Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 20 0 060

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Intelligent Systems with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/iswa

Enhancement of the Direct Torque Control by using Artificial Neuron

Network for a Doubly Fed Induction Motor
SAID MAHFOUD 1,∗, AZIZ DEROUICH 1, NAJIB EL OUANJLI 2, MOHAMMED EL MAHFOUD 3
1
Industrial Technologies and Services Laboratory, Higher School of Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco
2
LMIET, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Hassan first University, Settat, Morocco
3
Laboratory of Systems Integration and Advanced, Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mahraz Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Fez, Morocco

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Direct Torque Control (DTC) is the most popular strategy used in the industrial sector, because of its
Received 22 October 2021 various advantages, however, the torque ripples makes it less efficient, due to the use of the hysteresis
Revised 5 December 2021
comparators, leading to variable frequency operation and on the other hand, the finite frequency sam-
Accepted 11 January 2022
pling results in a pseudo-random overshoot of the hysteresis band, Thus, operation at low speed and in
Available online 12 January 2022
particular, with variations in motor resistances, affects the behavior of the machine, in this reason, this
Keywords: article presents a new study to promote its drawbacks to increase the control performances. A new intel-
ANN-DTC ligent direct torque control applied to a Doubly Fed Induction Motor (DFIM) by two Vector Source Invert-
DFIM ers (VSIs) based on an Artificial Neuron Network (ANN) who will replace the speed controller, switching
DTC tables, and hysteresis comparators, with this special technique simulated in Matlab/Simulink, approved
THD several improvements on motor and control behaviors so as, the torque ripples has been improved by
55.82 %, the overshoot is absolutely removed and increasing important values of total harmonic distor-
tion (THD) by 3.26 % and 3.31 % for stator and rotor currents respectively.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction
The industrial sector makes extensive use of variable-speed
electric drives. These drives increasingly demand high perfor-
mance, increased reliability, and reduced cost. DC machines, with
their high degree of operating flexibility and low level of electronic
equipment, partly meet these requirements (El Ouanjli et al., 2019,
Mahfoud et al., 2021). However, this machine has disadvantages
due to the brush-collector system, which prevents it from being
used in explosive and corrosive environments. In addition, the me-
chanical switch introduces limitations to the machine’s capabilities.
It can neither operate at high speed nor be powered by high volt-
ages, and the maintenance required by the collector is also a prob-
lem (Ramasubramanian and Vittal, 2017, Selvam and Narayanan,
2019). As a result, these constraints have directed research in the
field of variable speed to AC machines with cages and wound ro-
tors. The asynchronous machine squirrel cage has several advan-
tages, such as the manufacturing cost is lower, the weight is lower,
and it supports overloads (Hmidet and Boubaker, 2020). On the
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: said.mahfoud@usmba.ac.ma (S. MAHFOUD).
one hand, the absence of the commutator gives them high relia-
bility and a higher rotation speed, and on the other hand, the AC
machine with wound rotor called Doubly Fed Induction Machine
(DFIM) presents a new solution which replaces the Induction Mo-
tor (IM) in the power systems to increase the flexibility of control
and the power of use, in addition to its operation in overspeed
(Abderazak and Farid, 2016, Rahman, Patterson, Cheok, and Betz,
2018).
The literature attests to the great interest today in the DFIM for
various applications: as a generator for renewable energies or as a
motor for certain industrial applications such as rolling mills and
rail traction (Gebru, Khan, and Alhelou, 2020, de Jesús Rubio et al.,
2021, Martinez et al., 2021, Aguilar-Ibanez et al., 2021, Martinez
et al., 2020, Soriano et al., 2020, Silva-Ortigoza et al., 2021). Since
the appearance of power electronic components based on semicon-
ductors, a new voice of variable speed control has been initiated,
ensuring a progressive control of all electrical machines. This fact
has led researchers to find new techniques to control the behavior
of rotating machines (El Ouanjli, Derouich, Chebabhi, and Taoussi,
2017). The first control that appeared in the literature and in the
industrial sector is the scalar control (SC) (Drid, Nait-Said, and Tad-
jine, 2005), which has a very wide range of use and meets the
industrial needs in the field of speed variation, but its major dis-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2022.20 0 060
2667-3053/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al.
advantage lies in the static and dynamic inaccuracy of the torque
control at low speed because of the resistive elements that are no
longer negligible (Flah et al., 2021), while the demands for more
efficient applications have made it possible for researchers to real-
ize appropriate controls that meet the industrial requirements. In
the same way, Blaschke and Hasse (Blaschke, 1972, Hasse, 1968)
developed vector control, which is entitled to the orientation of AC
machine flux, The main disadvantage of this technique is the need
for a flux sensor positioned in the air gap, which adds noise due
to physical constraints in the measurement. The principle of Indi-
rect Flux Oriented Control (IFOC) is not based on the direct mea-
surement of flux, which replaced the Direct Flux Oriented Control
DFOC (Yu, Zhang, and Qian, 2011), but these strategies are still very
sensitive to the parametric variations in the machine as the sta-
tor and rotor are time-constrained. Among the controls that have
emerged to overcome the disadvantages of other controls to meet
industrial needs, (Mahfoud et al., 2021) the authors have developed
the Sliding Mode Control (SMC), which consists of bringing the
state trajectory of the machine to the sliding surface and switching
it by using an appropriate switching logic around it to the equilib-
rium point. However, the residual high-frequency vibrations inher-
ent in or interfering with the control remain a considerable dis-
advantage, as they can damage the machine through too frequent
oscillations and harm the operation and performance of the sys-
tem (El Mahfoud et al., 2021). This is the fact that led Takahashi,
Noguchi, and Depenbrock (Takahashi and Ohmori, 1989, Takahashi
and Noguchi, 1997) to find controls as efficient and less expensive,
as well as robust and less sensitive to parametric variation, For
these reasons, the DTC technique has known disadvantages that re-
duce its robustness: the variation of stator and rotor resistances,
the operation at low speed, and the use of hysteresis compara-
tors that lead to variable frequency operation. These factors make
the system signals rich in harmonics, causing mechanical vibra-
tions and audible noises that degrade the machine life (Mahfoud
et al., 2021). For this reason, several researchers have worked on
improving this control by integrating artificial intelligence. They
are known as Direct Torque Fuzzy Control (DTFC), Direct Neural
Torque Control (DTNC), and Direct Neural Fuzzy Torque Control
(DTNFC) (El Mahfoud et al., 2021, Takahashi and Ohmori, 1989,
Takahashi and Noguchi, 1997). The latter combines fuzzy logic and
artificial neural networks, which replace truth tables and hystere-
sis comparators. This control uses an Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Infer-
ence System (ANFIS) that combines fuzzy logic and artificial neu-
ral networks to produce a voltage vector that allows the flux and
torque to be directed toward their references over a fixed period.
These techniques have had great success in the field of control
and identification of nonlinear systems, and allow the control of
the switching frequency to achieve fast-flux and torque responses
with less distortion, However, the strategies proposed have draw-
backs because the internal structure of DTC is more complex and
involves a high-performance calculator. With the evolution and de-
velopment of hardware calculators, the sampling frequency offers
several ways to keep up with the complexity of combined controls
based on artificial intelligence (Flah et al., 2021). In (Zemmit, Mes-
salti, and Harrag, 2018), the authors applied a new DFIM control
strategy by optimizing the parameters of the PID speed regula-
tor, based on a Genetic Algorithm (GA) of the DTC control applied
to the stator, the rotor is supplied with a voltage of 12 V and a
frequency of 5 Hz to reduce torque ripples. However, under these
conditions, DFIM behaves as an Induction Motor (IM), which does
not make it possible to benefit from the advantages of DFIM, such
as an Overspeed (Bonnet, Vidal, and Pietrzak-David, 2007). A new
control strategy is presented in (Mahfoud et al., 2021), the authors
used the same technique proposed by (Zemmit, Messalti, and Har-
rag, 2018) but applied on both sides of the DFIM to enjoy the over-
speed offered by the DFIM. In the case of the GA-DTC approach, it
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Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060
is difficult to determine the algorithm parameters which increase
the execution time of the algorithm to generate the optimal gains,
with these conditions, it is necessary to have a very high-speed
calculator to meet the requirements of the optimization algorithms
used in the controls of rotating machines.
Some researchers have used ANN in different applications that
shown its robustness and efficient, In (Esen, Inalli, Sengur, and
Esen, 2008), the authors show the appropriateness of the ANN and
ANFIS for the quantitative modeling of Ground-Coupled Heat Pump
system (GCHP).In (Esen, Inalli, Sengur, and Esen, 2008), the authors
used a combined method by using an artificial neural network
(ANN) and a statistical weighted preprocessing (SWP) method to
learn to predict ground source heat pump (GCHP) systems. In
(Esen, Inalli, Sengur, and Esen, 2008), authors describe the appli-
cability of ANNs to predict the performance of a horizontal GCHP
system. (Esen, Ozgen, Esen, and Sengur, 2009) presents a report
on a modelling study of a new solar air heater (SAH) system by
using artificial neural network (ANN) and wavelet neural network
(WNN) models. In (Esen, Esen, and Ozsolak, 2017), the authors
prove the efficiency of ANFIS and ANN for forecasting the perfor-
mance of a solar ground source heat pump system. In (Aparanji,
Wali, and Aparna, 2020), a new structure based on ANN has been
used to simulate a robotic system that was learned to move in a
workspace with obstacles. (Zamfirache, Precup, Roman, and Petriu,
2021) proposes a novel combined approach that uses the Gravita-
tional Search Algorithm (GSA) to initialize the weights and biases
of the ANNs involved in both learning and optimal control, result-
ing in excellent reference tracking.
For a brief reading in the literature, and to bring improvements
to the behavior of the classical DTC control, in this paper and for
the first time in research, this study is focused on the realization of
a combination of artificial intelligence with the classical DTC con-
trol applied to two voltage inverters connected to DFIM. Neural
networks were chosen in this study for their own better perfor-
mance within the system. To overcome the disadvantages of the
classical DTC control, the PI speed controller and the three hys-
teresis comparators as well as the switching tables are replaced by
neural network controllers. With this new intelligent control struc-
ture, the system becomes less sensitive to noise and parametric
variations.
The possible improvements in this article are detailed in the
following objectives:
• Minimization of torque and flux ripples influenced by the varia-
tion of machine parameters (hysteresis comparators, fluxes and
torque estimators).
• Improvement of speed and electromagnetic torque perfor-
mances.
• Reduction of the rate stator and rotor currents THD.
The suggested methodology carried out to prove the efficiency
of the intelligent ANN-DTC is described by the following points:
• Modelization of the DFIM and two-levels Inverters.
• Modelization of the classic DTC, and ANN-DTC.
• Put the classical DTC and proposed ANN-DTC controls under
the same simulation conditions and the same speed and torque
references.
• Analysis of the results obtained and comparison with recently
published works.
To organize and take the reader through a successive reading
approach, this work is organized in the form of the following axes:
section 2 and 3 presents the mathematical models of DFIM and
VSIs inverters. Section 4 dedicated to the study of the classical DTC
control. Sections 5 and 6 are dedicated to the description of the
intelligent ANN-DTC control. Sections 7 and 8 are focused on the
simulation of DTC and ANN-DTC approaches and interpretation of
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 1. DFIM model

Figure 2. Three-phase VSI fed star-connected DFIM.

the results with the robustness test of ANN-DTC. Section 9 is ded- • Magnetic stator equations:
icated to comparison studies of several strategies applied to DFIM. ψsα = Ls .isα + Lm .irα
Finally, this article ends with a conclusion of the study and a pro- { (3)
ψsβ = Ls .isβ + Lm .irβ
posal for further research as a future perspective.
• Magnetic rotor equations:
ψrα = Lr .irα + Lm .isα
2. DFIM model { (4)
ψrβ = Lr .irβ + Lm .isβ
According to models of AC machines developed by several au- • Mechanical equations
thors, the simplified and idealized DFIM model can be described  
T = p. ψsα isβ − ψsβ isα
as two windings in the stator and two windings in the rotor (de { em d (5)
Jesús Rubio et al., 2021), as illustrated in Figure 1. J dt + f  = Tem − Tr
The differential equations representing the model of the DFIM
• Electrical stator equations:
are derived, using the vector notation in the stator reference frame.
vsα = Rs .isα + dψdtsα Figure 1 shows the αβ electrical model of the DFIM in stator coor-
{ (1)
vsβ = Rs .isβ + dψdtsβ dinates (El Ouanjli, Derouich, Chebabhi, and Taoussi, 2017).

• Electrical rotor equations: 3. Two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) model

vrα = Rr .isα + dψdtrα + ωm .ψrβ A two-level Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is considered a ma-
{ (2)
vrβ = Rr .irβ + dψdtrβ − ωm .ψrα ture technology and is becoming an industry standard for energy-

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S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

saving demand. The output phase voltages are produced by the

rectifier (Udc) that is delivered to the input of the inverter, which,
through controlled transistor switches, converts this voltage into
a three-phase AC voltage signal with a wide range of amplitude
and variable voltage frequency. The type of switches used depends
on the power of the inverter and the switching frequency. In most
applications, IGBT transistors with antiparallel diodes are very use-
ful. The model of the two-level voltage inverter is shown in Figure
1 with six transistor switches (S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , S5, and S6 ) and a DC
voltage source Udc connecting a three-phase load (El Mahfoud et
al., 2021).
Where:
  
Si,Ri = 2 j 2π j 4π
V UDC−S,R Sa + Sb 3 + Sc 3 (6)
3
Sa , Sb , and Sc are considered as switching functions of a three-
phase inverter, which can be in the form of two logical values ei-
ther 0 or 1.
Figure 3. Flux trajectory
4. DTC strategy

In the late 1980s, (El Ouanjli et al., 2019, Mahfoud et al., 2021)
introduced the principle of DTC. It carries out a decoupling check
of the stator and rotor fluxes and torque in the fixed reference
(α , β ), and it allows DFIM to have an accurate and quick electro-
magnetic torque response. It uses a switching table to select an
appropriate voltage vector. The selection of switching states is di-
rectly associated with the variation in stator and rotor fluxes and
machine torque. Therefore, the selection is made by maintaining
the torque amplitudes and fluxes in two hysteresis bands. These
controllers provide separate regulation of the two sizes (Blaschke,
1972, Hasse, 1968, Yu, Zhang, and Qian, 2011, Depenbrock, 1987).
The hysteresis controller inputs are torque and fluxes errors as well
as their outputs, determining the appropriate voltage vector for
each switching period.
Figure 4. two-level fluxes comparators (a) and three-levels torque hysteresis com-
4.1. Estimation of stator and rotor fluxes and electromagnetic torque parators (b)

4.1.1. Control of stator and rotor fluxes Table 1

Basing on the model of DFIM in a stationary frame, the stator Look-up table for basic direct torque control
and rotor fluxes equations can be expressed as follows (El Ouanjli,
Flux Torque 1 2 3 4 5 6 Comparator
Derouich, Chebabhi, and Taoussi, 2017, Geraee et al., 2018): Cflx=1 Ctrq=1 ν2 ν3 ν4 ν5 ν6 ν1 Two-level
Ctrq=0 ν7 ν0 ν7 ν0 ν7 ν0
ψˆ = ∫(vsα − Rsα isα)dt
{ ˆ sα (7) Ctrq=-1 ν6 ν1 ν2 ν3 ν4 ν5 Three-level
ψsβ = ∫ vsβ − Rsβ isβ dt Cflx=0 Ctrq=1 ν3 ν4 ν5 ν6 ν1 ν2 Two-level
Ctrq=0 ν0 ν7 ν0 ν7 ν0 ν0
Ctrq=-1 ν5 ν6 ν1 ν2 ν3 ν4 Three-level
ψˆ = ∫(vrα − Rrα irα)dt
{ ˆ rα (8)
ψrβ = ∫ vrβ − Rrβ irβ dt
Given that the inverters switches are controlled by a control 4.1.3. Switching table construction and control algorithm design
period (or sampling period) Te and that the states Sa , Sb , and Sc To maintain fluxes and torque decoupling, three hysteresis com-
of each inverter are maintained constant during each of these pe- parators receive the stator and rotor fluxes and torque errors as in-
riods, a two-level hysteresis comparator is employed to regulate puts. Then the outputs of the comparators determine the most ap-
the fluxes. It enables the fluxes vector extremities to be readily propriate voltage vector. However, the selection of the appropriate
dropped within the limits of two concentric circles of close radius voltage vector depends on the output of the hysteresis controllers
Figure 3. The hysteresis bandwidth is determined by the inverter’s and the position of the stator and rotor flux vector. Thus, the tra-
switching frequency (Figs. 4, a and 4, b) (Mahfoud et al., 2021). jectory of the circular stator and rotor flux vector is divided into
six symmetrical sectors (Table 1) (Mahfoud et al., 2021).
4.1.2. Torque estimation The vectors (Vi and V3+i ) are not taken into account for each
The produced electromagnetic torque of the DFIM can be de- sector because they might both increase or decrease the couple in
termined using the cross product of the stator or rotor quantities the same sector, depending on the position of the fluxes vector on
(i.e., stator flux and stator currents). The estimate torque formula the first or second sector. When the vectors V0 and V7 are selected,
is expressed as the following (El Ouanjli et al., 2018): the fluxes stop moving, their amplitudes do not change, and the
  electromagnetic torque decreases, but not as much as when the
Tˆ = p. ψˆ sα isβ − ψˆ sβ isα (9) active tension vectors are selected. The resultant table of research

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S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 5. Classic DTC of DFIM

Table 2 Where xi , wi , b and y are the input signals, the corresponding

Generalized switching table
input-signal synaptic weight, a bias parameter, and the neuron out-
Increases decreases put signals, respectively. F1 (s ) is the nonlinear hyperbolic-tan acti-
S ν i-1 and ν i+1 ν i+2 and ν i-2 vation function shown in Figure 6 which is given by the following
Tem ν i+1 and ν i+2 ν i-1 and ν i-2 equation.
e α s − e −α s
F1 (s ) = α s (12)
e + e −α s
for Takahashi’s proposed DTC is shown in Table 2 (Takahashi and
And F2 (s ) is a linear activation function which is given by the
Ohmori, 1989).
following equation:
The overall control scheme of the conventional DTC strategy is
shown in Figure 5. It consists of a speed control loop; the Propor- F2 (s ) = β s (13)
tional Integral (PI) controller is used for regulation. It is performed where α and β are the gains. This activation function is differen-
by comparing the speed reference signal with the actual measured tiable, bipolar, and monotonic and has a maximum gain at zero.
speed value. The comparison error then becomes the input to the The neural network in this article is trained by using the feedfor-
PI controller. ward backpropagation technique until Mean Square Error (MSE )
between desired and output pattern is very small. This(MSE ) is
calculated by the following equation :
5. ANN-based comparators, regulation speed, and switching
1
N
tables controls
MSE = ( d i ( k ) − O i ( k ) )2 (14)
N
i=1
A neural network can be thought of as a mathematical model
of distributed processing that exhibits characteristics similar to bi- Where:
ological neural networks, composed of several nonlinear compu- Oi : is the actual response by a network.
tational elements (neurons), operating in parallel and connected di (k ) : is the desired response.
to each other by forces which are expressed by numerical values N : is the number of input-output training data. and k: is the
called weights (Esen, Inalli, Sengur, and Esen, 2008, Menghal and number of iterations.
Laxmi, 2018, Grabowski, Kazmierkowski, Bose and Blaabjerg, 20 0 0). The expression for the weight update is expressed by (15), for
Artificial neural networks are strongly connected networks of ele- updating the weights of each neuron to minimize the cost function
mentary processors operating in parallel. The training data of the value (MSE ).
neuronal network are one of the most significant features of ANN ∂ MSE (k )
w ji (k + 1 ) = w ji (k ) − η (15)
for learning and improving its operation (Esen, Inalli, Sengur, and ∂ w ji (k )
Esen, 2008, Cuevas, Luque, Zaldívar, and Pérez-Cisneros, 2017). The Where
neuron is the basis of the ANN and consists of the summers and w ji (k + 1 ) : is the new weight between ith and jth neurons.
activation functions. The mathematical equations of a neuron are w ji (k ) : is the old weight.
described as follows. η : is the learning rate.


N In this article, the controllers based on neural networks of
yi = F1 (s ) ∗ ( xi ∗ wi + b ) (10) speed, stator, and rotor flux, and torque are proposed as shown in
i=1 Figure 7a, 7b, 7c, and 7d. In the suggested model, the ANNs which
behave as hysteresis comparators are applied here to generate an
 on-off switching model for the neural network-based switching ta-

N
Oi = F2 (s ) ∗ ( yi ∗ wi + b ) (11) bles presented in the Figure 8a and 8b, to generate on-off switch-
i=1 ing pattern for the switches of the inverter. The xi the input of each

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S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 6. Schematic structure of ANN for DTC.

Figure 7. Feed forward ANNs for speed controller (a) torque controller (b) stator flux controller (c) rotor flux controller (d).

ANNs comparator is the error between the reference setpoint and The Total neurons number for each controller, are considered
the estimated setpoint expressed by the following equations. in a hidden layer for the training of the network and correspond-
ing to every hidden layer neuron, input xi has synaptic weight wi
ξ = re f −  (16)

N
. The output of the hidden layer is vi = ea wi + b where b is the
i=1
ξψ s = ψS_re f − ψS_est (17) bias value of the neuron. Output function of every neural unit is a
hyperbolic-tan type nonlinear activation function and linear activa-
ξψ r = ψr_re f − ψr_est (18) tion function for applying the error backpropagation algorithm and

N
since the output of the ANN yi = f ( ea wi + b) is not always ex-
i=1
ξT = ψT _re f − ψT _est (19)

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S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 8. Feed forward ANNs for switching tables applied to the stator (a) and rotor (b)

Table 3
Specification of the optimum proposed ANN models.

ANN parameters Values / methods

AN N _Speed AN N _T AN N _ψS AN N _ψr AN N _ST S AN N _ST r

Neural network Two-layer-feed-forward network with sigmoid hidden neurons

Number of hidden layer nodes 10 16 16 16 20 20
Number of neurons in the input layer 1 1 1 1 3 3
Number of neurons in the second hidden layer 1 1 1 1 1 1
Number of neurons in the output layer 1 1 1 1 3 3
Learning rate 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Number of epochs 20 100 100 100 200 200
ANN training algorithm Backpropagation
Adaption learning function Trainlm Trainlm Trainlm Trainlm Trainlm Trainlm
Activation function Tansig Tansig Tansig Tansig Tansig Tansig

actly 0 or 1, therefore, a comparator that doesn’t include hysteresis
band is introduced to make the ANN outputs from 0 or 1 value,
until the desired output is reached. Weights are kept updating us-
ing the backpropagation algorithm in Eq. (15) with minimization of
error Eq. (14). The neural network parameters are given in Table 3,
the global structure of the proposed ANN-DTC used in this studies
is illustrates by Figure 9.
6. Parameter Technique choice of ANN
6.1. Preparation of learning data (inputs-outputs)
The development of the learning base must take into consid-
eration all relevant information on the different operating modes
of the variable speed drive system, i.e. in all four quadrants (two
directions of rotation with acceleration and deceleration), and with
and without the application of load torque. According to the multi-
ple practical tests of the ANN_DTC control through the Matlab tool-
box, we have chosen the best results obtained in several trials per-
formed on the ANN_DTC control changing the parameters of each
ANN controller to have the optimal controllers of the ANN_DTC
control applied to the DFIM. After preparing the training base, 70%
of the data is retained to be used for supervised learning of the
network, 15% for network validation, and the remaining 15% is re-
tained for the learning test. Its last two parameters are in fact stop-
ping and performance testing criteria integrated with the Matlab
toolbox, the first one is used to measure the generalization qual-
ity, it will intervene to stop the execution of the algorithm when
the generalization stops improving and to avoid overlearning, the
second one has no effect on the learning process, but it presents
an independent measure of the network performance during and
after learning. The sampling period was set at 0.0 0 013s.
6.2. Choice of the neural network topology
The choice of the neural network architecture is tricky, as there
is no methodology for calculating the number of hidden layers of
neurons per layer. So we worked with the trial-and-error method.
Firstly, we opted for structures with a single hidden layer and a re-
duced number of neurons. Each time we evaluate the performance
of the network, we progressively increase the number of neurons
until we obtain the desired performance. It should be noted that
with 10 neurons for the speed controller, 16 neurons for the torque
and fluxes controllers, and 20 neurons for the switch table con-
trollers, after several tests by increasing or decreasing the number
of neurons, one will have poor results in the torque and speed.
It is for this reason that the number of each controller chosen
based on neural networks becomes less and less efficient. There-
fore, we chose 10, 16, and 20 neurons in the hidden layer for each
controller. For the activation functions, tangent-sigmoid functions
(tansig, in Matlab) were used for the hidden layer neurons and lin-
ear activation functions for the network output (purline).
6.3. Choice of the learning algorithm
The last step is the choice of the learning algorithm. The Back-
propagation Error Learning Method was chosen. The Matlab tool-
box has several algorithms, including the three mentioned before
(the gradient descent algorithm, and the gradient descent with
mementum, and the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm), which are

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S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al.
Figure 9. Proposed ANN_DTC applied to a DFIM
represented respectively by the functions traingd, traingdm, and
trainlm, and which are based on the batch technique. The perfor-
mance indices that are available in the toolbox are: the MSE to be
minimized, and the regression value R, which measures the corre-
lation between the outputs and the targets (desired outputs). There
is a close relationship when R=1. If the learning performance is
good while the testing performance is significantly poor, this indi-
cates that there is a risk of overlearning. When we have finished
choosing all the parameters of our neural regulator, we launch
the learning phase. Figure 10 illustrates the error backpropagation
learning algorithm to build a neural network.
6.4. Learning results
After repeating the learning algorithms several times (because
each time the biases are reset and therefore the results are dif-
ferent), the test results revealed that in the parameter estimation
part, the Levenberg-Mraquardt method was far superior compared
to the other two in terms of speed of convergence to the mini-
mum of the squared error, especially since it provided better per-
formance and validation. On the other hand, in the speed estima-
tion part and for the three methods, the learning time was too
slow and often led to the computer blocking, besides the perfor-
mance was poor. The training results obtained for each ANN con-
troller block are shown in Figures (11 to 14). They only concern
those of Levenberg-Mraquardt which were finally retained to be
applied to our ANN-DTC control. The training results obtained for
each ANN controller block are shown in Figures (11 to 14). They
only concern those of Levenberg-Mraquardt which were finally re-
tained to be applied to our ANN-DTC control.
From Figs. 11(a), 12(a), 13(a) and 14(a), the architectures used
for the speed, torque, flux (stator and rotor) and switching tables
are 1-10-1-1, 1-16-1-1, 1-16-1-1 and 3-20-3-3 successively. Figures
11(b), 12(b), 13(b) and 14(b), show the evolution of the root Mean
Square Error as a function of the number of epochs for the speed,
torque, flux (stator and rotor) and switching table controllers suc-
cessively. As can be noted, the network training has resulted in a
significant reduction in the error between the target and predicted
output values. Initially, the error decreases rapidly up to 10 0 0
epochs for the speed and fluxes controllers and 654, and 52 epochs
8
Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060
Table 4
DFIM parameters.
Symbols Values (Unit)
Pn 1.5 Kw
Vs 400 v
Vr 130 v
P 2
f 50 Hz
Rs 1.75 Ω
Rr 1.68 Ω
Ls 0.295 H
Lr 0.104 H
M 0.165 H
f 0.0027 kg.m2/s
J 0.01 kg.m2
for the torque controllers and switching tables, beyond which it
eventually stabilizes where the final MSE has taken a rather small
value of the order of 7.5373∗ 10−4 , 1.3777∗ 10−3 , 1.1603∗ 10−3 and
4.6746∗ 10−8 for each controller successively.
7. Simulation results and discussions
A SIMULINK model was developed to compare the performance
of classical DTC with ANN-DTC for DFIM. The speed controller,
three hysteresis comparators, and two switching tables of the DTC
were replaced by ANN controllers. A 1.5 Kw, DFIM was used to
study the dynamic behavior of the DFIM. The motor parameters
are given in Table 4.
The motor is initially set to operate at a speed of 157 rad/s;
then instantaneously decreases to 78.5 rad/s is applied at time t = 1
s in the forward direction of machine rotation then the speed de-
creases with a linear slope to -78.5 rad/s and then instantaneously
increases to -157 rad/s in the reverse direction of machine rota-
tion in order to test the behavior of the DFIM in both directions of
rotation as well as in different speeds to find out the tracking effi-
ciency of the machine from the reference speed to several possible
changes of the speed, the motor during its functioning according
to the speed characteristic is subjected to torques of different val-
ues at different times. The dynamic behavior of the motor is illus-
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

• Zone 1: Initially, the motor is run at a rated speed of 157 rad/s

without load. A sudden change in load torque (10 Nm) is ap-
plied at t= 0.5 s, for classical DTC and ANN-DTC as shown
in Figure 16, respectively. As soon as the load is applied,
there is undershoot in the speed of Ush-DTC = 5.066 rad/s
and Ush-ANN-DTC = 3.66 rad/s with an improvement of 27.75
%, and when the load is removed, overshoot in speed is ob-
served to be 44.63 rad/s when DFIM is run with classical
DTC, rejection time is remarked to be 150.2 ms and 15.2
ms for both strategy respectively. The response time taken
by the motor to regulate its speed is τ -DTC = 367.7 ms and
τ -ANN-DTC = 49.4 ms with an improvement of 86.67 %.
• There is no overshoot observed in the case of ANN for the DTC
DFIM drive.
• Zone 2: in this zone, the reference speed is reduced by 78.5
rad/s, a sudden change in load torque (5 Nm) is applied at
t= 1.3 s for classical DTC and ANN-DTC, respectively. As soon
as the load is applied, there is undershoot in the speed of
Ush-DTC = 1.73 rad/s and Ush-ANN-DTC = 0.5 rad/s with an im-
provement of 71.1 %, rejection time is remarked to be 167
ms and almost zero for ANN-DTC.
• Zone 3: in this zone, the reference speed is reversed at -78.5
rad/s, and a sudden change in load torque (-10 Nm) is ap-
plied at t= 2.3 s for both strategies, respectively. As soon
as the load is applied, there is undershoot in the speed of
Ush-DTC = 2.84 rad/s and Ush-ANN-DTC = 2.22 rad/s with an im-
provement of 21.83 %, the rejection time is presented by
186.2 ms and 11.2 ms for both strategies respectively.
• Zone 4: in the final zone the reference speed is reduced by
-78.5 rad/s, and a sudden change in load torque (-5 Nm)
is applied at t= 3.1 s for both strategies, respectively. As
soon as the load is applied, we can notice that both controls
have the same undershoot, the rejection time is presented
by 174.4 ms and 10.7 ms for both strategy respectively with
an improvement of 93.86 %.

◦ According to Figure 17

The application of positive loads such as (10 Nm and 5 Nm) are

applied in the direct direction of motor rotation, and the loads (-10
Nm and -5Nm) are applied when the motor changes the rotation
direction to test the tracking performance of the controls in the
different possible cases.
The torque behavior of the DFIM under a sudden load change is
also examined in the two strategies. It is observed that the torque
oscillates in the case of DTC, and less ripples are observed which
equals half the case of ANN-based DTC. And we notice that the
torque responses quickly track the reference torque when differ-
Figure 10. Error backpropagation learning algorithm for building a neural network
ent loads are applied at different times. Both strategies showed
remarkable tracking performance without overshooting the refer-
ence torque set point for different torque values and without static
trated in the following figures. Both strategies (classical DTC and error, thus The torque ripple in the case of conventional DTC is
ANN-DTC) were tested using the following configurations : higher than that of ANN-DTC with 2.445 Nm and 1.08 Nm, respec-
tively, showing an improvement of 55.82%.
• The sampling frequency: fs =10 kHz.
• The widths of the hysteresis bands: Tem =±0.01 Nm, 7.2. THD in stator and rotor currents
s =±0.001Wb and r = ±0.001Wb.
• Application of a nominal loads TL = 10 Nm, TL = 5 Nm, TL = -10 A results analysis of the stator and rotor currents is necessary to
Nm and TL = -5 Nm at t = 1s. and at t=1.3s at t = 2.3s. and at study the THD, which shows the rate of harmonics in the currents.
t=3.1s respectively. Reduced values of THD prove the reliability of the control because
the THD represents the ripples in the currents, consequently in the
torque.
7.1. Dynamic behavior of ANN-DTC and classical DTC under a sudden • According to Figures 18, 20, 22, and 24
change in load applied to DFIM
The currents are highly rippled in the case of DTC control as
◦ According to Figures 15 and 16 shown in Figs. 22 and 24, and the ripples are reduced by the newly

9
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 11. ANN architecture of speed controller and its evolution training (a) Mean Square Error Performance (Training, Testing, Validation) (b)

Figure 12. ANN architecture of torque controller and its evolution training (a) Mean Square Error Performance (Training, Testing, Validation) (b)

Figure 13. ANN architecture of stator and rotor fluxes controllers and its evolution training (a) Mean Square Error Performance (Training, Testing, Validation) (b)

10
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al.
Figure 14. ANN architecture of stator and rotor switching tables controller and its evolution training (a) Mean Square Error Performance (Training, Testing, Validation) (b)
Figure 15. ANN-DTC and DTC speeds
proposed ANN-DTC method as shown in Figures 18 and 20. A spec-
tral study of the currents is required to calculate the THD in order
to make a consistent analysis.
• According to Figures 19, 21, 23, and 25.
THDs of stator ant rotor currents are analyzed for different
loads shown in Figures 19, 21, 23, and 25. The stator and rotor cur-
rents THDs of ANN-DTC are 3.26 % and 3.31 % respectively, which is
lower than that of conventional DTC which are 7.83 % and 11.56 %
respectively, which presents an improvement of 58.37 % and 71.37
% respectively. Therefore, it is noted that the ANN-DTC for DFIM
drive is more effective in decreasing speed, torque, and current
ripples and smooth operation of DFIM drive. Comparison of sim-
ulation results of classical DTC and ANN-DTC DFIM drive’s perfor-
mances is summarized in Table 5. From this table, it is observed
that the performance of the ANN DFIM drive is best than classical
DTC.
11
Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060
7.3. Ripples in stator and rotor fluxes
• According to Figure 26
Figure 26 shows the trajectories of the amplitude of the stator
and rotor flux vectors in the (α ,β ) plane. It can be observed that
the fluxes are maintained at the limits of the variation bands, the
amplitude of the fluxes shows the efficiency of the control, as long
as the amplitude is large there will be more ripple in the torque
and vice versa, it can be noticed that the thickness of the circle
which corresponds to the ANN-DTC control presents fewer ripples
than that of the conventional control, which is present an improve-
ment by 69.28 % and 37.85 % for the stator and rotor fluxes respec-
tively. This is due to the reduction of the ripples in the flux, table
5 illustrates some improvement set by ANN-DTC compared to clas-
sical DTC.
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 16. ANN-DTC and DTC (a, b, c, d) zoom speeds

Figure 17. Torque responses

Figure 18. Stator current Isa of the ANN-DTC

12
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 19. stator current THD of ANN-DTC

Figure 20. Rotor current Ira of ANN-DTC

Figure 21. Rotor current THD of ANN-DTC

13
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 22. Stator current Isa of the DTC

Figure 23. Stator current THD of DTC

Table 5
Performance measures DTC classic and ANN-DTC

Performances characteristics DTC ANN-DTC Improvement (%)

 Response Time (ms) 367.7 49.4 86.67

Overshoot (rad/s) 50.56 0 100
Rejection Time (ms) 150.2 15.2 89.88
Undershoot (rad/s) 5.066 3.66 26.24
T Ripples (Nm) 2.445 1.08 55.82
ψs Ripples (wb) 0.05947 0.01827 69.28
ψr Ripples (wb) 0.0121 0.00752 37.85
isa THD (%) 7.83 3.26 58.37
ira THD (%) 11.56 3.31 71.37

8. Robustness test
As shown in the introduction, several research works have
demonstrated the robustness of the DTC control, and our ANN-DTC
control is proposed to improve the performance and robustness of
the DFIM.
To verify the performance and robustness of the proposed ANN-
DTC control, the machine was subjected to external variations in
speed and torque. The ANN-DTC control showed very good tracking
of the reference setpoints and improvement in the performance of
the DFIM.
To confirm the robustness of the ANN-DTC control, the machine
has been subjected to physical constraints (heat and magnetic sat-
uration of the machine) which influence the internal parameters
of the machine such as stator and rotor resistances and induc-
tances. For this reason, several modifications are made to the in-
ternal DFIM parameters of the model used. Different tests are per-
formed by increasing or decreasing the machine parameters (stator
and rotor resistances and inductances). The dynamic system’s be-
havior is depicted in Figure 27(a, b, c, and d).
The results show that the speed response tracks the imposed
references. However, we observe a minor increase in response time
due to the changes applied to the stator and rotor resistances and
inductances for ANN-DTC (Figure 27a, b, c, and d). The static er-
ror is nearly zero. However, for ANN-DTC, the variations in stator
and rotor resistances and inductances (Figure 27(a, b, c, and d)) re-

14
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 24. Rotor current Isa of the DTC

Figure 25. Rotor current THD of DTC

Figure 26. stator and rotor flux responses of DTC and ANN-DTC.

15
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al. Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060

Figure 27. Speed response during variation of (a) stator and (b) rotor resistance and (c) stator and (d) rotor inductance of ANN-DTC.

Table 6
Comparison between our proposal and some controls strategy published recently

Publication reference Approaches Response time (s) Torque ripples (Nm) Robustness

(de Jesús Rubio et al., 2021) Field oriented control 0.56 2.5 Not robust
(Abderazak and Farid, 2016) Sliding mode control 0.19 2.4 Not robust
- Classical DTC 0.367 2.445 Robust
(El Ouanjli et al., 2018) FL-DTC 0.28 1.14 Robust
(Mahfoud et al., 2021) GA-DTC 0.0182 2.05 Robust
Proposed technique ANN-DTC 0.0494 1.08 Robust

main zero, demonstrating insensitivity to internal parametric vari-
ations. In conclusion, the ANN-DTC control is robust regardless of
the aforementioned parameter variations.
9. Discussion and comparison
In the technical literature, there are several approaches applied
to DFIM in order to drive the motor at different speeds and torque
setpoints. Table 6 shows the recent strategies applied to DFIM. We
find the FOC control established by (de Jesús Rubio et al., 2021)
is very sensitive to the parametric variation of the motor, due to
its mathematical expressions rich in machine parameters, which
makes it not very robust. This strategy has a response time of 0.56
s and torque ripples of 2.5 Nm. In (Abderazak and Farid, 2016),
the authors used the sliding mode control, which is known for the
chattering phenomenon that penalizes the robustness of this ap-
proach in terms of performance. This approach has a response time
of 0.19 s and torque ripples of 2.4 Nm, which is quite acceptable
for an automotive application. Due to the drawbacks of the various
controls mentioned above, the DTC control becomes the most suit-
able solution. In (El Mahfoud et al., 2021), the authors replaced the
hysteresis comparators and switching tables with block fuzzy logic
bases that minimize torque ripples up to 1,14 Nm and response
time to 0.28 s. The authors of (El Ouanjli, Derouich, Chebabhi, and
Taoussi, 2017) optimized the DTC controller gains using a genetic
algorithm in order to have good behavior of the DFIM in front of
the parametric variation. In the case of the GA-DTC approach or
for the optimization algorithms, it is difficult to determine the al-
gorithm parameters which increase the execution time of the al-
gorithm to generate the optimal gains. With these conditions, it
is necessary to have a very high-speed calculator to meet the re-
quirements of the optimization algorithms used in the controls of
rotating machines. In our proposed approach, ANN-DTC has shown
very good results in terms of speed, rapidity, and stability, and a
better ratio of reduction of torque ripples that reaches 50%. It is
well known that torque ripples are the major factor that penalizes
the DTC control, but the new technique ANN-DTC applied to the
DFIM allows the designer of speed controllers to think of replacing
the old strategies with the ANN-DTC approach.

16
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al.
Figure 28. different speeds response time of various techniques for DFIM.
Figure 29. different torque ripples of various techniques for DFIM.
Finally, and from the obtained results, which are summarized
in table 5, we can say that the objectives previously traced in the
introduction are validated by our proposed control.
The histograms in Figures 28 and 29 describe the speed re-
sponse time and the amplitudes of the torque ripples established
by each control. From Figure 28, we can say that the fastest control
is the one with the smallest response time, which is presented by
GA-DTC and the proposed control ANN-DTC, and according to the
histogram in Figure 29, the control that presents fewer ripples is
the ANN-DTC one. This is normal because this control allows re-
placing the hysteresis comparators with ANN controllers, it is well
known that the main cause of important ripples in the torque is
the frequent switching of the hysteresis comparators
Conclusion
This study, presented in this article, demonstrates the signif-
icance of artificial intelligence on all systems with multivariable
and nonlinear behaviors. The new intelligent direct torque con-
17
Intelligent Systems with Applications 13 (2022) 200060
trol based on artificial neuron network, ANN-DTC, is established to
control the behaviors of the DFIM in terms of speed and torque.
Simulated in Matlab/Simulink, ANN-DTC added many improve-
ments to the classical DTC in terms of rapidity, stability, and preci-
sion presented by the following points.
- -Improvement of the response time by 86.69%.
- -Removed the speed overshoot.
- -In important minimization of the torque ripples by 55.82%.
- -Reduction of the currents THD by 58.37% and 71.37% for stator
and rotor, respectively.
- At the end of this work, the members of our laboratory’s re-
searcher team dressed in a work plan that is summarized as
follows:
- -Implementation of the intelligent ANN-DTC strategy on the
dSPACE DS1104 board.
- -Application of the control ANN-DTC within a water pumping
application.
- Theoretical studies and experimental validation of the DTC by
using ANFIS controllers applied to DFIM.
- Estimation of the DFIM parameters by using artificial intelli-
gence.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All authors agree that this work presents our own laboratory
study and approves the publication of this work.
Consent for publication
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Availability of data and material
Not applicable.
Funding
This research received no external funding
Authors’ contributions
Conceptualization, S.M. and N.E.O.; methodology, A.D.; software,
S.M.; validation, S.M., A.D. and N.E.O.; formal analysis, S.M. inves-
tigation, A.D.; resources, A.D.; data curation, A.D.; writing—original
draft preparation, S.M.; writing—review and editing, S.M., A.D.,
N.E.O., and M.E.M.; visualization, S.M.; supervision, A.D.; project
administration, A.D.; funding acquisition, S.M. and N.E.O.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgement
All authors of this article would like to thank all the partici-
pants who have improved the quality of this work.
Appendix A
Table A1
S. MAHFOUD, A. DEROUICH, N.E. OUANJLI et al.
Table A1
Nomenclature.
Parameters Description
Vsα , Vsβ , Vrα , and Vrβ Stator and rotor voltages in (α , β ) plan
Udcs and Udcr Stator and rotor direct voltages
Isα , Isβ , Irα , and Irβ Stator and rotor currents in (α , β ) plan
sα , sβ , rα , and rβ Stator and rotor fluxes in (α , β ) plan
Rs , Rr Stator and rotor resistors
Ls , Lr Stator and rotor inductors
Lm Mutual Inductance
p Number of pairs of poles
ωr Rotor angular speed
ωs Stator angular speed
Ω Rotation speed
Tem Electromagnetic torque
Tr Resistant torque
f Viscous friction coefficient
J Moment of inertia
Abbreviations: DFIM : Doubly Fed Induction Motor; VSI: Voltage Source
Inverter; DTC : Direct Torque Control; FOC: Field oriented control; SMC :
Sliding Mode Control; GA-DTC : Genetic Algorithm Direct Torque Con-
trol; PI : Proportional Integrator; FL-DTC : Fuzzy Logic-Direct Torque
Control; DTNC : Direct Torque Neural Control; DTNFC : Direct Torque
Neural-Fuzzy Control; ANFIS : Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System;
ANN-DTC : Artificial Neuron Network- Direct Torque Control; MSE :
Mean Square Error; THD : Total Harmonic Distortion.; Ground-Coupled
Heat Pump :GCHP.; Statistical Weighted Preprocessing: SWP.; Solar Air
Heater : SAH.; Wavelet Neural Network : WNN.; Gravitational Search Al-
gorithm :GSA.
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