigns.
In certain countries, political organisations may or may not be regulated by a

regulatory agency. For example, in Australia, the Australian Communications
Media Authority (ACMA) regulates the political advertisement in their country
and is responsible for the regulation of political and election matters in the
broadcast media, under the Broadcasting Services Act.
In Britain, although regulatory and stylistic conventions differ from those of the
US, political advertising is central to political communication. Today, of course,
television has been joined by the Internet as a platform for advertising of all kinds,
including political.
The role of political advertisement is great because it replaces the information that
cannot be delivered through news reports. In Malaysia, political advertising has
been practised since the 1960s. Political advertising in Malaysia is more prevalent
during elections in order to raise awareness or encourage a change in votersÊ
behaviour or perceptions. During general elections, the government expects
MalaysiaÊs mainstream media not only to publicise but also to flaunt the Barisan
NasionalÊs achievements, particularly in the area of socio-economic development.
Based on Nielsen (2011) Advertising Information Services, Barisan Nasional had

spent RM9.8 million on advertisement in February 2008, which marked the
beginning of the election period. Meanwhile, Transparency International Malaysia
(TI-M) estimated that Barisan Nasional spent 7.68 per cent of its budget of RM94.5
million on print ads. The NST and The Star were utilised for the purpose of
campaigning for the Barisan Nasional party (Grewal, 2015).
Advertising campaigns are capable of influencing public opinion. The 2008 general
election showed how political campaigns by political parties became more intense
and creative through advertising. Government and opposition parties compete to

optimise the power of advertising to garner votes for their respective parties. The
government utilises media advertisements to remind Malaysians to „decide wisely
and vote‰ for candidates and parties that deserve to win the election.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Discuss media censorship in the context of Malaysia. Give examples.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. What do you understand by media ownership, gatekeeping and
their relationship with political affiliation?
2. Outline the functions of the editorial in media.
3. Discuss the politics of advertisement and the media.
8.5 POLITICAL JOURNALISM AND THE MEDIA

Political journalism is a broad range of journalism that includes coverage of
all aspects of politics and political science, although the term usually refers
specifically to coverage of civil governments and political power.
8.5.1 The Nature of Political Journalism

Political journalism argues a position of authority, promotes certain politicians,
and raises issues and insights to inform the public about public relations and to
mobilise people to act in political terms. Four characteristics of political journalism
include the following three emphasised by Neveu (2002) and the fourth added by
Kaciaf (2013):
(a) „Noble‰ Journalism

Involves journalists rubbing shoulders with politicians and covering
activities that are supposed to be able to change societyÊs destiny. Noble
journalism can be seen in the success of books that aim to give readers a
glimpse into the functioning of power.

(b) „Esoteric‰ Journalism

This encompasses journalists with access to a reality that most people do not
understand or are not interested in.
(c) Proximity with Politicians

Political journalists are much closer to politicians and this leads them to share
politiciansÊ views and conceptions of politics.
(d) Political Discourses (added by Kaciaf, 2013)

Political discourses are political acts in themselves and thus are different
from other discourses.
The government and media throughout the world will not always see eye-to-eye
on ethical and professional issues. By nature, democratically elected governments
expect public and media support for their policies. The press is often the willing
critic. Democracy is better served by either an adversarial press or a „consensual-
driven‰ press, depending on cultural perspectives. However, the press should
never be ritually adversarial or habitually cooperative.
Political journalism in Malaysia articulates values through the governmentÊs

broad definition of the mediaÊs role in fostering civic education and national
development. Political journalism in Malaysia is guardedly contentious,
constructively adversarial, and critically supportive. Former Prime Minister,
Tun Dr Mahathir, himself stated that journalism in Malaysia should be
constructive, consensual and development-oriented.
The relationship between the Malaysian media and government is borne from
historical and political necessity. In Malaysia, democratic government has the
authority to interfere and control the media. There are ups and downs in the
relationship between the media and government in Malaysia. However, both are
interdependent and there is symbiosis between the two.
Discrepancies between the Malaysian journalistsÊ ethical codes and their actual
behaviour points to their professional dilemma in trying to fulfil their prescribed
roles within the constraints and context of a multi-racial society going through
hard economic times; and holding their chin up to their Western counterparts,
whose freedom to report and hold the government to public accountability is
sacrosanct (Loo, 1998).

8.6 THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL

JOURNALISM
The study of political journalism directs our attention to the relationship between
three elements in the process by which political action is conceived and realised
(McNair, 2011). The elements of political journalism encompass media relations
with political organisations and citizens (see Figure 8.2). These three elements will
be discussed further in the following subtopics.
Figure 8.2: Elements of political journalism

Source: McNair (2011)

8.6.1 Political Organisations

The political organisation is made up of political actors who are defined as
individuals who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to
influence the decision-making process (see Figure 8.2). McNair (2011) states that
these political organisations may seek to do this by attaining institutional political
power, in government or constituent assemblies, through which preferred policies
can be implemented.
(a) Parties
According to McNair (2011), this category of political actors is made up of
like-minded individuals who come together within an agreed organisational
and ideological structure to pursue common goals which reflect the partyÊs
underlying value system or ideology.
There are definitely differences in ideology that exist between political

parties in modern democracies as they share a commitment to constitutional
means of advancing their objectives, which involves attempting to convince
a population as a whole of their correctness, and putting their policies to the
test of periodic elections. Once mandated and they agree to abide by the
constitutional rules of the political system in which they operate, they would
have to respect the limitations being put on their power to implement or
oppose policy, until such time as another electoral opportunity comes along.
(b) Public Organisations

According to McNair (2011), surrounding the established institutions of
politics is a host of non-party organisations with political objectives. These
non-party actors can be divided into three categories:
(i) Trade unions;
(ii) Consumer groups; and
(iii) Professional associations and others.
The unity of these organisations is not because of ideology but by some

common feature of their members, for example, work problems (trade
unions) or weakness of the individual citizen facing large corporations
(consumer groups).

(c) Pressure Groups

Pressure groups are stakeholder groups that have a higher degree of political
involvement as the party urges the authorities directly and actively towards
policies and regulations as may be required. Pressure groups may be
distinguished from the public organisations as they are less institutionalised
and have more „political‰ objectives.
The concerns of pressure groups are usually issues related to conservation

of natural environment, and prevention of animal cruelty. They tend to
campaign around single issues, such as the anti-nuclear movement in the
early 1980s (Deacon & Golding, 1994).
(d) Terrorists Organisations

These organisations are groups using or threatening to use physical and
psychological violence that has been designed to achieve political goals
by targeting civilians contrary to international law and human values.
According to McNair (2011), the term „terrorist‰ here refers to groups which
use terror tactics, urban bombing, hijacking, assassination, and kidnapping,
to list the most common, to achieve their political objectives.
More commonly associated with terrorism, however, are such organisations

as the Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland, that is, until the 1998 peace
agreement. Most of these organisations regard their goals as being outside of
the constitutional process and use violence as a means of persuasion. These
organisations also actively court media attention, striving to make their
target public.
8.6.2 Audience
The audience can be defined as a market and the programme being presented is
the product offered. Basically, the audience is a group of people who read, listen
to and watch a variety of media. McNair (2011) states that the target of political
journalismÊs persuasion is the audience.
The audience for a particular political communication may be broad, as in a

billboard advertisement or a US election „spot‰, where the objective is to persuade
an entire nation of voters. Whatever the size and nature of the audience, however,
all political communication is intended to achieve an effect on the receivers of the
message.

8.6.3 Media
Media are forms and channels used to convey information or a message to the
public. These include websites operated by established media organisations such
as the BBC, CNN, and the Wall Street Journal; blogs and independent sites such as
Wikileaks which are devoted to reporting, aggregating or commenting on political
issues; and social networking sites such as Facebook, and Twitter, which allow
Internet users to share information rapidly.
In democratic political systems, the media functions both as transmitter of political

communication which originates outside the media organisation itself, and as
sender of political messages constructed by journalists and other producers such
as bloggers. As Figure 8.2 indicates, the role of the media in both respects is crucial.
First, and most obviously, political actors must use the media in order to have their
messages communicated to the desired audience.
Political journalism in Malaysia was built from the idea that media organisations
are partners and associates of the government. Paradoxically, media organisations
in Malaysia are seen as working together with the government for the good of
society within certain „boundaries‰, such as obeying regulations, commercialisation
and ownership rules, whilst negotiating for more freedom of the press.
The elements of political journalism constitute a complex relationship between

government, media and society. The major challenge is government control over
the mass media that continues to restrain media freedom, particularly in Malaysia
where the government is believed to own many shares in the countryÊs private
media.
8.7 POLITICS OF THE FRONT PAGE

There are some important issues that will be displayed on the front page, for
example, the issue of elections, war and international diplomacy. Wolfe, Boydstun
and Baumgartner (2009) state that the front page news is made up of two aspects:
space and attention. Front-page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on
different topics and have different characteristics because of the extremely limited
space on the front page.

According to Wolfe et al. (2009), front-page coverage, with its dramatically smaller
agenda space, is subject to much higher skew. Compared to full-paper coverage, a
small number of topics often gain very large proportion of the overall attention.
Similarly, front-page coverage is associated with much greater friction. Because it
has much higher „barriers to entry,‰ front-page attention tends to stay focused on
those topics that had been the focus of attention in the previous time period.
The power of the news is to set a nationÊs agenda, to focus public attention on a
few key public issues and it is an immense and well-documented influence. The
front page is traditionally a political medium.
In Malaysia, most of the front page columns of The New Straits Time and The Star
gave priority to statements made by the Barisan National leaders especially the
Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister. The NST carried positive reports on
the BN through headlines like „Barisan Nasional opts for renewal and the list is
...‰ (21 February 2008), „PM gives report card on Progress made from 2004ă2007‰
(22 February 2008), „Expansive: BN promises prudence and accountability‰
(26 February 2008) (as cited in Mohd, 2009).
8.7.1 Editorials and Editorial Pages

An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue. This
article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board. A newspaper editorial
board consists of the editor and business manager. Editorials, usually unsigned or
published without a byline (authorÊs name), represent the opinion of the newspaper,
not a writer. The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently
contains opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.
However, a newspaper may choose to publish an editorial on the front page.
Editorial boards will often approve candidates in upcoming elections, and reading
the editorials from various newspapers on the same topic can give the researcher
a good sense of the general political leaning of a particular source. Editorials are
usually separated from news reporting so that readers can know when they are
reading a factual news report that tries to be objective and when they are reading
the opinion of the editors of the newspaper.
The editorial page of Malaysian newspapers can easily be found in the editorial
(opinion) section for both The NST and The Star newspapers. These editorial pages
are usually made up of news that discuss political, economic, education, health,
and public issues.

8.8 PRIME TIME NEWS

According to Nielsen (2011), the usual prime time for television is 8pm to 11pm,
Monday through Friday, while more Americans tune in from 9:15pm to 9:30pm
than at any other period during prime time. During this prime time, news and
television programmes will be broadcasted by the media. The reason is because
this prime time is the peak hour during which a large number of viewers catch up
on news and programmes after a long day at work.
Prime time news in Malaysia is broadcasted from 8pm to 9pm. Prime time news
targets the public after a long busy day at work and broadcasts news that begins
with political issues, issues within the society or community, education, sports and
finally world issues.
8.8.1 Politics of Protocol in Prime Time News

Protocol is the official procedure or system of rules governing affairs of state or
diplomatic occasions. Hosso (2014) states that protocol depends on the application
areas and its subjects. It may be divided into the following branches: governmental
or state, diplomatic, military, ecclesiastical and sports.
According to Hosso (2014), both observance and neglect of rules in protocol have
a signalling effect: one can convey a message or an intention or deliver an opinion.
Politicians always need to convey their message in a credible, believable and
trustworthy way in order to reach their political goals.
However in Malaysia, the politics of protocols in prime time television news is

very much controlled and filtered by the government. Only selected scenes and
messages are shared for the people to see.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Define political journalism.
2. Outline the elements of political journalism.
3. What do you understand by the politics of the front page?
4. Explain the functions of the editorial page.
5. Discuss the politics of protocol in the prime time news.

 A media gatekeeper is the person in the media who decides what is worthy of
being seen by the people. A gatekeeper is also the person who tells the writers
what to write about.
 Media owners are businessmen who become owners of capital, and then found
or co-found a media business and strive to generate economic profits.
 Censorship is the process of editing/keeping things like obscene words or

graphic images from an audience.
 Political journalism includes coverage of all aspects of politics and political

science, although the term usually refers specifically to coverage of civil
governments and political power.
 The elements of political journalism encompass media relations with political

organisations and citizens.
 The political organisation is made up of political actors defined as individuals

who aspire, through organisational and institutional means, to influence the
decision-making process.
 The front page news is made up of two aspects, space and attention. Front-
page and full-paper newspaper stories tend to be on different topics and have
different characteristics because of the extremely limited space on the front
page.
 An editorial is an article that presents the opinion of the newspaper on an issue.

This article reflects the view of the majority of the editorial board.
 Editorials are usually unsigned or published without a byline (authorÊs name).

The page opposite this page is called the op-ed page and frequently contains
opinion pieces by writers not directly affiliated with the publication.

Censorship Political affiliation

Editorial Political journalism
Editorial page Politics
Front page Politics of advertisement
Gatekeepers Politics of protocol
Media Prime time
Media owners
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Bolland, E. J. (1989). Advertising vs. public relations: A comparison using cost-per-

thousand for print ads and PR placements. Public Relations Quarterly, 34(3),
10ă12.
Deacon, D., & Golding, P. (1994). Taxation and representation: The media, political
communication and the poll tax. London, England: John Libby.
Duyile, D. (2005). Writing for the media ă A manual for African journalists. Lagos,
Nigeria: Gong Communication.
Grewal, I. S. (2015, August 4). Regulating political funding. The Star Online.
Retrieved from
http://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/online-exclusive/making-
progress/2015/08/04/regulating-political-funding/

Gunaratne, S. (2002). Freedom of the press: A world system perspective. Gazatte,

64(4), 343ă369.
Hosso, N. (2014). Protocol in politics: Politicians are only human. Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/9153695/Protocol_in_Politics_-
_Politicians_are_only_human
Kaciaf, N. (2013). Les pages „Politique‰: Une histoire politique de la presse

française, 1945ă2006 [Political pages: A history of political journalism in the
French press, 1945ă2006]. Rennes, France: Rennes University Press.
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of Malaysia and Singapore. Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies
and Society, 5(2), 103ă118.
Loo, E. (1995). Nurturing community service news values as the core of Asian-
centred journalism. Seminar on Asian values in journalism. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC).
Loo, E. (1998). Malaysia media „clamp down‰ ă So whatÊs new? Retrieved from
http://gbcode.rthk.org.hk/TuniS/app3.rthk.hk/mediadigest/content.php
?aid=1915
Loo, E. (2005). Malaysian media clampdown. Media Digest. Retrieved from

http://rthk.hk/mediadigest/md9810/oct_05.html
Loo, E. (2013). Bridging the cultural gaps in journalism training and education in
Asia. Singapore: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.
Mahamood, M. (2004). The history of Malay editorial cartoons (1930să1993).

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Utusan Publications & Distributors.
McNair, B. (2011). An introduction to political communication (5th ed.). New York,

NY: Routledge.
Mohd, A. M. S. (2009). The public sphere and media politics in Malaysia.

Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars

Neveu, E. (2002). Four generations of political journalism. In R. Kuhn, & E. Neveu,

Political journalism: New challenges, new practices. London, England:
Routledge.
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http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2011/what-time-is-really-
primetime.html
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December 27). Malay Mail Online. Retrieved from
http://www.themalaymailonline.com/malaysia/article/public-should-
practice-self-censorship-on-social-media-says-minister
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technology? Journal of International Communication, 14(1), 1ă18.
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Malaysian National Institute of Translation.
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front-page and full-paper stories in the New York Times. Paper presented at
the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association. Chicago, IL:
Midwest Political Science Association.
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conflicts: An analysis of mainstream and alternative newspapers in Malaysia.
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Humanities, 7(1), 23ă51.

Topic  Media, Politics
and
9 Globalisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define globalisation;
2. Discuss the impact of globalisation on socio-cultural, political and
economic transformation;
3. Describe the effect of globalisation on the media system; and
4. Explain how new media has transformed politics and political
communication.
 INTRODUCTION
According to some scholars and observers, globalisation began when people began
to travel across the world from one point to another. Thus, globalisation is not new.
For thousands of years, people ă and, later, corporations ă have been buying from
and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk
Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle
Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises
in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalisation
are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
However, with the advent of information and communications technology (ICT),
rapid globalisation is occurring due to the enabling role of ICT.

TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION  137
9.1 GLOBALISATION
Although the word „globalisation‰ was not coined until the second half of the
twentieth century, the origin of globalisation has been traced back to the period
between 1450 and 1500 AD. This period is referred to as the „mercantilist period‰
and characterised by the development of trade in the quest for commercial empires
to broaden their markets (Amiuwu, 2004; Scholte, 2002; as cited in Ugbam,
Chukwu, & Ogbo, 2014). Propelled by advancements in transportation and
information technology, globalisation has practically shrunk the world into one
global village (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Globalisation is turning everything that is different into one thing
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/502010689686280918/

138  TOPIC 9 MEDIA, POLITICS AND GLOBALISATION
Globalisation means different things to different people. For some, it creates

positive political, economic and technological progress. Globalisation is a process
of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of
different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided
by information technology.
The process has effects on the environment, culture, political systems, economic
development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies
around the world. According to Friedman (2000), globalisation is the inexorable
integration of markets, nation states, and technologies to a degree never witnessed
before. The following subtopics will further discuss globalisation and socio-
cultural, political and economic transformation.
9.1.1 Globalisation and Socio-cultural Transformation

Before the advent of globalisation, our societies were mainly agrarian, as in
they were mostly involved in agriculture. Later on, the forces of globalisation
marginalised such types of societies.
Agricultural activities became activities of the few as most of the population are
freed to work in factories, shops and offices (Giddens, 2013). Cities became greatly
populated, but at the same time, emphasised the anonymity of modern life. The
result was the expansion of industrial technology into military as well as civilian
life and this allows the socio-cultural hegemony of the West to expand at the
expense of other cultures.
In discussing the transformation of societies through globalisation, the term

„developing societies‰ is adopted. These societies differ from traditional societies
in three respects: politically they are nation-states; most are undergoing the
experience of urbanisation; and agriculture dominates but as an export crop rather
than for subsistence. Many of these countries continue to suffer worsening poverty
exacerbated by the cost of servicing their debts to the West, but the developing
world is far from homogeneous and also includes the economic „success stories‰
of newly industrialising countries (NICs) such as Brazil, Mexico and South Korea.
The Asian NICs are involved in both traditional industrial production (steel,
shipbuilding) and innovations such as electronics and financial services.
In tracing the development of these different types of society, scholars have been
engaged in the study of social change. Change is difficult to define, as everything
changes all of the time. A change becomes significant when there are alterations in
underlying structures and modifications of basic institutions.

Social theory has failed to produce a convincing mono-causal explanation of social

change, but three main factors that have influenced social change are identified:
(a) Cultural factors;
(b) The physical environment; and
(c) Political organisation.
Technological changes promoted rapid change during the modern era leading to
globalisation. Among the constituents and causes of globalisation is the growth in
information and communications technology, most notably the advent of fibre-
optic cables and communications satellites. The impact of this is uneven, but
everywhere it is on an upward trajectory.
ICT helps in the compression of time and space and accelerates

interconnectedness. In this sphere, transnational corporations (TNCs) contribute
to the globalising dynamics by operating their business across borders, whether
they are Coca-Cola or Colgate-Palmolive. Alongside TNCs, we are introduced to
the „global commodity chain‰, the worldwide networks of labour and production
processes leading to a finished product.
The flow of information on the large array of fresh produce on offer in the
supermarket, and the constant transportation of the goods have created the
concepts of „food miles‰ and „local produce‰ in eco-debates. A second argument
concerns global culture, a social fact maintained and reinforced by television, the
global economy, „citizens of the world‰, transnational organisations and electronic
communications.
According to Ogohi (2014), the social aspect is that globalisation has deeply
influenced the social structure of different societies. Every society used to have its
own unique culture with respect to the language, social norms, morality, civic
sense and other aspects. With the advent of globalisation through the aid of
technology, this special capability to influence millions at the same time has
challenged the social institutions of the society, mainly the family.
A particular society following its style of living without being much influenced by
Western culture is now seen as „uncivilised,‰ which is a very cunningly designed
propaganda of the West to inculcate their culture into the rest of the world and
thereby dominate the globe. Culture links us to our historical past. In other words,
it determines a particular way of peopleÊs behaviour, ways of acting and ways of
thinking.

Culture also defines the value system, customs, education and knowledge of a
people. Culture is the channel through which knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals,
laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits are conveyed to members of a
community from generation to generation (Bello, 2001).
Culture consists of the values and rules we live by, our ideas of good and evil, our
language and our religion. However, the socio-cultural phenomenon, which gives
people identity, personality and individuality, has been masked by globalisation.
The hegemonisation of culture by the Western world or rather, by America, is an
obvious attempt to leave the society of the southern countries or developing
countries, without identity, individuality or personality.
The overall effect on us is that we become mindless atoms in the material world.
This perhaps accounts for why some have defined globalisation from a negative
perspective. Aborishade (2002) maintains that globalisation is Western
imperialism, particularly, American imperialism, which seeks to enforce its
hegemony on other nations through threats of economic, political or military
coercion. To him, globalisation does not only deepen inequality between the core
and the periphery nations, it also seeks to wage unparalleled attacks on the rights
and prosperity of poor nations.
On the other hand, culture is very much an elusive term to define, perhaps because
of its wider scope and broad nature. However, what comes to mind while thinking
of culture is values and norms people have which make them live in a particular
way. It is a way of living in a particular community. It is therefore, the sum total
of all things that refer to religion, cultural roots of people, symbols, languages,
songs, stories, celebrations, clothing and dressing, and all expressions of our way
of life. It encompasses food productions, technology, architecture, kinship, the
interpersonal relationships, political and economic systems and all the social
relationships these entail.
One truth about culture is that it is learned. Such learning does not take place
through natural inheritance. It is not genetically transmitted. Rather, it takes place
by a process of absorption from the social environment or through deliberate
instruction, or through the process of socialisation. If culture is learned, it may
follow to say that it can equally be unlearned. If it follows, then, Malaysia, for
example, has a lot to unlearn (those Western values that are alien and destructive
to the Malaysian culture) from the contact with the West. However, this does not
suggest that Malaysia, for example, has nothing good to learn from the West.
Indeed, there are many.

Another truth about culture is that it is dynamic. Culture is never static. Every now
and then we are being transformed culturally. It changes exactly the same way as
human beings change. This transformation is gradual and not sudden or abrupt.
According to Fridah (1998), culture is a continuous process of change but in spite
of the change, culture continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity,
continuity, and security and binds society together.
The dynamism of culture casts doubt on the possibility of a global culture. Part of
this dynamism is that each culture has its own personality. The fact that we are all
humans does not mean that we are all the same. To ignore this would mean to
destroy GodÊs own beautiful rainbow made from the many colours of cultural
diversity. But central to globalisation is the idea of a global culture (Guillen, 2001).
However, there are only a few scholars who accept that a global culture is in the
making. A „culture ideology of consumerism‰ driven by symbols, images and
aesthetics of lifestyles and self-image ă has spread throughout the world and is
having some momentous effects including standardisation of tastes and desires
(Guillen, 2001; Leslie, 1991) which goes a long way to affect culture.
The combination of progressively advanced technology and complex social

structure, which are sustained by the ideas of change as desirable progress,
enhances social change as being one of the major impacts of globalisation. The
social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on the life
and work of people, families and societies. There are clearly other social aspects of
globalisation beyond the employment, working dimensions, income, and social
protection.
Globalisation is seen therefore, as the new coloniser, insensitively spreading

particular views of the world into developing nations in the mistaken belief that
this is actually helping people. The potential power of globalisation to spread
dominant ideologies and to crush emerging structures, whether wittingly or
unwittingly, is the main cause of concern.
9.1.2 Globalisation and Political Transformation

The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. Within the
internal and domestic politics of countries, the advent of globalisation has left an
unprecedented mark. The conduct of election campaigns, for example, has a wide
reaching effect, since by using online campaign, messages travel across national
borders. Using online campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has
become the norm.

Another political development is the spread of institutions of government that do

not match national boundaries, such as the European Union, the United Nations
and a tranche of non-governmental bodies. The spread of information across
borders does not just destabilise regimes, as in Tiananmen Square or Berlin; it also
creates international awareness, for example, through pictures from war zones.
The global outlook that follows from this leads some to look for referents both
above and below the nation-state for identities or allegiances.
The collapse of the Soviet „bloc‰ reintegrated a large number of countries into the
trading community. As global communications overrode ideological control of the
state media, one could argue that globalisation was both cause and consequence
of the break-up of Soviet hegemony.
9.1.3 Globalisation and Economic Transformation

Gone are the days when countries trade and do business within a particular
locality or region. Come globalisation, no country is an island and countries of the
world trade among themselves. With the advancements in transportation and
telecommunication facilities, distance is no longer a hurdle. Advancement in
information and communication technology has further brought an impact on
globalisation. With the advent of the electronic economy, not only is physical
capital more mobile between countries but financial capital can also flow and ebb
within seconds on a computer screen. Hence, we are living in a world which has
experienced economic transformation more than ever before.
Globalisation has changed situations in such a manner that power of state is

determined by the power of the firm. If the goal of globalisation is a more liberal
exchange of goods, services, labour, thoughts etc., which in later stages would
make the world uniform, then there would be no space for identity. Globalisation
is not a debate about divergence or convergence, but a dialectical process which
can both integrate and fragment, while creating both winners and losers, especially
in the economic arena.
In line with globalisation, countries must allow the free and unselective operations
of transnational corporations in their economies; open their economies freely and
indiscriminately to imports and concentrate on exporting what they are supposed
to be good at; reduce the role of governments in the economy to that of supporting
the market and private enterprise; and leave the determination of prices of goods,
currencies, labour as well as the allocation of resources to the operation of the
market, which is called the „free-market‰ or „laissez faire‰ economy.

In the light of the above, one can argue that, globalisation is primarily not a neutral
process driven by laws and factors of development, such as technology, and
operating outside of human control and agency. Rather, it is a conscious
programme of restructuring international economic and political relations in line
with a particular set of interests (the profit motivations of businesses, especially
the transnational corporations of the advanced industrial countries) and vision
(the belief in the primacy of the free market and of private enterprise in all
processes of human development) (Fridah, 1998).
ACTIVITY 9.1
Explain the impact of globalisation on the socio-cultural, political and

economic transformation in your country.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What do you understand by the term globalisation?
9.2 GLOBALISATION AND THE MEDIA

SYSTEM
Before the 1990s, most mainstream media belonged to the state and focussed
mostly on national issues. However, from the 1990s most communication media
have become progressively global, reaching the global audience. The international
flows of information have been assisted by the development of global capitalism,
new technologies and the increasing commercialisation of global television, which
have occurred as a result of the deregulation policies adopted by various countries
in Europe and the US, facilitating the proliferation of cable and satellite channels
(Matos, 2012).
Early advancement in globalisation of communication was facilitated by the

development of technologies capable of transmitting messages via electromagnetic
news, marking a turning point in advancing the globalisation of communications.
This gave birth to international news agencies such as Reuters in the 19th century
which paved the way for the beginning of a global system of codification.

It was in the 1960s, with the launch of the first geo-stationary communication
satellite, that transmission became fully global, thus making the globalisation of
communications a unique phenomenon of the 20th century (Thompson, 1995).
News agencies are seen as crucial to the globalisation thesis as they are closely tied
to the modernisation of the West and the expansion of communication media since
their appearance in the mid-19th century. They have an important role to play.
International news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, United Press
International and Agence France-Presse (AFP) are seen by media scholars as
having contributed to a global agenda and creating perceptions of the South
(developing countries) as being a place of corruption, political instability due to
government overthrow and disaster for Western audiences.
These four agencies have remained key players that dominate the global
dissemination of news and information, with many newspapers and other media
organisations across the world depending on them for international news.
The advent of the Internet has further made the media very impactful, whereby
news agencies and the press have an online presence thereby furthering the
globalisation agenda of the media system. A media house or press that has no
online presence would be left behind. This is obvious all around us. The media
system in Malaysia also has an online presence making it global.
9.3 NEW MEDIA AND POLITICS

With the advent of new media, the way politics is conducted has been largely
affected. This has brought a new dimension to the way political communication is
done. The new media has permeated the domain of political communication for
about a decade now. A classical case was the use of new media in politics during
the Obama campaign back in 2008. In Malaysia, the use of new media in politics
occurred during roughly the same period, during the 12th General Elections (Ali
Salman & Mohd Safar Hasim, 2011). However, the Obama campaign had a
tremendous impact on the electorate, especially the millennial generation when
compared with the Malaysian scenario. Yet the impact on the Malaysian electorate
cannot be discounted.

On 4 November 2008, more than 12 million young Americans selected the person
who made them believe in their abilities to bring about change, the person who
gave them hope, and the person who made them feel united. It was Barack Obama
who won the election and it was young people who were pivotal in helping him
win. The Obama campaign itself was said to draw lessons and inspirations from
the new media tools in the Howard Dean primary campaign in 2004.
Prior to the Obama campaign, Howard Dean was the first to validate the power
of online communities for politics in the new media era. As Dean pointed out,
he himself learned that politics has to respond to popular demand and move
away from traditional concepts. „You have to build community, not just
enable fundraising. You need to listen, be willing to lead and be willing to be
decentralised,‰ he said (Teachout & Steerman, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
As his campaign was going on, DeanÊs team was turning the one-way political
communication path into a two-way street, benefiting on various levels from
citizensÊ desire to act. A lot of ideas for the Dean campaign came from the
grassroots.
In the new media environment, political communication is more effective when

it is two-way, and with a lot of ideas stemming from bottom to top. Similarly,
ObamaÊs campaign was engineered as a bottom-up campaign and so was his
communication strategy (Tumulty, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010). Dean was
the first to tell people: „You have the Power.‰ Obama adapted DeanÊs strategy
by addressing the nation with the words „Yes, We Can.‰ By comparison, both
ClintonÊs and McCainÊs communication strategies followed top-down schemes
(Lopez-Ayala, 2008; Feltz, 2008 as cited in Alexandrova, 2010).
In the Malaysian context, the run up to the 2008 General Elections saw the
opposition, more than Barisan Nasional (BN), using blogs to attract young voters
in particular. This strategy paid off as for the first time in a General Elections, a
blogger turned politician from the opposition won a seat in parliament. This took
the ruling BN by surprise as they were caught off guard (Ali Salman & Mohd Safar
Hasim, 2011). From this development, the political landscape began to change as
a result of the increasing use of new media in politics.
Following the events of 2008, the use of new media in politics became the norm
and in 2013, the Malaysian General Elections was dubbed the social media
elections. As distinct from the 2008 General Elections, where blogs were mainly
used, the 2013 elections saw the use of social media platforms like Facebook and
twitter.

The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape playing an
important role in political communication. Those politicians who are ardent in
using new media stand to benefit in their political communication and campaigns
while those who are still sceptical about social media stand to lose.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain how globalisation affects the media system.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe how new media has changed the political landscape and
political communication. Support your answers with examples.
 Globalisation is a process of interaction and integration among the people,

companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by
international trade and investment, and aided by information technology.
 Culture is a continuous process of change but in spite of the change, culture

continues to give a community a sense of identity, dignity, continuity, and
security and binds society together.
 The social dimension of globalisation refers to the impact of globalisation on

the life and work of people, families and societies.
 The third element of the globalisation dynamic is political change. The conduct
of election campaigns, for example, has a wide reaching effect, since by using
online campaigns, messages travel across national borders. Using online
campaigns to reach citizens living outside a nation has become the norm.

 The new media has become part and parcel of the political landscape.
Politicians who are ardent in using new media stand to gain lots of benefits in
their political communication and campaigns, while those who are sceptical
about social media stand to lose.
Developing societies Mainstream media

Economic transformation Newly industrialising countries (NICs)
Electromagnetic news Political communication
Global culture Political transformation
Global village Social change
Globalisation Social media
Homogeneous Socio-cultural hegemony
Industrial technology Socio-cultural transformation
Information technology Southern or developing countries
Integration Traditional societies
Interaction Transnational corporations (TNCs)
International trade and investment
Aborishade, F. (2002). Effects of globalization on social and labour practices

in privatized enterprises in Nigeria. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Centre for
Advanced Social Sciences.
Aida Idris. (2015). Globalisation and socio-economic development in Malaysia:

Wither small businesses? Asian Journal of Business and Accounting, 5(1),
109ă127.

Alexandrova, E. (2010). Using new media effectively: An analysis of Barack

ObamaÊs election campaign aimed at young Americans (Masters thesis,
Fordham University). Retrieved from
http://www.academia.edu/1526998/Using_New_Media_Effectively_an_A
nalysis_of_Barack_Obamas_Election_Campaign_Aimed_at_Young_Americ
ans
Ali Salman, & Mohd Safar Hasim. (2011). New media and democracy: The
changing political landscape in Malaysia. AKADEMIKA, 81(1), 15ă21.
Ugbam, O. C., Chukwu, D. B., & Ogbo, D. A. (2014). The effects of globalization on
African culture: The Nigerian perspective. IOSR Journal of Business and
Management, 16(4), 62ă71.
Bello, S. (2001). AfricanÊs culture ă Paradigm for African technological

development. Retrieved from www.africult/develop/html
Fridah, M. (1998). The effects of globalization on culture in Africa in the eyes of an

African woman. ECHOES. World Council of Churches.
Friedman, T. L. (2000). The lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization.
New York, NY: Anchor Books.
Giddens, A. (2013). Sociology (7th ed.). Cambridge, England: Polity Press.
Guillen, M. F. (2001). Is globalization civilizing, destructive or feeble? A critique of

five key debates in the social science literature. Annual Review of Sociology,
27(1), 235ă260.
Leslie, S. (1991). Sociology of the global system. New York, NY: Harvester
Wheatsheaf.
Matos, C. (2012). Globalization and the mass media. In Encyclopedia of

globalization. Oxford, England: Wiley-Blackwell.
Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(17), 31ă41.
Scholte, J. A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London, England:

Macmillan Press.
Thompson, J. B. (1995). The media and modernity: A social theory of the media.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Topic  Research
Methods and
10 Evaluation
Process of
Media and
Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss why the media are called the king makers in political
information;
2. Identify the methods and evaluation processes used in the study of
media and politics;
3. Explain how technological developments have affected the
relationship between media and politics;
4. Describe media content analysis; and
5. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative content analysis.

150  TOPIC 10 RESEARCH METHODS AND EVALUATION PROCESS OF MEDIA
AND POLITICS
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the relationship between media and politics, research
methods and evaluation processes. As you go through the topic, you should
be able to undertake the process of conducting an impact study of political
information in the media on the audience. This topic describes the evaluation
process and identifies the two main types of content analysis. You will also look at
the value of content analysis in political communication.
In a democratic society, media is used for the exchange of ideas and opinions, by
both those in power and the general public. The media will continue to be the
main source of information for the citizens in any democratic society both in the
developed and developing countries.
The mass media has a strong influence on politics, and could shape public opinion.
Importantly, the media should fulfil its political role as a means of disseminating
unbiased information, so that the general public could make their own political
choices, and therefore participate in the national discourse that affects their lives.
In a true democratic society, the media helps to inform the general public and also
acts as a watchdog to the government. Ideally, the mass media should make the
political system more open and „transparent‰ by creating an equal playing field
both for the politicians and the people to participate in political decisions.
10.1 POLITICS
Politics could be defined as a decision-making process and effort to attain decision-
making positions and resources that could be used to further oneÊs own political
interest (Louw, 2010). For one to gain and retain political power, there has to be
some element of control or authority.
In a liberal democratic society, politicians normally gain access to power through

election. This is the reason why politicians and political parties will always need
the media to advertise their party manifestos and highlight their political agendas
in order to encourage large numbers of people to vote for them.
Successful and impressive media management could enhance the aura of

politicians and help them gain access to parliament and government, where
policies and power are executed.

TOPIC 10 RESEARCH METHODS AND EVALUATION PROCESS OF MEDIA  151
AND POLITICS
10.2 IMPACT STUDY OF POLITICAL

INFORMATION IN THE MEDIA
Media is the most important cultural resource for politicians and political parties.
As a key political „king maker‰, the media discourses legitimise or de-legitimise
hierarchies of positions.
Technological development has drastically changed the relationship between

media and politics. With the rise of the Internet since the 1980s and 1990s, social
media now virtually involves almost everybody in society ă whether regular
citizens, activists, software providers, telecommunications firms, non-government
and government organisations. In the new media environment, there are different
social network services and also blogs which have had significant impact on
present day society. The public is now actively aware of what is happening daily
in the political circle.
The new media has allowed the public more access to political news, thereby
avoiding the usual barriers they normally encounter, such as, control of publishers,
editors and journalists in the traditional media (McPhail, 2002). However, Tay
(2000) is of the opinion that even with the new media, many Asian governments
minimise or control the role of media as watchdog, and as an independent check-
and-balance on the government of the day. In a book titled The Emergence of
American Political Issues, Shaw and McCombs (1977) wrote: „The most significant
effect of the media was its ability to organise our world for us. The news media are
stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.‰
10.2.1 Types of Methods

Most studies on the impact of political information in the media apply focus
group methods, in-depth-interviews, online analytics, quantitative, and qualitative
research methods, surveys and social media analysis. Through this combination
of methodological approaches, media experts could gain a comprehensive
understanding on the beliefs, attitudes and political beliefs of the audience.
In a bid to understand the impact of political information in the media on their

audience, the Harmony Institute developed „HI score,‰ which is a system to
quantify or assess how media impact influences political beliefs of the people
during electioneering campaigns (Abelson, 2012). An initial attempt at generating
HI scores combined data from Twitter, news media, and Google searches. As the

AND POLITICS
test set, the Harmony Institute selected the last three years of Oscar-nominated
documentary films. This list provided comparable examples and allowed the
researchers to expand on some of their past work. Through a trial-and-error
process, they arrived at a score of 1 to 100 (the higher the better) that estimates the
influence of a documentary film over time (Abelson, 2012).
10.2.2 Evaluation Process

Mass media can facilitate short-term, intermediate, and long-term effects on their
audiences. The short-term effects include the following:
(a) Exposing audiences to political information;
(b) Creating awareness and knowledge;
(c) Altering out-dated or incorrect knowledge; and
(d) Enhancing audience recall of particular advertisements or public service

announcements, promotions, or programme names.
The intermediate effects include behavioural changes and perceptions of social

norms. Long-term effects incorporate all of the above, together with focused
restructuring of perceived social norms, and maintenance of behavioural change.
Iyengar (1991) evaluates the effects of news coverage on public opinion and
political choice, saying that „The framing of issues by television forms the way the
society understands the causes and the solutions to central political problems‰.
Shaw and McCombs (1977) studied the agenda-setting capacity of the news media
in American presidential elections and present the results in their book The
Emergence of American Political Issues.
10.2.3 The Usage and Function of Impact Analysis

The analysis of more than 30,000 news features of the Danish government in power
aired over the Danish radio station for the past 20 years was conducted by teams
of social scientists. They found that critical coverage in the media could lead to a
decline in the public ratings of a government. The study does not agree with the
theory that having more media coverage is always good for the government.
The study by Shotts and Ashworth (2010) from the University of Chicago found
that when you have a healthy media, it would make those holding political
positions less likely to engage in activities that could tarnish their image. The
researchers constructed a theoretical model in their study using well-established
principles of game theory. They found that if the media always produced
AND POLITICS
commentaries on policy choices, there would be less incentive for politicians to

pander since voters would know what policies were in their interest. This freedom
allows politicians to avoid pandering and to take actions that are good for the
voters without fear of being criticised by the media.
Most journalists operate under the belief that when it comes to political issues, only
bad news is worth reporting. Therefore, citizens are hardly treated to stories about
how political institutions are functional or how government officials are admirable
public servants. Rather, the news media would always have the tendency to
highlight political misunderstanding, malfeasance, and scandals among party
members (Bennett, 1996).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why are the media called „king makers‰ in political information?

2. What are the methods used to assess the impact of political
information on the audience?
ACTIVITY 10.1
How have technological developments affected the relationships

between media and politics? Discuss this question in the context of the
Malaysian politics. Share your findings in the online forum.
10.3 CONTENT ANALYSIS

The generally accepted definition of content analysis was provided by Berelson
(1952), who described it as a „research technique for the objective, systematic and
quantitative description of the manifest content of communication‰.
However, this definition was found wanting among researchers because the word
„objective‰ had raised some argument from researchers, such as Berger and
Luckman (1967). In their classic study on The Social Construction of Reality, Berger
and Luckman (1967) state that even the most scientific methods of social research
cannot really produce objective results. With regard to media content, they argue
that media texts are always open to different interpretations from researchers and
that its analysis could not be said to be objective.

AND POLITICS
Other definitions of content analysis include those listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Definitions of Content Analysis
Source Definition
Stone, Dunphy, Smith Content analysis is any research technique for making
and Ogilvie (1966) inferences by systematically and objectively identifying
specified characteristics within text.
Weber (1990) Content analysis is a research method that uses a set of
procedures to makes valid inferences from text.
Lasswell, Lerner and  Content analysis operates on the view that verbal
Pool (1952) behaviour is a form of human behaviour, that the flow of
symbols is a part of the flow of events, and that the
communication process is an aspect of the historical
process.
 Content analysis is a technique which aims at describing,
with optimum objectivity, precision, and generality, what
is said on a given subject in a given place at a given time.
In 1948, Lasswell (as cited in Shoemaker & Reese, 1996) defined media content
analysis as „Who says what, through which channel, to whom, with what effect‰.
Berelson (1952) lists out the main purposes of content analysis as follows:
(a) To predict the effects of content on the intended audience;
(b) To make inferences about audiences of content;
(c) To make inferences about producers of content; and
(d) To describe characteristics of message contents.
During the 1920s and 1930s, media content analysis became a very popular
research methodology for the investigation of movies.
10.3.1 The Value of Content Analysis to the Political

Process
In political content analysis, the process should apply systematic research
techniques and a researcher should strive for objectivity, validity as well as
reliability. A key component in content analysis is the coding book or coding list,
that is, a list of all the variables, or the units of analysis to be researched.

AND POLITICS
The value of content analysis to the political process is that it should contain
examination of multiple variables (multivariable). In content analysis, the primary
units (variables) are messages expressed as words or phrases. In the coding list, all
the messages which are considered to be relevant in the study are listed, whether
they are negative or positive.
The coding list may also include some categories of issues, places or topics and
may also seek to identify important names of certain sources like individuals and
organisations relevant to issues in the messages to be analysed.
10.3.2 Types of Content Analysis

There are various types of content analysis, such as the following:
(a) Quantitative Content Analysis

In quantitative content analysis, data are usually determined by the key
contents, circulation of media, audience reach and also the frequencies of
units of analysis. Quantitative content analysis considers the media form,
such as visual media and television. Neuendorf (2002) is of the view that
what is important in content analysis is both content form and characteristics.
Neuendorf (2002) argues that media content is quantitative in nature only,

whereas Shoemaker and Reese (1996) say that it is a good idea to apply a
combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to achieve
a balanced result. According to these researchers, „behavioural content
analysis is not necessarily conducted using quantitative or numerical
techniques but the two (quantitative and qualitative) tend to go together‰
(Shoemaker & Reese, 1996). They further state that humanistic content
analysis study moves towards quantitative analysis. They say that reducing
large amounts of text to quantitative data does not provide a complete
picture of meaning and contextual codes, since text may contain many other
forms of emphasis besides sheer repetition.
(b) Qualitative Content Analysis

Qualitative content analysis is a method that examines the relationship
between text and meaning. It recognises that media texts are polysemic, in
other words, that it is open to different meanings to a lot of readers. This
method of research analysis pays more attention to the audience, media and
contextual factors and not just simply the text.
It could therefore be concluded that qualitative content analysis relies

significantly on the researchersÊ „readings‰ and interpretations of the media
text. This type of media research is very intensive and time consuming. This

AND POLITICS
is the reason qualitative content analysis tends to use a small sample size and
this has resulted in its being criticised by some researchers as not being
scientific and being unreliable.
It could be said that quantitative content analysis is able to conform to certain

levels of scientific analysis, can produce reliable findings and is positivist in
nature. This is not the same with qualitative content analysis, which is
relatively difficult and unable to give a reliable and scientific result. Even
with the shortcomings of qualitative analysis, its text contents are important
and help to reveal a thick description of words and their deeper meanings
and also the likely interpretation of action. However, it is good to combine
the two methods to overcome any shortcomings.
10.4 GENERAL METHODS AND PROCESS OF

CONTENT ANALYSIS
There are several studies that discuss the general methods and process of content
analysis such as those conducted by Krippendorff (2004), Neuendorf (2002) and
Riffe, Lacy and Fico (2005). Content analyses can be conducted via human or
computer analysis. Both human and computer content analysis use the same basic
method ă they require conceptual, reliable categories, and a reasonable sample size
for the analysis.
However, these two methods differ in some areas. For example, computer content
analysis requires computer files of sample texts for analysis while in human
analysis, physical texts are read and coded by humans (trained researchers).
Computer software is then used to analyse the results just like in regular survey
research.
Examples of computer programs that are most often used at this stage for database
and storage are SPSS, for statistical analysis and Excel, for the tabulation of data
and calculations. The Excel program is used to generate graphic programs and
charts. Many social researchers and authors such as Newbold, Boyd-Barrett and
Van Den Bulck (2002) have claimed that computer media content analysis is
irrelevant, and are of the view that this should be done manually.
When content analysis is conducted in different languages and across cultures,

there is mostly likely the problem of machine coding. This is because most of the
automated coding systems work only with English texts, and when computer
translations are used, they may not be reliable except for basic interpretation.

AND POLITICS
On the other hand, when human coding is used, the software applied in storing
the data and doing the analysis is not that significant to the research. Hence, a very
good reliable program needs to be used. What is more important at that stage is
the methodology applied. Likewise, the training of the coders is important to
ensure that the content analysis is done in accordance with strict criteria.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What is media content analysis?
2. Discuss the differences between quantitative and qualitative
content analysis.
3. Discuss human versus computer content analysis.
 In a democratic society, the media will continue to be a watchdog to the

government in power. Also, there is a need to make the mass media open and
transparent to people, including politicians, to enable participation in the
political decisions process.
 Technological developments in the 1980s and 1990s drastically changed the

relationship between media and politics. With the advent of the Internet
and social media, almost everybody can get virtually involved in political
discourse. The „king makers‰ in media and political communication are
therefore the mass media.
 To understand the impact of political information in the media on their

audience, researchers usually conduct focus group studies, in-depth-
interviews, online analytics, quantitative and qualitative surveys, and social
media analysis. These research methods help to assess the impact of political
information on the media audience and identify where to make improvements.
 Content analysis has been defined as „any research technique for making
inferences by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics
within text‰ (Stone, Dunphy, Smith & Ogilvie, 1966).

AND POLITICS
 Weber (1990) defines content analysis as a „research method that uses a set of
procedures to make valid inferences from text‰.
In media studies, quantitative and qualitative content analysis methods are

usually applied by researchers. Each method has its own merits and demerits.
Therefore, researchers have advocated a combination of the two methods to
overcome the shortcomings of each method.
Analysis Qualitative content analysis

Content analysis Quantitative content analysis
Government Research techniques
Media Researchers
Political information
Abelson, B. (2012). HI score: Towards a new metric of influence. Harmony

Institute. Retrieved from
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Ashworth, S., & Shotts, K. W. (2010). Does informative media commentary

reduce politiciansÊ incentives to pander? Journal of Public Economics, 94(11),
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Bennett, W. L. (1996). The politics of illusion. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Berelson, B. R. (1952). Content analysis in communication research. New York, NY:

Free Press.
Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (1967). The social constructions of reality. New York,
NY: Doubleday Anchor.

AND POLITICS
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks of Antonio Gramsci. New
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Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues.

Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology

(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
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An introduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Sage.
McPhail, T. L. (2002). Global communication: Theories, stakeholders and trends.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.
Newbold, C., Boyd-Barrett, O., & Van Den Bulck, H. (2002). The media book.
London, England: Arnold.
Riffe, D., Lacy, S., & Fico, F. G. (2005). Analyzing media messages: Using
quantitative content analysis in research (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Shaw, D. L., & McCombs, M. E. (1977). The emergence of American political issues:
The agenda-setting function of the press. St Paul, MN: West Pub. Co.
Shoemaker, P., & Reese, S. (1996). Mediating the message: Theories of influences
on mass content. White Plains, NY: Longman.
Stone, P. J., Dunphy, D. C., Smith, M. S., & Ogilvie, D. M. (1966). The general
inquirer: A computer approach to content analysis. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Tay, S. S. C. (2000). Democracy and the media in ASEAN and Asia. Media Asia,
27(4), 223ă227.
Weber, R. (1990). Basic content analysis (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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Politics and the Media

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Ali Salman

Assoc Prof Dr Balan Rathakrishnan

Moderator: Prof Dr Rahmah Hashim

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, April 2017

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Media and Politics 1

Topic 2 The Relationship between Media and Politics 17

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2.4 The Relationship between Media and Politics: The 25

Topic 3 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 37

Topic 4 The Relationship between Media and Politics in Malaysia: 50

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Media and Mediation Function 68

Topic 6 Electronic, Print and New Media: Their Position in a Political 82

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Mass Media and Propaganda 96

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Topic 8 Media and Politics: The Process 117

Topic 9 Media Politics and Globalisation 136

Topic 10 Research Methods and Evaluation Process of Media and 149

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10.3 Content Analysis 153

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120

3. Perform a critical analysis of the nature of the relationship between media

4. Handle issues related to politics and the media responsively and

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Topic 3 discusses the historical perspective of the relationships between media

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Topic 7 discusses the issue of propaganda, focussing on mass media as tools of

Topic 8 discusses the role of gatekeepers in relation to media ownership

Topic 9 focuses on media, politics and globalisation encompassing socio-cultural,

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Folarin, B. (2005). Theories of mass communication: An introductory text

Khan, M. A. (2016). Multinational enterprise management strategies in

McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: An introduction. London,

McQuail, D. (2010). McQuailÊs mass communication theory (6th ed.). London,

Ogohi, D. C. (2014). Impact of globalization on socio-cultural development in

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF MEDIA

(a) Traditional media, which includes television, radio, newspapers,

1.2 MEDIA SYSTEMS

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A media systemÊs character is dependent on the primal market or the relations

1.3 THEORIES OF MEDIA SYSTEMS

Figure 1.1: Four press theories

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1.3.1 Authoritarian Theory